CHILD and ADOLESCENT LEARNER

and LEARNING PRINCIPLES

AUGUST 2020

Maria M. Cacay- Sapurna, MDM

FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Freud’s views about human development are
more than a century old.
He can be considered the most well known
psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and about
sexual development.
Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most
influential in psychology.

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As a person grows, the personality is also formed.
Many psychologists present different views about
how personality develops.

Erogenous Zone – a specific area that becomes

the focus of pleasure needs. These maybe the
mouth, anus, and the genitals.

Fixation- Results from failure to satisfy the needs

of a particular psychosexual stage.

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 FREUD’S
STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
 Freud’stheory of psychosexual development
includes five distinct stages. According to
him, a person goes through the sequence of
these five stages and along the way there
are needs to be met. Whether these needs
are met or not, determines whether the
person will develop a healthy personality or
not. He also identified specific erogenous
zones for each stage development. If needs
are not met along the area, a fixation occurs.
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 ORAL Stage – birth to 18 months.
 The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral
stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or toolittle satisfaction can lead
to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown
in an increased focus on oral activities.
 Thistype of personality may be oral receptive, that is,
have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol,
overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency
to bite his/her nails, or use curse words or even gossip
As a result, these persons may become too
dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On other hand, they may also fight
these tendencies and become pessimistic and
aggressive in relating with people.
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 ANAL Stage – 18 months to 3 years
 The focus of pleasure is the anus. The child
finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining
feces. The child needs to work on toilet
training.
 Child’s favourite word in this stage is “NO!”
 Interms of personality, fixation can result in
being anal retentive, an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal
expulsive, where the person may become
messy and disorganized.
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 PHALLIC Stage - ages 3 to 6
 The child’s focus of pleasure is the genitals.
During the preschool age, children become
interested in what makes boys and girls
different. Preschoolers will sometimes be
seen as fondling their genitals.
 Freud believed that during this stage boys
develop unconscious sexual desire for their
mother. Boys then see their father as a rival
for her mother’s affection. Boys may fear
that their father will punish them for these
feelings.
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 Freud called these feelings OEDIPUS COMPLEX.
 In Greek Mythology, Oedipus unintentionally
killed his father and married his motherJocasta
 Psychoanalysts believed that girls may also
have the similar experience, developing
unconscious sexual attraction towards their
father . This is referred to as ELECTRA COMPLEX


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 According to Freud, out of fear of castration
and due to the strong competition of their
father, boys eventually decide to identify
with them rather than fight them. By
identifying with their father, the boys
develop masculine characteristics and
identify themselves as males and repress
their sexual feelings toward their mother. A
fixation in this stqge could result in sexual
deviances (both overindulging and
avoidance) and weak or confused sexual
identity according to psychoanalysts.
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 LATENCY Stage – age 6 to puberty
 In this stage sexual urges remain repressed.
 Children’sfocus is the acquisition of physical
and academic skills. Boys usually relate more
with boys and girls with girls.
 GENITAL Stage - puberty onwards
 This
stage begins with the start of puberty
when sexual urges are once again
awakened. In the earlier stage s
adolescents focus their sexual urges towards
the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure
centered on the genitals. 8/31/2020
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 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
 The ID – operates on the pleasure principle.
It focuses on immediate gratification and
satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels
good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logicality, or
practicality of the situation.
 Example: Babies cry any time of the night or
day! Absolutely no regard of whether
mommy is tired or daddy is slleping. When
the ID wants something, it wants it now and
wants it fast.

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 EGO – operates using the REALITY PRINCIPLE.
 It
is aware that others also have needs to be
met. It is practical because it knows that
being repulsive or selfish can result to
negative consequences later, so it reasons
and consider the best response to situations.
 It always takes into account the reality of the
situation.

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 SUPEREGO develops towards the end of the
phallic stage. It embodies a person’s moral
aspect This develops from what the parents,
teachers, and other persons who exert
influence to be good or mosl.
 Superego is likened to conscience because
it exert influence on what one considers
right or wrong.

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 TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
 The UNCONSCIOUS – most of what we go
through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings and impulses deep within are not
available in the conscious level.
 The CONSCIOUS -
 The SUBCONSCIOUS or the PRECONSCIOUS
not in our active conscious. It is hidden.
Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to
illustrate it because we are only aware of
the very small conscious at any given time.
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development.
 Basic Cognitive Concepts
 Schema - Refers to the cognitive structure by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create
meaning about a thing or an experience.
 For instance a child sees a dog for the first time he creates his
own schema of what a dog is.
 Assimilation – Fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or schema.
 If a child sees another dog this time smaller he would make
sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a
different looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
 Accommodation – Creating a new schema. If the child now
sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but
somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a
dog and say, “Look Mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark
is funny too!” then the Mommy explains, “That’s not a funny
looking dog. That’s a goat!” With Mommy’s further
descriptions the child will now create a new schema, that of a
goat. He now add this in his mind.
 Equilibrium – People have the natural need to understand
how the world works and to find order, structure, and
predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper
balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our
experience do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or
cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium.
This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived
and what is understood. We then exert effort through
assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once
more.
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
 Stage 1 - Sensori-motor Stage. Birth to
Infancy. A child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his
movement and activity. The term sensori-motor
focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle
movement through which the infant comes to learn
about himself and the world.
 Teachers should aim to provide a rich and
stimulating environment with appropriate objects
to play with.
 Object Permanence. The ability of the child to
know that an object still exists even when out of
sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor
stage.
 Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. Two to seven years old,
roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this
stage is intuitive in nature. The child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever
closer to the use of symbols.
 This stage is highlighted by the following:
 Symbolic Function. The ability to represent objects and events.
A symbol is a thing, that represents something else. A drawing, a
written word, or a spoken word comes to be representing a real
object. Example: A two-year old may pretend to be drinking
water from an empty glass. Though she already pretends the
presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. She may after
drinking from the glass turns the glass into a cellphone, or
another toy.
 Egocentrism - The tendency of the child to only see his point of
view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
The child cannot take the perspective of others.
 Centration – The tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
 Irreversibility – Pre-operational children still have the inability to
reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2+3 is 5, but can
not understand that 5-3 is 2.
 Animism - The tendency of children to attribute human like traits
or characteristics to inanimate objects.
 Transductive reasoning – The pre-operational child’s type of
reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning
appears to be from particular to particular.
 Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. Ages between
8-11 years or the elementary years.
 Characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only
in terms of concrete objects. Marked by the following:
 Decentering - Ability of the child to perceive different features
of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited
to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more
logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.
 Reversibility – The child can now follow that certain operations
can be done in reverse. For example, they can already
comprehend the commutative property of addition, and that
subtraction is the reverse of addition.
 Conservation – The ability to know that certain properties of
objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance.
 Seriation – The ability to order or arrange things in a series based
on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
 Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. The final stage of
formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years,
thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract
problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the
following:
 Hypothetical Reasoning. Ability to come up with different
hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in
order to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in
the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal
with “What if” questions.
 Analogical reasoning. Ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible
answers in another similar situation or problem.
 Deductive Reasoning. Ability to think logically by applying a
general rule to a particular instance or situation.
 Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
 The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development
 Psychosocial Crisis –
 Stage1 – Trust Versus Mistrust (Infancy and Early Childhood)
 Stage 2 – Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3 – Initiative Versus Guilt
 Stage 4 – Industry Versus Inferiority
 Stage 5 – Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Adolescence)
 Stage 6 – Intimacy Versus Isolation
 Stage 7 – Generativity Versus Stagnation
 Stage 8 – Ego Integrity Versus Despair


Stage1 – Trust Versus Mistrust (Infancy and Early Childhood) First year or
first and a half of life.
Goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for
mistrust.
Malignancy/Maladaptation – Sensory maladjustment – When the parents are
overly protective, who are there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead
that child into maladaptive tendency.
Virtue – If proper balance is achieved the child will develop the virtue of
hope, a strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work
out well in the end. This is same ability that, later in life, gets us through
disappointments in love, careers, and many other domains of life.

Stage 2 – Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt – Eighteen months to three

or four years old.
If the parents permits the child now a toddler , to explore and manipulate her/
his environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or
independence. This way the child will develop both self- control and self-
esteem
 If the parents will be hard on the child in his/her attempt to explore and
be independent, the child will develop a sense of shame and doubt.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy – Impulsiveness – a sort of shameless
wilfulness that leads you in later childhood and even adulthood to jump
into things without proper consideration of your abilities. Compulsiveness
– too much shame and doubt. The person feels as if their entire being
rides on everything they do and so everything must be done perfectly.
 Virtue – proper balance of autonomy and shame, you will have willpower
and determination. “Can do” is the motto.
 Stage 3 – Initiative Versus Guilt – Three or four to five or six years old.
 Initiative means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on
responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. But they can aso
be guilty
 Maladaptation/Malignancy – Ruthlessness – too much initiative and too
little guilt. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be “without
mercy”. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. The don’t care
who they step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only things that
matters, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The
extreme form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
 Virtue – Courage – the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your
limitations and past failings.
 Stage 4. Industry Vs Inferiority – Child is about six to twelve. Children must
“tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to education and learning the
social skills their society requires of them. Parents must encourage, teachers
must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is pleasure not
only in conceiving a plan but in carrying it out.
 If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting
peers, for example he/she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or
incompetence.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy – Too much industry leads to the maladaptive
tendency called narrow virtuosity. These are seen in children who aren’t
allowed to “be children,” the ones that parents or teachers push into one
area of competence, without allowing the development of broader
interests. Kids like: Child actors, child athletes, child musicians, child
prodigies of all sorts.
 Another common malignancy is Inertia which is Inferiority complex. When we
did not succeed the first time we never tried again.
 Virtue – Develop the right balance of industry and inferiority the we have
the virtue of Competency.
 Stage 5 . Ego Identity Vs. Role Confusion - Adolescence, Beginning of
puberty and ending around 18 to 20 years old.
 Ego Identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in into the rest of
the society. Society should provide clear rites of passage, certain
accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the
child. Boys and girls are required to go through certain tests of endurance
to make the distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible childhood
and the powerful and responsible time of adulthood.
 Without these things we see role confusion, uncertainty about one’s place
in society and the world.
 Erikson suggests for Adolescence psychosocial moratorium meaning take a
little “time out.” Quit school and get a ob. Quit your job and go to school.
Dream a little.
 Fanaticism – Too much ego identity where a person is so involved in a
particular role in a particular society that there is no room left for
tolerance. A fanatic believes that his way is the only way.
 Virtue – Fidelity – loyalty, ability to live by society’s standards
 Stage 6 . Intimacy Vs. Isolation – Young adulthood, which
lasts from about 18 to about 30.
 Intimacy the ability to be close to others as a lover, a friend, and as a
participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you are ,
you no longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as many adolescents do.
“Fear of commitment” is an example of immaturity in this stage.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy – Promiscuity – the tendency to become
intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth of intimacy.
 The malignancy is Exclusion –tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in
compensation for one’s loneliness.
 Virtue – If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will carry with you
for the rest of your life the virtue of psychosocial strength Erikson calls
Love. Love in the context of his theory means being able to put aside
differences and antagonisms through “mutuality of devotion.” It
includes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the love
between friends and the love of one’s neighbour, co-workr, and
compatriot as well.
 Stage 7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation – Middle twenties
and the late fifties.
 Generativity- extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the
next generation and all future generations. With generativity , the
individual like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the love he
gives to his children.
 Stagnation is self-absorption, caring for no-one. The stagnant peron
stops to be a productive member of the society.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy – Overextension – some people try to be
generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and
relaxation.
 Rejectivity - Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you
are no longer participating in or contributing to society.
 Virtue – You will have the capacity for caring that will serve you through
the rest of your life.
 Stage 8 – Ego integrity Vs. Despair – last stage late adulthood
or maturity, or less delicately old age.
 This stage seems to be the most difficult of all. First, comes the
detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness. There is a sense of
biological uselessness, as the body no longer does everything it used to.
 There are illnesses, fears concerns of death. Faced with all of this, it
might seem like everyone would feel despair.
 Ego Integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to
terms with the end of life.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy – Ppresumption- When a person presumes ego
integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old age.
 Disdain – a contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s. The person becomes
very negative and appears to hate life.
 Virtue – Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength
Erikson calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children, because healthy
children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to
fear death.