Demarketing-Pemasaran Sosial-Perilku Konsumen Pro Lingkungan

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DEMARKETING, SOCIAL MARKETING AND PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
2.1. Marketing Management Role
A narrow view of the role of marketing is often associated as a field of science which is
mainly concerned with the task of driving demand, by carrying out various efforts, such
as advertising, promotion and personal selling to increase sales (Bradford, Gundlach
and Wilkie 2005). Whereas the task of marketers is not only to create or increase
demand for a product (e.g. Kotler 1973, 1974, 1975, Kotler and Armstrong 2007, Shiu
et al 2008, Wall 2007, Grinstein and Nisan 2009). Marketing requires an expanded role
and meaning, not just as many people assume that the only job of marketing is to
increase the demand for a product or service. What if the current demand for a product
is too strong, where supply cannot keep up with demand, such as limited supply?
Shouldn't marketers have to increase prices, reduce advertising and promotion costs,
and other measures to make demand more in line with supply levels? These efforts can
be categorized as demarketing strategies, which have proven to be concepts that can be
applied in many situations (Kotler 1973).
The understanding of the role of marketing has been expanded, not only to
increase demand, but marketing efforts depending on the demand conditions faced by
the organization, considering that the organization will face various market demand
conditions that need to be managed properly (Kotler 1973). As in conditions of a
shortage of supply, while demand is excessive, the organization needs to do
demarketing, to align demand according to the company's ability to be able to serve the
market efficiently and effectively (Grinstein and Nisan 2009). To that end, “the new
role of marketing should be to mitigate shortages (Demirdjian 1975, p.17), one of
which is through reducing demand (Kotler and Keller 2009).
The task of marketing management as demand management has previously been
conveyed in the Marketing Management Tasks (Kotler 1973), that marketing
management can be viewed in general as managing the problem of regulating the level,
timing and character of demand for one or more products from an organization. Thus
the task of an organization is to determine the level of demand for the products and
Universitas Indonesia
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services it produces based on profit maximization, sales maximization, profit limits,

satisfaction, and the existing or expected level of supply.
The American Marketing Association (AMA) has updated the definition of
marketing in 2007, as follows: “Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and
processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have
value for customers, clients, partners , and society at large.” Thus, Marketing has
expanded its role not only as an organizational function to create and increase demand
for a product or service, but more broadly than that. Marketing includes the activities,
set of institutions and processes for creating, communicating and exchanging offerings
that have value, not only for customers, clients, partners, but also the wider community.
An understanding of the offering is not just a product in the form of goods or services,
but includes all things that have value.
This is different from previous definitions or understandings of marketing, such
as: the process of delivering products from producers to consumers (AMA 1935). The
process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution
of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and
organizational objectives” (AMA 1985). An organizational function and a set of
processes for creating, promoting and delivering value to consumers, or in full:
“Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating,
communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer
relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders (AMA 2004).
The definition of marketing has evolved according to the changing marketing
environment. Pawitra (1997) predicted the evolutionary process of changing the
definition of marketing, due to the challenges and changes in the marketing
environment that are very fast, so that marketing as a discipline requires a re-orientation
of its functions and roles.
One of the current environmental changes is that mankind is entering an era
where natural resources, including non-renewable primary energy, are no longer as
abundant as they used to be. Humanity is now faced with the fact that primary energy
sources are scarce, thus requiring changes in consumption behavior (Ryan and Spash
2008). This is a challenge for the marketing discipline to contribute to aligning the high
demand with the increasingly limited supply of natural resources and energy.
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Meanwhile, marketing management is the art and science of selecting target

markets and getting, retaining, and growing customers through creating, delivering and
communicating superior customer value (Kotler 2003, Kotler and Keller 2009). The
ability to choose the right target market is the main ability of marketing management.
The selection of the right target market is adjusted to the company's ability and
competence in creating, delivering and communicating its superior value offering.
In his classic journal, Kotler (1973) suggests that in the context of demand management
there are eight demand conditions that will be faced by marketers, which consist of
underdemand, such as negative demand, no demand, latent demand and faltering
demand. Then there are two conditions of demand in the form of adequate demand,
namely: irregular demand and full demand. Then there are two demand conditions that
can be classified as overdemand, namely overfull demand and unwholesome demand.
The eight conditions of demand differ mainly in relation to the current level of demand
in relation to expected demand, besides that they also differ in terms of timing of
demand (such as irregular demand) and the character of demand (such as unwholesome
demand).
For this reason, there are eight basic marketing tasks to deal with these demand
conditions (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Basic Marketing Tasks
Demand State Marketing Task Formal Name
1. Negative demand Disabuse demand Conversional marketing
2. No demand Create demand Stimulational marketing
3. Latent demand Develop demand Developmental marketing
4. Faltering demand Revitalize demand Remarketing
5. Irregular demand Synchronize demand Synchromarketing
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6. Full demand Maintain demand Maintenance marketing
7. Overfull demand Reduce demand Demarketing
8. Unwholesome demand Destroy demand Countermarketing
Sources: Kotler (1973), Kotler and Keller (2009)
Based on the definition of Kotler (1973), Kotler and Keller (2009) demand
conditions can consist of eight conditions, as follows:
No demand is a condition where there are a number of products or services
offered but there is no demand. The market does not give positive or negative feelings
towards these products and services. They are indifferent or disinterested in the
company's offerings. The task of marketers in such conditions is to create demand by
stimulating marketing (Kotler and Keller 2009).
Negative demand can be interpreted as a condition where most potential segments
of the potential market do not like the product and even if necessary can pay a price to
avoid it. This condition is worse than no demand, because in a no demand condition the
potential market does not have a certain feeling about the product. Under conditions of
negative demand, the potential market actively dislikes the product and takes steps to
avoid it. Negative demand conditions are often encountered in everyday life. For
example, a vegetarian will always avoid consuming any kind of meat. The Muslim
community will always avoid alcoholic beverage products and pork. In fact, many
people have a negative demand for vaccinations, dentist services, or air flights.
Negative demand can also be seen in the context of regional marketing. Places such as
the north pole, the hot desert are places that travelers have categorized as places to
avoid from the visit list, thus indicating a negative demand for these places.
The challenge of negative demand in marketing management, especially in
positive supply conditions, is to develop a design that will cause demand to increase
from negative to positive, and strike a balance so that it matches the level of supply.
The task of marketing in conditions of negative demand is conversional marketing.
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Conversional marketing is one of the most difficult marketing tasks faced by marketers,
apart from countermarketing, because marketers face market conditions that do not like
the products offered. The main task of marketers in these conditions is to analyze the
sources of market resistance. Why is the market becoming resistant? Marketing must
explore the main causes of this resistance, whether this is related to beliefs (beliefs
about the object), related to values (values touched upon by the object), attitudes (raw
feelings engendered by the object) or unaffordable costs to get the product. that. Faced
with this situation, the role of marketing communication programs is very important to
clarify these issues (Hanna et al 1975).
Latent demand, a condition of latent demand occurs when a large number of people
share a very strong need for something that does not exist in the form of an actual
product. Thus, latent demand provides an opportunity for marketing innovators to
develop products that have been desired by many people but are not yet available in the
market. The strategy that can be used to deal with demand conditions like this is
developmental marketing.
Faltering Demand. All types of products, services, places, organizations or ideas
can experience a decrease or decrease in demand. Faltering demand is a condition
where the demand for a product or service has decreased. With this condition of
declining demand, organizations need to make efforts to revitalize products or services
by remarketing (Kotler and Keller 2009). In the case of health care, savvy marketers
can ask what value can be offered, so as to provide service innovations, both to doctors
and patients that can satisfy both (McStravic 1995).
Irregular Demand. Under conditions of irregular demand, it is characterized by
fluctuations in demand. At certain times the demand is so high that it exceeds the
company's capacity to fulfill it, but at other times the demand drops sharply, resulting in
underutilization of the organization's supply capacity. Irregular demand is defined as a
situation where the timing of the demand pattern is characterized by seasonality or
sharp fluctuations stemming from the timing of the demand pattern. When Eid is
approaching, for example, it is marked by very high demand for certain types of
products, such as food and clothing, but on normal days there is a very sharp decline in
demand. Irregular demand can also be found in the service industry, such as the high
level of demand for air tickets during holidays, or the high demand for hotel rooms
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before the new year and holidays, or in the context of visiting recreational parks during
the holiday season (Geoff 1996, Lane 2008).
Full Demand is the situation most desired by the company. This condition is
characterized by the current level and time of demand equal to the expected level and
time. When this expected condition occurs, then the next task is to maintain the
expected condition from time to time. Market demand at any time can face uncertain
conditions that cause a disequilibrium between supply and demand levels, so that it can
cause a decrease or increase in demand that cannot be met. This full demand condition
will lead to growing competition (Kotler and Keller 2009).
Furthermore, overfull demand is a condition where the demand for a product or
service substantially exceeds the company's ability to fulfill it. In marketing the task of
reducing the level of demand is called demarketing. Formally, demarketing is related to
efforts to reduce demand or reduce the level of consumer consumption in general, as
well as certain consumer segments either temporarily or permanently, to the level that
the company can serve it efficiently and effectively. As stated by Kotler and Levy
(1971), in Grinstein and Nisan (2009, 107) "to discourage customers
(demand/consumption) in general or a certain class of customers in particular on either
a temporary or permanent basis".
Furthermore, Kotler (1973) argues that there are two types of demarketing
situations: general demarketing and selective demarketing. General demarketing is
carried out by an organization when the organization wants to reduce the overall
demand for its products. This can happen for various reasons, such as a shortage of
product supply and wanting buyers to reduce their orders. This situation was faced by
Eastman Kodak when it introduced the Instamatic camera in the early 1960s and faced
abundant demand. Then, Wilkinson Sword in the early 1960s when dealers surrounded
him for new stainless steel blades; and then by Anheuser-Busch in the late 1960s when
the company could not produce the quantity of beer expected to meet very high demand
or in conditions of an energy crisis where demand far exceeded the company's or
country's ability to meet it (Frisbie 1986, Harvey and Kerin 1975).
Furthermore, according to Kotler (1973), producers may experience acute
overpopulation, and desire to permanently suppress demand rather than increase plant
capacity. This situation is faced by several small restaurants which suddenly "found"
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customers whose tastes match the dishes served, but the owners have no intention of
expanding the capacity of the restaurant due to one reason or another, such as limited
land owned. Kotler provides other examples, such as the John F. Kennedy Center of the
Arts in Washington which drew so many visitors that it was so overcrowded that it
could no longer be handled properly, resulting in damage to property, and rising
cleaning bills. The tendency of overcrowding of visitors to make it difficult to handle
properly is also experienced by some favorite tourist attractions, such as Hawaii, where
the number of tourists has become too large, making it difficult to service resorts such
as hotels, beaches, and other recreational areas. This overfull demand condition was
also experienced by the Golden Gate bridge in San Francisco, thus requiring the
authorities to urge vehicle owners not to cross the bridge (Kotler 1973). In the energy
context, when the energy crisis hit America in the 1970s, two leading oil companies in
the United States carried out demarketing of fuel oil, to reduce demand due to the very
limited supply of fuel oil at that time (Harvey and Kerin 1975).
Overfull demand conditions are also experienced in public facilities services such
as roads. In the case of Indonesia, the number of motorized vehicles that far exceeds
road capacity causes Jakarta to often experience severe traffic jams, thus stalling the
wheels of the economy and social traffic. This condition requires a road demarketing
strategy, including through a 3 in 1 policy, or a discourse on the imposition of road
taxes on certain road sections and at certain times, to reduce the burden on roads that
are often jammed, thus hampering productivity. The demarketing strategy was carried
out to respond to the problem of excess demand (Cullwick 1975). In addition,
demarketing can be done on motorized vehicles. One of them is by providing adequate
alternative public transportation (procurement of alternative products and services), so
as to reduce public interest in using their private vehicles.
Thus, conditions of overfull demand can be experienced by various industries and types
of products, such as public goods, such as clean water, energy and fuel oil (e.g.
Grinstein and Nisan 2009, Frisbie 1980, Harvey and Kerin 1977). In addition,
conditions of excess demand can also be experienced by products that interfere with
health, such as cigarettes (eg Shiu et al 2008, Wall 2007, Moore 2005), health care
service products (eg Kindra and Taylor 1995), recreational parks in during the holiday
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season (eg Lane 2008). In this condition of excess demand, the demarketing strategy
can play a role in balancing demand with supply.
Lastly, unwholesome demand. There are many products that are seen from the
perspective of consumer welfare, public welfare and the welfare of suppliers (suppliers)
themselves are considered unhealthy. Unwholesome demand is a condition in which
any level of demand is perceived as excessive because of the unexpected quality
associated with the product. Unwholesome products generally can have a negative
impact on the health, safety or welfare of the public, such as high alcohol drinks, drugs
and illegal drugs, or illegal firearms. The task of marketing to remove demand for these
harmful products is called countermarketing or unselling (Kotler 1973, Bradford et al
2005).
Thus, based on the description above, marketing management is basically demand
management (Kotler and Armstrong 2007) in the face of varied and dynamic demand
conditions, which affect the company's ability to serve its customers well. Effective
management of customer demand is one indicator of the success of marketing programs
(Kumar and Parasuraman 2006). For this reason, marketers are required to understand
the demand conditions faced for the products and services they offer.
2.2 Demarketing
The need for changes in consumer behavior in the environmental context has been
bring public policy makers to apply treatment, whether economic, legal, technological
and demarketing (Andrew, Netemeyer, Burton, Moberg and Christiansen 2004, Stern
1999, Wall 2005, in Grinstein and Nisan 2009). In this regard, marketers and marketing
researchers are primarily concerned with the effectiveness of demarketing on expected
consumption behavior.
Furthermore, Kotler and Levy (1971, in Grinstein and Nisan 2009, 107),
defines demarketing as "that aspect of marketing that deals with discouraging
customers (demand) in general or a certain class of customers in particular on either a
temporary or permanent basis". Kotler and Levy (1971) further suggest that companies
need to selectively demarket their products in the face of temporary scarcity and excess
demand, but it can also be used to reduce demand from “undesirable segments”
(Gordon 2006). The focus is on how companies choose the optimum marketing mix
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(product, price, place, and promotion) to manage their long-term relationships with
preferred consumers.
In implementing a demarketing strategy, traditional marketing tools are used, but
in reverse, in other words, the marketing mix variable is adjusted to “hold” demand
(Cullwick 1975, Grinstein and Nisan 2009). Advertising and sales promotion activities
are suspended, prices may be increased, or distribution channels may be changed to
make the product less accessible. This will cause demand to be pushed down and the
product effectively not marketed (Lawther, Hasting and Lowry 1997).
There are three types of demarketing (Kotler and Levy 1971, in Lawther, Hasting
and Lowry 1997), based on the nature of the demand that needs to be reduced, namely:
(1) General marketing;
(2) Selective marketing; and
(3) Ostensible demarketing
The following is an explanation of the three types of demarketing:
(1) General marketing
Occurs when the demand for a product or service is too high. Demarketing is done
effectively to shrink the total offer to an acceptable level. Demand can exceed potential
supply for a variety of reasons, including:
(1) There is a temporary shortage of products, as a result of which the company is
unable to meet the resulting demand. This causes the problem of adjusting supply to
meet dissatisfied demand, by, for example, increasing production capacity through
plant expansion. But long-term solutions will not solve the temporary shortfall, so
companies must seek further efforts to contain demand to reduce the risk of disruptive
product shortages.
(2) Excessive popularity can occur in a product or service. This is especially relevant to
the manufacture of exclusive products where scarcity contributes to their quality image
and wide popularity will erode it. Alternatively producers can expect to face high
demand conditions for practical reasons.
(3) The decision has been taken to remove a product where the level of demand still
exists. The challenge for companies is to remove demand or encourage customers to
accept substitute products, without losing their goodwill (Kotler 1973).
(2) Selective marketing
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Selective demarketing is related to the company's intention to reduce demand in

certain market segments among specific types of consumers (Gordon 2006). For
example, a fast track area service may restrict football fans from entering the area or a
pub may not market their pub to underage drinkers. However, as emphasized by Kotler
(1973), consumer classifications of “desirable” and “undesirable” can raise ethical
questions, and can be translated, in some cases, as discrimination.
(3) Ostensible demarketing
Ostensible marketing involves manufacturing practices not to drive demand, with the
actual goal of increasing demand. It depends on the principle that consumers will be
attracted to products that become hard to come by. For example, concert promoters
promote a concert by announcing “almost sold out – limited number of tickets left”'
with the ulterior motive of encouraging potential audience members to buy tickets
immediately (Kotler and Levy 1971, in Hasting and Lowry 1997).
Demarketing according to and Gordon (2006) presents a unique problem. There is a
danger of over-reducing demand or damaging customer relationships in the long term,
especially with selective demarketing. Poor customer relations as a result of
demarketing one product will neutralize the marketing influence of other products –
there is difficulty in balancing marketing and demarketing a product or service.
However, according to Gerstner et al (1993) there has been an increasing interest from
marketing researchers on issues that can be called demarketing.
Furthermore, demarketing, by its nature, is widely used to reduce consumption or
demand for socially undesirable products, such as cigarettes, alcohol and drugs, so
Comm (1997) argues that demarketing is an attempt to influence consumers to reduce
their purchases of these products. which will have a negative impact on the
consumption of these products. Kotler (1974) has anticipated that marketers must
become creative marketers, not just creative marketers, by reprogramming marketing
through product mix, customer mix and marketing mix.
In the initial use of the demarketing strategy, Harvey and Kerin (1975) analyzed
the demarketing strategy undertaken by Exxon and Shell Oil to deal with the energy
crisis (supply scarcity) that hit the United States in 1973-1974. Then Frisbie (1986)
used a psychographic approach in the context of energy demarketing in an energy
saving campaign. A recent study was conducted by Grinstein and Nisan (2009) who
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examined the demarketing of public products (consumption of clean water) for

environmental sustainability among minority and majority communities in Israel.
Hanna et al (1975) argue that the survival of a firm will depend on planning an
effective marketing strategy focused on the design, development, and adoption of
strategic plans and policies that are geared to either confront or minimize the
detrimental effects of scarcity. “In the condition of shortages, buyer priorities appear to
be the shifting toward a more price consciousness, hording, preference for energy-
saving products, and interest in product information and safety, accompanied by less
interest in model changes”. Furthermore, Hanna et al (1975) said that the marketing
strategy in conditions of scarcity of supply, can be done by applying the concept of
demarketing. There are 4 strategies how companies apply the concept of demarketing:
(1) changes in product mix, (2) changes in pricing policies, (3) changes in promotion
policies, and (4) development of distribution channel management (Kotler 1973).
On the other hand, Engel et al in Wall (2007) argue that demarketing is an attempt
to use marketing techniques to influence consumers to change their behavior and habits,
especially in relation to products or services that have the greatest environmental
impact. A clear example of demarketing is advertising campaigns on television that
persuade people not to smoke or drink alcohol, or promote public transportation as an
alternative to using private cars. Strategies that can be used include advertising
campaigns, although not necessarily the most effective, but advertising is the most
central form.
Other demarketing methods (Wall 2007), include:
-Public information campaigns, such as the distribution of leaflets or road shows;
-Price manipulation through indirect taxes, such as taxes imposed on
tobacco, alcohol, fuel oil and private vehicle ownership;
-Legislation and other forms of incentives in certain industries to warn
consumers for the health risks arising from the consumption of these products;
-Restrictions on advertising certain products.
A recent study on demarketing conducted by Grinstein and Nisan (2009), relates to
the conservation of clean water resources. Demarketing is used to suppress the level of
consumption of these public products among the majority and minority communities in
Israel, through advertising campaigns. The research on demarketing is also associated
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with the national attachment of the two groups of citizens to their country. Thus, the
demarketing strategy for natural resource-based products, such as energy, can be
associated with efforts to conserve natural resources because they are scarce or limited.
So it is hoped that the demarketing strategy can influence changes in energy
consumption patterns, namely awareness to consume responsibly (responsible
consumption) for energy conservation and sustainability of natural resources (De
Oliviera 2007, Foxall, Oliveira-Castro, James, Sigurdsson 2006).
2.2. Social Marketing
Discussions on the expansion of the marketing realm to non-commercial fields had

begun in the 1970s (Kotler and Zaltman 1971). According to Andreasen (1997), social
marketing was born as part of efforts to expand the realm of marketing discipline, not
only traditionally used for the commercial sector as its root, but also for non-business
institutions.
Then social marketing developed along with the increasing use of marketing logic
by non-business institutions as a way to improve their institutional goals (Kotler and
Zaltman 1971), using marketing principles and techniques to influence target audiences
to voluntarily accept , reject or ignore a certain behavior for the good of individuals or
society as a whole, as stated by Kotler, Roberto and Lee (2002, p. 5), social marketing
is "the use of marketing principles and techniques to influence a target audience to
voluntarily accept, reject, modify, or abandon a behavior for the benefit of individuals
or society as a whole”. Therefore, the role of social marketers is to contribute to the
social good (Henley and Donovan 1999).
Thus social marketing is basically an attempt to influence behavior by a systematic
planning process and applying traditional marketing principles and techniques, for the
purpose of delivering positive benefits to society (Kotler and Lee 2008). Similar to the
commercial marketing sector that sells products and services, social marketers basically
sell behavior (behavior). Change agents (both governmental and non-governmental)
generally influence the target market to do one of the following four things: (1)
Accepting a new behavior that is beneficial for himself and the community (eg,
throwing garbage in its place), (2) Rejecting potentially unwanted behavior (starting
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smoking), (3) modifying current behavior (increasing exercise). to 3-4 times a week) or
(4) ignoring old, less desirable behaviors (talking on the phone while driving).
Therefore, in social marketing as well as marketing for the commercial sector, it is also
necessary to select target markets (Kotler and Lee 2008). In addition, in social
marketing there are also products offered, prices charged, promotions (including the
most common, social advertising) and place or distribution (Kotler and Zaltman 1971),
as follows:
In contrast to commercial marketing, product design in social marketing is usually
more challenging. For example, a social issue can become a product of social
marketing, such as safe driving, quitting smoking, not using drugs, doing sports, eating
a safe diet, learning for life, caring for neighbors, immunization, wearing a helmet,
installing a seat. belt, having sex with a partner after marriage, family planning, energy
saving and others.
Place means arranging for an outlet that is easily accessible, which enables the
application of motivation to action. Planning in this area of space includes selecting and
developing adequate outlets, deciding on numbers, sizes and locations, and providing
good motivation to carry out part of the work.
Price represents the cost that buyers have to pay to get the product. In social
marketing prices can include the cost of money, opportunity cost, energy cost,
psychological cost and physical cost. So the cost of asking someone to have an
immunization shot includes any costs, lost opportunities, energy expenditure, and
psychological concerns that arise from the injection. The cost of quitting smoking is
more of a psychological cost, because financially quitting smoking can even save you
money. The cost of using a seat belt is the expense that must be paid to buy it, the effort
to lock and unlock it, and the psychological cost due to the uncertainty of whether it is
safer with a seat belt or without a seat belt.
Promotion is another variable that must be controlled by marketers. Promotion is a
persuasive communication strategy and tactic that will make the product more familiar
(known), accepted and even desired by the audience. Promotion in social marketing can
be in the form of advertising, sales promotion, personal selling and PR/publicity,
adopting promotion in the context of commercial marketing. Each of these promotional
tools involves complex issues related to strategy and tactics. However, of all the social
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marketing mixes, (social) advertising is the most important social marketing mix
(Grinstein and Nisan 2009).
From the discussion above, the essence of social marketing is adaptation, not
direct transfer of marketing principles and techniques for a social change campaign.
The fundamental difference between social marketing and commercial marketing lies in
the focus. Commercial marketing has a direct benefit goal that can be measured in
dollar value, but in social marketing success is measured by how successfully the target
audience changes their behavior. Thus, a social marketing campaign can be considered
successful if it can change the behavior of the target audience (Dann 2005).
In the United States Social Marketing is widely used by various non-profit
organizations, ranging from universities, red cross, health institutions, charities,
environmental organizations and governmental and non-governmental organizations to
achieve their organizational goals. The Advertising Council of America, for example,
has conducted a series of campaigns for social causes, including: "Keep America
Beautiful," "Join the Peace Corps," "Buy Bonds," and "Go to College." (Kotler and
Zaltman 1971). However, there are other challenges in social marketing that relate to
the values espoused by the target audience. As Wymer, Jr. (2004) finds that the public's
interpretation of the importance of social marketing depends on the core values it holds
and their values can differ from the group campaigning for a particular social action.
The effectiveness of an advocacy group in gaining support for its program will depend
on its ability to align its echo with the social values of the community and the program
itself.
With all its potentials and challenges, currently social marketing can be found in
the practice of government and non-government organizations and even by profit
organizations all over the world, including in Indonesia.
2.4. Social Ads
Advertising as part of marketing communication has become an inseparable part

of modern culture. Advertisers see the social and economic benefits of advertising from
its ability to provide information (Pollay and Mittal in Griffin and O'Cass 2004).
Attention to marketing communication research has been carried out for a long time.
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Since 1950 researchers have developed theories to explain, understand, and predict
consumer attitudes (atitudinal) responses to advertising (McInnis 1989).
According to Nan and Faber (2004), the definition of advertising is generally seen
from the perspective of the advertiser (advertiser) than from the consumer's point of
view of the message. One of the earliest and simplest definitions is “selling in print”
(Starch 1923, in Nan and Faber 2004). It seems very clear that the focus on print
reflects the availability of media used at that time. More recent definitions link print to
media, mass communication or similar terminology (Lamb et al. 2000, O'Guinn et al.
2000, Wells et al 1998). In the 1960s and 1970s various definitions began to include a
number of common elements, such as:
• advertising was paid for;
• the sponsor was identifiable; and
• the message was non-personal (American Marketing Association 1960, Cohen 1972,
Dunn 1969).
The definition has remained relatively unchanged until now, except that the
purpose of advertising is now added to persuasion or influence, so it is defined as:
“Advertising is a paid, mediated form of communication from an identifiable source,
designed to persuade the receiver to take some action now or in the future” (Richards
and Curran 2002, in Nan and Faber 2004). Thus, it is hard to argue that the main
contribution of advertising is to persuade (or strengthen attitudes). In addition, since
persuasion is a major part of the communication process, and advertising is generally
classified as a form of communication, it is not surprising that most research in
advertising has made use of theories of attitude change (Nan and Faber 2004).
According to Griffin and O'Cass (2004), over the years various consumer
behavior studies have examined advertising from various perspectives, including source
credibility (eg Gotlieb and Sarel 1991, Lafferty and Goldsmith 2004), attitudes toward
advertising (eg Neece and Capella 1996, Burton and Lichtenstein 1988, Aldridge 2006,
Hassan et al 2007, Owolabi 2009), and involvement in advertising (Laczniak and
Muehling 1993, Greenwald and Leavitt 1984, Griffin and O'Cass 2004), which show
that message effectiveness advertising is widely believed to be moderated by audience
engagement. Then in addition to audience involvement, a study on trust in message
content (believability) was also conducted by Beltramini (1982).
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Advertising on social issues has become a major component of social marketing

(Griffin and O'Case 2004). In fact, social advertising has become a common feature of
American society. Social advertising has been very successful in some cases. Wall
(2007) found that among the various forms of anti-smoking campaigns the most
effective was TV advertising campaigns. However, there have also been failures in
other areas. These failures include social campaigns that often only emphasize
advertising as the main element, without paying attention to other marketing mixes.
Thus, the imposition of legislation (for example, through a ban on smoking in public
places) in an anti-smoking campaign, is more effective than an advertising campaign
alone. Thus, social marketing effectiveness involves the coordination of the four
marketing mixes (Jones, Iverson, Penman and Tang 2005).
One important aspect of social advertising is trust. A study by Griffin and O'Cass
(2004) shows that trust and involvement in the social issues being advertised influence
attitudes towards those social issues. Other research shows that there are four important
issues in social advertising, namely: what message is conveyed, how to convey the
message, to whom the message is conveyed and in what way the message is conveyed
(Pechmann 2003). Thus, the type of message framing (framing), the form of advertising
display (appeal) and the source, are important issues in social advertising. Regarding
terminology, Bagozzi and Moore (1994) use the terminology of public service
advertisements (PSA) which refers to social advertising.
From a demarketing perspective, communication is a key element in the
demarketing mix (Lawther et al 1997). Therefore social advertising plays an important
role in the demarketing strategy. The following describes the three main elements in
social advertising, namely: The type of message framing, the display form of the
advertisement and the source (sender/sender) of social advertising, as follows:
2.4.1 Ecological Value Oriented Message Framing

One of the optimal ways of persuading advertising messages is to use framing,
which in previous studies also determines consumer response in a marketing offer
(Meyerowitz and Chaiken 1987, Block and Kelen 1995, Smith 1996, Rothman and
Salovey 1997). Message framing is an explanation of how the benefits and
consequences of an offer are explained in an advertisement, both in a positive way
40
(Smith 1996, Rothman and Salovey 1997). Some researchers include this concept of
framing as part of Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky 1979).
In this study, the type of message framing uses an ecological value orientation,
which comes from the realm of social psychology. The use of the ecological value
orientation is carried out for several reasons, as follows:
Conservation and protection of the natural environment is an increasingly
attracted much interest from policy makers, marketers, consumers and society as a
whole (Baker and Sinkula 2005, Banerjee, Iyer and Kashyap 2003, Granzin and Oslen
1991, Menon and Menon 1997, in Grinstein and Nisan 2009). Research in this area
discusses the ways in which governments, businesses, and consumers can develop and
protect the environment. It is estimated that 30% to 40% of environmental damage has
been caused by private household consumption activities (Grunet 1993). So changing
consumer behavior can have a substantial impact on the environment (Stern 1999).
The growing awareness of the environment has led to the appearance of
consumers who demonstrate their concern through purchasing decisions that prefer
environmental friendly products, such as green products (Menon and Menon 1997).
The number of consumers who are pro-environmental is constantly increasing, thereby
increasing the target population for pro-environmental marketing as well as
demarketing efforts (Grinstein and Nisan 2009).
With the growing awareness of environmental conservation, social scientists for
decades have investigated the motivations of individuals who engage in pro-
environmental behavior (Clark et al 2003), in order to gain a more detailed
understanding of why people participate in pro-environmental behavior. . This
understanding is important for policy makers, besides that scientists are looking for
ways to solve environmental problems which to overcome them require behavior
change. Economists, for example, tend to conduct research by examining the influence
of external conditions, for example income, prices, and socio-economic characteristics
on behavior. This approach is based on neo-classical economic theory which assumes
that individual decisions are based on a specific definition of rational self-interest. With
this approach, solutions to environmental problems are carried out by giving rewards,
punishments (penalties) or regulating behavior. These methods are derived from this
neoclassical approach to economic analysis.
41
On the other hand, psychologists concentrate on relating internal variables

(psychological variables) to behavior. Based on this approach, it was found that pro-
environmental behavior stems from values, beliefs, and attitudes that direct individuals
towards certain behaviors or actions. Thus, psychologists recognize that awareness,
education, guilt and persuasion are tools to bring about behavior change.
The theory of ecological value is the earliest and simplest theory
related to pro-environmental behavior. This theory suggests that pro-environmental
behavior grows from a value orientation that is specific to the individual. In its simplest
form, pro-environmental behavior flows directly from pro-social and moral values
(Jackson 2004). According to Jackson (2004), most of this theory comes from empirical
evidence of the existence of two or three main value orientations in society. Early
research (Schwartz 1973, 1977) distinguished primarily between a “self-enhancement”
(self-regarding) value orientation which is closely related to the assumption of self-
interest at the heart of rational choice, and a “self-transcendent” value that relates to
alternatives to self-interest.
Various previous studies generally conclude that people with self-transcendence
value orientations (biosphere and altruistic) have more environmental concerns than
people who have a strong preference for self-enhancement or are characterized by
egoistic values (Garling et al 2003, Stern, Dietz and Guagnano 1998). Thus, those who
hold the value of self-interest (self-enhancement) are less likely to engage in pro-
environmental behavior than those who hold the value of self-transcendent.
Previous studies have explored the relationship between values, attitudes regarding
environmental issues and pro-environmental behavior. These studies have shown
results with a consistent pattern – individuals who value self-transcendence life goals
tend to be more concerned about environmental issues, prefer environmental protection
over economic growth and engage in more pro-environmental behavior. In contrast,
individuals who hold the value of self-enhancing life goals tend to have egoistic
concerns about environmental issues. Individuals who hold this value prefer economic
growth to environmental protection (Schultz and Zelezny 2003).
Meanwhile Dietz, Fitzgerald and Shwom (2005) say that values influence
thoughts and behavior towards the environment with an indication of the priority
preferences given. Values help decide how to think about options and what to do.
42
Values do not act alone but in conjunction with other factors in sharpening decisions.
The values-beliefs-norms (VBN) theory of environmental care and behavior
emphasizes the indirect relationship between values and decisions about the
environment (Figure 2.1).
The theory suggests that values influence our worldview of the environment
(common beliefs), which in turn influence our beliefs about the consequences of
environmental change for what we value (Figure 2.1: Value-Beleifs-Norms Theory
Model).
Value Beliefs Pro-environmental Behavior

Personal norms
Biospheric
Altruism
Ecological Adverse Perceived ability Sense of obligation -Activism
Humanistic  World view  consequences  to reduce  to take  -Nonactivist
Altruism (NEP) for valued threat (AR) pro-environmental -Private sphere
object (AC) actions behavior
Self-interset -Behavior in
organizations
Figure 2.1.: Value Beliefs Norms Theory Model

Source: Processed from Dietz et al (2005)
The best known studies on biospheric value orientation are those conducted by Dunlap
and van Liere's (1978), Dunlap et al (2000) regarding the new environmental paradigm.
Then confirmed the existence of three different value orientations towards pro-
environmental behavior: biospheric, social (altruistic) and egoistic in the Value-Belief-
Norm theory (Dietz el al 2005). VBN theory assumes that in some respects self-interest
(called egoistic), humanistic altruistic (simplified to altruistic) is the most important
determinant of environmental concern. This is due to two things; First, they are seen as
stable environmental determinants throughout life. It also means that it is the most
43
difficult to change in the short term, but in the long term changes in value can have an
impact on decisions about the environment.
Second, this theory is fundamental because it is thought to influence specific
worldviews and beliefs. This means that this theory has an influence that can be
considered, in addition, another important variable in the model, namely value has a
direct (but considered indirect) influence on environmental decisions.
Altruistic value orientations emphasize that individuals are motivated to act pro-
socially for the benefit of society. Egoistic value orientations emphasize the importance
of benefiting oneself when acting pro-socially. People with a biospheric value
orientation will primarily base their decision to act pro-environmentally or not based on
perceived costs and benefits but on the benefits of ecosystems and the biosphere as a
whole (Stern et al 1993, Stern et al 1995, in Ryan and Spash 2008) .
Furthermore, Garling et al (2001) proposed a model of ecological value
associated with inherited responsibilities, norms and intentions to carry out pro-
environmental behavior (Figure 2.2), as follows:
44
ACB
AR PN PBI
ACS
ACE
Hypothesized structural model. (ACE=Awareness of consequences for oneself/egoistic;

ACS=Awareness of consequences for others/altruistic; ACB=awareness of consequences for
biosphere/biospheric; AR=Ascribed responsibility; PN=Personal norm; PBI=Pro-
environmental behavior).
Figure 2.2.: Value Orientation Model, Responsibility (Attitude), Personal Norms

and Intentions to Behave Pro-environment
Source: Garling et al (2001)

The model explains that the intention to carry out pro-environmental behavior
depends on personal norms (moral obligation), assigned responsibility (ascribed
responsibility), and awareness of the pro-environmental consequences for oneself
(egoistic), for society (altruistic) and for wider (biospheric) ecosystem environment
(Garling et al 2001).
Due to the limited non-renewable energy sources on earth, it is very important to
maintain energy reserves or use renewable sources so that natural resources can be
available for future generations. Energy conservation is also important because
45
consumption of non-renewable sources has a negative impact on the environment, such

as air and water pollution (EPA 2007). Therefore, with the growing awareness of the
environment (Dunlap et al 2000), messages in environmental communication (such as
social advertisements) that encourage pro-environmental behavior are expected to be
well received by the community.
One important element in social advertising is message framing, because it can
affect the effectiveness of the target response (Arora 2000). Given that the target
product is energy which is closely related to environmental issues, the use of message
framing can be associated with an ecological value orientation, which includes:
egoistic, altruistic and biosphereic (Kennedy et al 2009). Social advertising campaigns
still have the potential to be seen and evaluated by a large number of individuals (Giffin
and O'Cass 2004). Social advertising campaigns can target specific audience segments
by carefully framing messages to reinforce the segment's values (Nisbet and Mooney,
2007). Thus understanding how values filter information and color perception is of
critical importance in the design and implementation of public information campaigns
(Roser-Renouf and Nisbet 2008).
Although many scholars (Ryan and Spash 2008), Kennedy et al 2009, Milfont et al
2006) argue that egoistic, altruistic, and biosphere value orientations are important for
understanding environmental beliefs and behavior, few empirical studies distinguish
between altruistic and biosphere values. Several studies related to environmental
behavior show no difference between biosphere and altruistic value orientations (Bardi
and Schwartz 2003, Corraliza and Berenguer 2000; McCarty and Shrum 1994;
Nordlund and Garvill 2002; Stern and Dietz 1994, in de Groot and Steg 2007). As
shown by Garling et al (2003), Stern et al (1998) that both altruistic and biosphere
value orientations can be categorized as self-trending values, so there is no difference,
while egoistic value orientations can be clearly distinguished and categorized as values.
self-enhancement.
Therefore, considering that there is a debate about the differences between
altruistic and biosphere values, in this study the framing of energy-efficient social
advertising messages uses an ecological value orientation and a combination of
ecological value orientations, as follows: First, the egoistic value (self enhancement),
then altruistic values are combined with biosphere (altruistic-biosphere) reflecting the
46
value of self-transcendence, then egoistic values are combined with biosphere (based
on Schultz and Zelezny 2003) regarding the tendency of American ecological value
orientations to be increasingly oriented towards biosphere values, contrary to the
characteristics and culture individualistic American society (Schultz and Zelezny
2003). These findings form the basis for the formation of the egoistic-biosphere
message framing in this study to reflect environmental concerns due to the interests of
oneself and the environment. Furthermore, message framing with stand-alone egoistic
values reflects self-enhancement values.
Support for the important role of message framing comes from other researchers,
both earlier (Ganzach and Karsahi 1995, Smith 1996 in Chun 2007) and relatively
recent ones (Chun 2007), who argue that advertisers should pay attention to how
advertising messages are presented. to consumer audiences, because the way in which
information is packaged or framed can influence consumer judgments and decisions
about products. For example, positive framing emphasizes the benefits of buying the
product being promoted, and negative framing emphasizes the potential loss if
consumers do not do so. Similarly, the framing of messages that refer to ecological
values. Framing with egoistic values emphasizes personal gain over energy saving,
altruistic emphasizes on the welfare of society and biosphere emphasizes on preserving
nature in saving energy. In the context of social advertising, message framing can use
prevailing values and beliefs, adapted to complex moral structures that drive how
people react to the overall social constellation (Dorfman, Wallach, Woodruft 2005).
By using appropriate message framing, it can increase the persuasiveness of
messages to consumers, thereby increasing sales (Martin and Marshal 1999). Thus,
understanding the framing effect can help develop creativity and the effectiveness of
copying and laying out (design) an advertisement (Arora 2000).
2.4.2 Advertising Display Form (Advertising Appeal)
Social marketers try to persuade people to “buy” ideas, not just products or services,
such as adopting healthy behaviors (eg quitting smoking). Many social marketing
campaigns use threatening (or worrying) messages to promote healthy behaviors, for
example “quit smoking, you'll soon be out of a smoking coma. Don't die in the sun this
summer, avoid hastening death by smoking.” The appeal of the message uses negative
47
motivation for the problem or avoidance of the problem and uses fear arousal to
persuade (Henley and Donovan 2002).
Thus, to be successful, social marketing requires a form of display advertising
(appeal) to adequately motivate the target audience. Henley and Donovan assume that
human behavior is controlled by needs or drives that motivate people to either adopt or
reject certain behaviors. The inherent understanding of human behavior today says that
human motivation is based on the belief that people generally strive to be better. This
concept is the basis of Maslow's (1970) theory of tiered needs which argues that once
humans have satisfied their basic needs for food and housing, they will try to satisfy
higher needs, leading to self-actualization (Robbins and Coulter 2007).
Rossiter and Percy (1987, 1997), in Henley and Donovan (2002) have proposed a
positive and negative motivation model for advertising development strategies. This
model has been adapted by Donovan and colleagues (Henley and Donovan 2002) in the
field of health promotion. This model was used to inform a qualitative data set on
people's motivations to change their nutritional and physical activity behavior. The
following is a table to illustrate Rossiter and Percy's (1987) Motivations model or
Rossiter and Percy's motivation model (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Rossiter dan Percy’s (1987) Motivations
Negative (informational motivation) Emotional Sequence
1. Problem removal Annoyance > relief

2. Problem aoidance Fear > relaxation
3. Incomplete satisfaction Disappointment > Optimism
4. Mixed approach-aoidance Conflict > peace of mind
5. Normal depletion Mild annoyance > convenience
48
Positive (transformational) Motives Emotional Sequence
6. Sensory gratifycation Dull (or neutral) > sensory anticipation

7. Intelectual stimulation/mastery Bored (or neutral) > competent
Naïve (or neutral > competent
8. Social approval Apprehensive (or neutral > flattered
9. Conformity* Indecisive (or neutral) > belonging
10. Sel-approval* Conflict (or neutral) > confident, strong
* Added by Donovan et al (1995).

Source: Henley and Donovan (2002)
Rossiter and Percy (1987), in Henley and Donovan (2002) argue that there are
eight motives that drive human behavior, whether responding to negative stimuli, where
individuals try to reduce or eliminate these stimuli, or to positive stimuli where
individuals seek to get or experience it. Each motivational condition is accompanied by
a suitability for an adequate emotional state.
Furthermore, Rossiter and Percy (1987) in Henley and Donovan (2002) argue that
negative motivation is related to actions taken to solve current or future problems, for
example, if a person is motivated to take aspirin because they have a headache
(problem). solution) or quit smoking to avoid getting throat cancer (problem
avoidance). They can be motivated to try another laundry detergent if their clothes are
not clean enough (incomplete satisfaction) or to switch from normal strength beer to
light strength beer if they want to drink alcohol but stay within the safe limits for
driving (mixed approach-avoidance). Another example of negative motivation is eating
food when hungry or replacing a product when it runs out (normal depletion).
While positive motivation, according to Rossiter and Percy (1987), in Henley and
Donovan (2002) refers to actions taken to achieve an enhanced positive emotional state,
for example, when an individual who is not hungry eats something because of this food.
very tasty like ice cream (sensory gratification), or when someone decides to learn a
49
new language (Intellectual stimulation/mastery). Someone who adopts the habit of

cycling and putting their trash in a different bin may be motivated by social approval, if
they think their neighbors will be impressed. These same people may also be motivated
by conformity (if they are the last person in the complex to do so), or by self-assurance
(if they have decided that it is important to their sense of self to behave in an
environmentally responsible manner).
Rossiter and Percy's model (Henley and Donovan 2002) provides a theoretical
basis for developing:
(1) Negative appeals, such as threats based on the motivation to avoid the problem
(such as quitting smoking to avoid the threat of throat cancer and its consequences),
which will elicit an adequate (roused) emotional response to worry, followed by an
assurance of the ability to adopt the recommended behavior will adequately lead to a
sequence of relaxed emotional states (abandonment of worry).
(2) Positive appeals, such as a promise based on the motivation of athletic prowess (quit
smoking to gain rewards for improved physical fitness). This appeal may reflect a
relatively normal state followed by assurance of the ability to adopt the expected
behavior that will adequately elicit a sequential emotional state of anticipation of
excitement or pleasure.
Many social marketing issues call for negative motivations for problem avoidance,
for example: avoidance of illness, accident, injury and premature death. Examples of
negative emotions (appropriate accompanying negative emotions) are fear, guilt,
remorse and sadness. Therefore, many social marketing campaigns use threat or fear
appeals and generally agree that implementing the recommended behavior is under
volitional control and perceived to be targeted. Thus, threat appeals can be effective,
and the stronger the threat (or concern response), the more effective the appeal (Sutton
1992, Pratkanis and Aronson 1991, Strong, Anderson and Dubas 1993, in Henley and
Donovan 2002).
For some health behaviors, incentives or positive appeals can also be effective, at
least for some segments for physical activity and nutrition promotion (Donovan and
Francas 1990, in Henley and Donovan 2002), so it can be useful to consider the
potential for persuasion (relative potential persusiveness). of positive appeals, although
it is estimated that positive appeals are underused in social advertising because there is
50
doubt that positive appeals can be as effective as negative appeals (Henley and
Donovan 2002).
2.4.3 Message Source
The source (who delivers the message) is one of the most important elements in social
marketing. Previous studies in the field of marketing communications have shown that
individuals react differently to an advertising message based on the source from which
the information comes (Hovland and Weiss 1951, in Harben 2009). Thus, the source of
the message will greatly affect the reception of the message by the target audience.
The source of sending social advertisements can come from non-commercial
institutions, such as government and non-governmental institutions, besides that
commercial organizations can also use social advertising to achieve their organizational
goals (Kotler and Lee 2008). The role of the source (messenger/sponsor) on the
effectiveness of advertising has been studied long ago, since the early 1950s (Hassan,
Walsh, Shiu, Hastings and Harris 2007), one of the early findings shows that consumers
respond differently to the credibility of various sources. Sources who can demonstrate
competence and can be trusted are more effective in changing behavior.
Support for previous studies is shown by the results of research by Goldsmith,
Lafferty and Newell (2000), that advertising effectiveness is a function of various
factors, including source attractiveness, expertise and similarity. Thus, the effectiveness
of social marketing messages will depend on the perception of the source of the
messages. Furthermore, Heesacker, Petty, and Cacioppo (1983) found that credible
sources of information often lead to higher message reception than less credible
sources. This is in line with the research of Lafferty and Goldsmith (1999) that
corporate credibility has a significant impact on influencing attitudes towards
advertising, brands and buying interest. In other words, messages that come from
credible sources and have high skills are very likely to get higher acceptance, so that it
will have an impact on greater changes in attitudes and behavior (Hassan et al. 2007).
So that a credible message source can lead to better acceptance by target consumers.
2.5. Pro-Environmental Consumer Behavior
Consumer behavior is a study that involves a series of processes when individuals or
groups choose, buy, use, or dispose of post-use products, services, ideas, experiences to
satisfy needs and wants (Solomon 2007). In the context of marketing, the study of
51
consumer behavior is currently growing rapidly, indicating the increasing importance of

understanding market behavior for the effectiveness of marketing programs. The
challenge faced by marketers is that human behavior is very complex, consisting of
many different factors, both internal and external (Egmond and Bruel 2007), so that
many factors shape or inhibit individual preferences.
In this context, exemplified by Solomon (2007) who argues that one of the
fundamental premises of the field of modern consumer behavior is that people often
buy products not because of what the product can do, but what it can mean. This
principle does not mean that the basic functions of the product are not important, but
that the role of the product in our lives extends far beyond the task and performance of
the product. The deeper meaning of a product can help to differentiate from other,
similar goods and services - all things being equal, people will choose a brand that has
an image (even personality) consistent with their underlying needs. In other words,
consumption is a self-expression or symbolic benefit for consumers (Aaker 1999,
Berger and Heath, in Grinstein and Nisan 2009).
Thus, consumer behavior is complex, this is due to, among other things: first,
consumption plays an important role in social conversations about identity, social
closeness and cultural meaning. Second, consumers are often locked into unsustainable
consumption patterns through a combination of habits, institutional barriers and social
norms (Jackson 2004). Such behavior is an important driver of consumer preferences
and choices (Belk 1988). In addition, consumers' self-conceptions and behaviors
associated with self-expression depend on the particular social role the consumer has,
the degree to which these roles are important and the product domain (Aaker 1999,
Belk 1988).
The rational choice model argues that we behave in a way to maximize the
expected benefit to ourselves (as individuals) from our actions. The premise of the
rational choice model is that human behavior is a continuous process of making
intentional choices between different sets of actions. Faced with these choices based on
rational choice theory, we calculate the expected benefits and costs of different courses
of action, and choose the one that offers the highest expected net benefit (Jackson
2004). Furthermore, Jackson said, one of the main features of the rational choice model
(especially in its application to consumer behavior) is the emphasis on the individual as
52
the unit of analysis. It is the individuals who make the choices in the model, on the
basis of rational considerations consisting of individual evaluations of subjective
outcome expectations.
There are two approaches in an effort to change consumer behavior to become
pro-environmental, namely behavior is seen as a function of external factors, and the
second is seen as internal factors. Some models of consumer behavior focus on the
internal antecedents of behavior, such as values, attitudes and intentions. Other models
focus more on external factors, such as incentives, norms and institutional barriers.
Some models are very good at explaining the internal (cognitive) aspects of individual
decisions, but fail to reflect the importance of contextual or situational variables, and
vice versa. (Jackson 2004).
Pro-environmental consumer behavior is driven by concerns about the impact of
environmental damage caused by human consumption activities. There are several
initiatives carried out in various countries to address consumption behavior that can
damage the environment, especially in the context of energy consumption. In Europe,
for example, to reduce the impact of global warming, climate change policies are
implemented, which are related to: (1) developing and disseminating energy
conservation technologies, promoting renewable energy, and (2) influencing household
and consumer behavior (Egmond and Bruel 2007). Efforts to influence energy
consumption behavior are considered the most likely thing to do to solve the current
energy shortage problem (Ryan and Spash 2008).
Therefore, understanding behavior requires a multi-dimensional view, which
combines both internal and external elements. In this case there are several main
models that can be used, namely:
(1) motivation, attitude and values (motivation, attitude and values)
(2) contextual or motivational factors (contextual or motivational factors)
(3) social influences, and
(4) habit (habit)
It is believed that an integrated approach from various theories is the most complete
approach to studying behavior (Egmond and Bruel 2007). Based on their analysis,
Egmond and Bruel argue that in one way or another, the theory of planned behavior is
part of an integrated model as a whole.
53
Although the theory of planned behavior is not sufficient, it can be used as a starting
point for analyzing motivational/internal factors.
Stern (2000), in Egmund and Bruel (2007) build an attitude-behavior-context (ABC)
model that allows explaining and predicting pro-environmental consumer behavior. A
fundamental starting point in Stern's approach is the assumption that behavior is a
function of the organism and its environment. Or in ABC language, behavior (B) is an
interactive product of personal sphere attitudinal variable (A) and variable contextual
factor (C). Attitudinal variables considered in the theory include: a variety of specific
personal beliefs, norms and values. While contextual factors can include: monetary and
cost incentives, physical capabilities and barriers, institutional and legal factors, public
policy support, interpersonal influence (eg social norms) and in some cases there are
dimensions of a wider social context, such as influence by groups. environment (Olli et
al 1999, in Egmund and Bruel 2007). The structural dynamics between the influence of
attitudes (internal factors) and contextual factors (externals) is a key dimension of the
ABC model. In particular, proponents of this theory claim that attitude-behavior
relationships are strongest when contextual factors are weak or absent; in contrast, there
is virtually no relationship between attitudes and behavior when contextual factors are
negatively or positively strong. For example, in the case of recycling, when access to a
recycling facility is very difficult or very easy, it rarely matters whether or not people
have a pro-recycling attitude. In the first case, virtually no one recycles; and in the
second case most people do recycling. In a situation where recycling is possible but not
necessary, the correlation between pro-environmental attitudes and recycling behavior
54
is strong. The model is described as follows (Figure 2.3):
Positive
External Conditions (C)
Negative Positive
Negative
Attitude (A)
Figure 2.3.: Attitude Behavior Context Model on Recycling

Source: Stern (2000) in Egmund and Bruel (2007)
Furthermore, Triandis (1977) suggested the early theory of interpersonal
behavior. The triandis in this theory fills a gap that has not been discussed from various
behavioral social psychology theories, namely the habit factor, as illustrated in Figure
2.4. the following:
55
Figure 2.4.: Early Theory of Interpersonal Behavior

Source: Triandis (1977) in Jackson (2004)
In this theory, intention, as in many other theories, is the immediate antecedent of
behavior, but habit also mediates behavior. Behavior in many situations, according to
Triandis, is a function partly of intentions, partly by habitual responses, and partly
influenced by situational conditions and constraints. Intentions are influenced by social
and affective factors, as well as by rational considerations. Intentions are not entirely
judgmental nor are they fully automatic. Neither fully autonomous nor fully social.
Behavior is influenced by moral beliefs, but the impact is moderated by emotional
drives and cognitive limitations.
Social factors, including norms, roles and self-concept. Norms are social rules
about what to do and what not to do. Role is a set of behaviors that are considered
adequate for people who hold certain positions in the group (Triandis 1977, in Jackson
56
2004). Whereas self-concept refers to the idea that one owns oneself, the goal is that it
is not a problem for one to pursue or distance oneself from one's desired or undesirable
behavior. Then the emotional response to a decision or a decision situation is assumed
to be different from the rational instrument evaluation of consequences, and can include
both positive and negative emotional responses with varying strengths. Affect, on the
other hand, has more or less unconscious input into decision making, and is managed
by instinctive behavioral responses to certain situations.
Therefore, understanding mainstream consumer behavior is a prerequisite for
understanding how to motivate or encourage pro-environmental consumer behavior.
The terminology of sustainable consumption is relatively new, but debates on
consumption, consumer behavior and consumerism have been going on for much
longer (Jackson 2004).
Furthermore, in the following (Table 2.3), several theories of social psychology
related to consumer behavior or changes in consumer behavior are presented,
particularly in the context of consumption behavior and energy conservation, as
follows:
57
Table 2.3: Social Psychological Theories of Behavior and Change
No. Social Source Description

Psychology
Theory
Attitude-Behavior- Stern and A kind of field theory for environmentally

1.
Context (ABC) Oskamp significant behavior. Behavior (B) is an
Model (1997), Stern interactive product of internal attitude variables
(2000). (A) and external contextual factors (C).
2. Cognitive Festinger Argued that people are motivated to avoid

Dissonance Theory (1957). internally inconsistent or dissonance, beliefs
(beliefs), attitudes and values.
Cultural Theory Thomson et al Propose a hypothesis regarding the four-fold

3.
(1990). typology of cultural types with different
conceptions of governance and the good life,
namely: hierarchists, egalitarians,
individualists, and fatalists.
Elaboration- Petty (1977), A persuasion model that predicts that the long-
4.
Likelyhood Model Petty and term success of a persuasive message depends
Cacciope on how much mental processing or elaboration
(1981). of the message is done by the subject (target).
5. Field Theory Lewin (1951) An influential early social psychological theory

which held that behavior was a function of a
dynamic field of internal and external
influences. Behavior change depends on
unfreezing (current behavior), moving to a new
level, and then refreezing.

Psychology
Theory
Theory of Triandis 1977 Like reasoned action theory, interpersonal
58
6. Interpersonal behavior theory includes both expectancy-

Behavior (TIB) value and normative belief constructs.
However, TIB also involves the role of habits
(habit), social and affective influences on
behavior.
7. Normative Conduct Cialdini, Cialdini's Normative Conduct Theory argues

Kallgren dan that behavior is directed by social norms,
Reno (1991) which can be either descriptive (what to do) or
injunctive (what to do). The strength or
"salience" of these different types of norms in a
particular context depends on various factors,
both dispositional and situational factors.
Motivation-Ability- Orlander and An integrated behavioral model that combines

8.
Opportunity Model Thagersen both internal motivational variables - usually
(1995) based on reasoned action theory - with external
contextual variables of ability - including
habits and knowledge of tasks and
opportunities.
Means End Chain Gutman A qualitative form of expectancy-value theory

9.
Theory (1982), which states that preferences are based on a
Reynolds and 'laddered' relationship between attributes,
Olson (2001) consequences and values.
10. Norm Activation Schwartz One of the best-known attempts to model pro-
Theory (1977, 1992) social or altruistic behavior: personal norms
(PN) on behavior in pro-social ways are
activated by awareness of the consequences
(AC) of one's actions and the existence of
personal responsibility that is assigned to them.
them (AR).
Description
No. Social
Psychology Source
Theory
11. Persuasion Theory Hovland et al A set of theoretical approaches to the 'art of

(1953), Petty et persuasion' that typically identify (1) the
al (2002) credibility of the source, (2) the message or
argument, and (3) the recipient's thoughts and
59
feelings as three critical structural elements in a

successful persuasion strategy.
Rational Choice Elster (1986), The basis that underlies most economic
12.
Theory Homans (1961) theories of consumer preference and several
other social psychological theories of behavior.
This theory suggests that behavior is the result
of rational considerations, where individuals
seek to maximize their own expected utility.
13. Self Discrepancy Higgins (1987) Argues that people are motivated to act based
Theory on the feelings that arise from the perception
gap between their actual and 'ideal' selves.
14. Self-Perception Bern (1972) Advise that people infer their attitudes by
Theory observing their own behavior.
15. Subjective Ajzen and A form of expectancy value theory that is

Expected Utility Fishbein closely related to the rational choice model,
(SEU) (1980), Eagly SEU theory argues that behavior is a function
and Chaiken of the expected outcomes of a behavior and the
(1993) value assigned to those outcomes.

Psychology
Theory
16. Structuration Giddens (1984) Trying to provide a model of the relationship

Theory between agency (how people act) and structure
(the social and institutional context). Giddens'
theory of structuration relies on the distinction
between 'practical' and 'discursive'
consciousness.
Symbolic Blumer (1969), Arguing that people interact with things
60
17. Interactionism Mead (1934) (artifacts, institutions, others) on the basis of

the symbolic meanings that things have for
them.
Symblolic Self- Wicklund and A symbolic interactionist theory which argues

18.
Completion Theory Gollwitzer that people create their "sense of identity"
(1982) through the "appropriation of symbolic
resources" to complement their "self-image".
19. Theory of Planned Ajzen (1991) Adjustment of the reasoned action theory by
Behavior (TPA) adding the perceived control of the perpetrator
over the outcome of his behavior.
Theory of Ajzen dan Perhaps the best known model of behavior-

20.
Reasoned Action Fishbein (1980) attitude in social psychology, reasoned action
(TRA) theory adapts expectancy value theory by
adding normative social influences on
behavioral intentions.
21. Value-Believe- Stern et al An attempt to adapt Schwartz's Norm

Norm Theory (1999), Stern Activation theory by adding a sophisticated
(2000). relationship between values, beliefs, attitudes
and norms.
Sources: Jackson (2004), Ajzen (1991), Stern et al (1999), Stern (2000).

From table 2.3, the choices of behavioral change models related to this research
include: ABC model (Stern 2000), persuasion theory (Petty et al 2002), Norms
activation theory (Swartz, in Stern 2000), Value-Beliefs-Norm theory (Stern 2000).
Stern et al 1999, Stern 2000, Dietz et al 2005), and the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen
and Fishbein 1980), which were used both in establishing the independent variable, and
for measuring the dependent variable (attitude towards advertising and intention to
follow advertising messages).
2.6. Energy Consumption Behavior

Consumption has been at the forefront of history (Miller 1995). To question
consumption, then, at one level, means to question history itself. To engage in efforts to
change consumption patterns and consumer behavior, in one sense, means to work with
focus and detail on the fundamental aspects of our social world, and processing without
61
knowing the degree of complexity and sophistication is tantamount to inviting

inevitable failure. .
The wider debate over consumption has extraordinary origins. These debates can
be traced (at least) to classical philosophy, namely through critical social theory in the
19th and early 20th centuries, consumer psychology and motivation research in the
early post-second world war, ecological humanism in the 1960s and 1970s. ,
anthropology and social philosophy of the 1970s and 1980s, and the sociology of
modernity, popularized in the 1990s (Jackson 2004).
According to Jackson, each of the different avenues of exploratory study asks
briefly questions about consumption and about consumer behavior. Motivational
research is based on the desire to find the best way to design market products that
people will buy; Critical social theorists and humanists are reminded of the social and
ecological influences of rampant materialism, anthropologists and sociologists come
out to understand modernity, and reflect on the kind of society that has come to be in its
current form. While there are some differences, they have something to say about
consumption and about consumerism.
In a few simple terms, it is said that consumption can be viewed as a functional
endeavor to improve individual and collective well-being by providing goods and
services necessary to satisfy people's wants and needs. This linear view of consumption
(Table 2.3), is an interpretation (encoding) in conventional economics (Mas-Collel et al
1995, Begg et al 2003, in Jackson 2004). Furthermore, Jackson argues that by
emphasizing the "pleasure" in consumer wants and the "power" of consumer choice,
economics takes a broadly utilitarian approach to evaluating consumer goods and
services. Jackson gives an example: I buy certain commodities because they offer
certain functions that are useful to me. My new car gets me from A to B more
efficiently, cheaply and pleasantly than my old car did. My fridge freezer has more
room for frozen meats that are ready to cook. I want to spend more money on the
purchase because I get value from the additional services. Furthermore, my desires as a
consumer cannot always be completely satiated, because there will always be more new
and better product offerings for me and in different ways to satisfy my taste buds and
tastes.
62
The following shows the role of consumption in the well-being value chain, as
follows (Figure 2.5):
Raw Material Capital Labor
Production
Waste,
Goods and services
Environmental damage
Consumption
Satisfaction
Wellbeing
Figure 2.5.: The Role of Consumption in the Welfare Value Chain

Source: Jackson (2004)
63
Although it is based on the consumption of a group of consumers who have

certain preferences or tastes, the economic view of consumption can virtually motivate
those underlying preferences (Jackson 2004). Most attempts in economics to say about
this motivation are what it reveals about the preferences of the ways in which
consumers spend their money in the marketplace. Thus we live in a consumer
community.
Thus, it is clear that not all consumer behavior in a strict sense is buying behavior.
Some of them, such as energy conservation and travel can be interpreted as consumer
behavior, in the sense of behavior that can affect resource consumption. However, other
consumer behaviors have more to do with or perform household management (recycle,
composting) or lifestyle choices (voluntary simplicity), as proposed by Jackson (2004).
However, regardless of the methods and instruments used, the policy basis for a
sustainable energy program (sustainability) is behavioral change. When community
members use resources wisely, for example doing recycling, or taking public
transportation, then the community is moving towards sustainability. To promote
sustainable energy programs, it is important to have a strong grip on how to effectively
encourage individuals, businesses and organizations to adopt efficient behavior in the
use of resources and/or improve the quality of resources (MacKenzie-Mohr 2008).
2.7. Attitude
Attitude is generally believed to be an important factor for marketing because it is
assumed to have a causal relationship between attitudes, intentions and behavior.
Hawkins, Best and Coney (1989) say that because of its importance, attitude becomes
an important thing that is taken into account in the preparation of marketing strategies.
It is even said that attitudes have been directly associated with behavioral changes
(Loudon and Della Bitta (1993), who say that behavior change is a function of changes
in behavioral intentions, while changes in behavioral intentions are associated with
changes in attitudes (Hini et al 1995). .
Attitudes are general evaluations of people (including themselves), objects and
issues (in this case energy efficiency) and are permanent (Ijzen and Fishbein 1980;
Solomon 2007). Attitudes can be positive or negative feelings associated with the
64
implementation of a specific behavior. According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), in

general, an individual will have a 'favorable' attitude towards a particular behavior if he
believes that the performance of that behavior will generally lead to a positive outcome.
On the other hand, if an individual believes that generally a negative outcome will
result from the behavior, then he or she will have a negative attitude towards it
(Mykytyn and Harrison 1993).
In line with Ajzen and Fishbein, other researchers, namely Olson and Zanna
(1993), say that attitude is a 'favorable' or 'unfavorable' emotion, an evaluative
assessment of various aspects of the social world. Meanwhile, attitude toward
advertising is a learned tendency to respond consistently whether desired (desirable) or
not (undesirable) to the overall exposure of an advertisement (Homer 1990, Moore
2005, Ranjbarian 2010). The relationship between attitudes and behavior is mediated by
intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980). Based on the behavioral intention model
proposed by Fishbein, in certain situations behavior is the same as behavioral intention,
which considers the overall attitude to carry out the behavior and subjective norms
regarding behavior. To maximize the relationship between attitude-behavior, Ajzen and
Fishbein (1980) proposed four requirements for attitude measurement: time (time),
action (action), context (context) and target (TACT). The more specific a question is,
then it is more related to the TACT requirements from Ajzen and Fishbein, then the
intention - behavior relationship will be better, with a note that the behavioral
measurement has a good relationship, which contains the same TACT elements as the
attitude question.
However, in another approach, Foxal (1983, in Hini et al 1995) proposes a
different view, there are at least four possible causal relationships between attitudes and
behavior: attitudes cause behavior, behavior causes attitudes, attitudes and behavior
have a reciprocal effect, and there is no relationship between attitude and behavior.
Although attempts to show a strong relationship between attitudes and behavior
have been debated, the assumption that attitudes are useful predictors of behavior is
widely believed by experts, consequently attitudes continue to be the focus of various
studies, both academic and commercial (Hini et al 1995). .
The theory related to behavior and very popular is Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA), which was first proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). Theory is a model of
65
psychological processes that mediate the observed relationship between attitudes and
behavior. This theory is a combination of attitude, social influence and intention
variables to predict behavior. TRA states that the intention to behave in a certain way is
determined by the individual's attitude towards the implementation of the behavior and
subjective norms held by an individual. Meanwhile, intention is the best predictor of
behavior. Behavior is made as a rational decision and has control of its own volition
(volitional condition). There is no difference whether subjective attitudes or norms play
a larger role in the formation of intentions. Because intentions are easier to measure
than behavior, there are various studies that support intentions (Bolton and Kannan
2000).
The development of the theory of reasoned action is the theory of planned
behavior (Ajzen 1992). The model of planned behavior theory assumes that consumers
make decisions by calculating the costs and benefits of a series of actions and choosing
the option that maximizes the net benefits they expect. This theory belongs to the group
of “rational choice models” (Egmond and Bruel 2007), built on the following key
assumptions:
-Self-interest is an adequate framework for understanding human behavior; Rational
behavior is the result of the cognitive deliberation process.
-Internal factors, especially attitudes play the most important role.
2.8. Behavioral Intentions

Intention is the likelihood (likelihood) to do something, such as buying a brand.
Thus an intention is a type of judgment about how, in the current context, an individual
will behave towards a particular brand. Meanwhile, behavior is the bottom-fine
objective of any social influence campaign (Andreasen 1994). Fishbein and Ajzen
(1980) argue that most behavior can be predicted as a result of a person's intention to
perform a certain behavior. Thus, intention is a good predictor of actual behavior.
The theory of planned behavior is an approach to predicting intentions and
behavior that has been widely used in consumer behavior (eg Weber and Gillaspie
1998, Jackson 2004, de Canniere et al 2008), including in the context of pro-
environmental behavior, such as recycling, vehicle choice. for travel, energy
66
consumption, water conservation, food choices and ethical investments (Stern 2000, in
Egmond and Bruel 2007).
Intention is often used in the context of the intention to perform a certain behavior.
For example, the intention to buy energy-efficient products means the intention to
purchase products that use electrical energy sparingly or the intention to carry out pro-
environmental behavior, such as energy saving (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980, Solomon
2007). The intention includes planning, effort, sincerity, desire and motivation to do
something, so that it can be used as a strong predictor of certain behavior (Ajzen 1991).
Previous studies have found that intention is a good predictor of behavior (Ajzen
1991). Energy-saving behavior refers to several less frequent, but important actions that
can significantly reduce household energy use and transportation over a long period of
time, including purchasing an energy-efficient fire stove, purchasing an energy-efficient
air conditioner, purchasing an energy-efficient water heater, replacing all lamps with
energy-saving lamps. Meanwhile, energy conservation behavior refers to decisions and
activities that must be carried out frequently as part of daily life, including turning off
lights when not in use, lowering the thermostat in winter, raising the thermostat in
summer, and so on. Leiserowitz, Maibach, and Roser-Renouf 2008). This behavior is
carried out because of the intention.
Intention can be defined as “a subjective inclination” that consumers have towards a
particular product, and has been shown to be a key factor in predicting consumer
behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). Studies of behavior generally rarely measure
actual behavior, but in general intention is considered an appropriate predictor of
behavior (Jackson 2004). Although several other studies have found a weak
relationship between intentions and behavior (Hini et al 1995, Weber and Gillespie
1998).
In the context of pro-environmental behavior, the theory of planned behavior is
one of the most frequently used models in the literature to explore pro-environmental
behavior. Applications of the model to what is often referred to as “environmentally
significant behavior” (Stern 2002) include attempts to use it to understand or predict
recycling behavior, travel choices, energy consumption, water conservation, food
choices, and ethical investing (eg. Staas 2003, Wall et al 2003, in Jackson 2004).
67
The theory of planned behavior is one of the most widely used models in the
literature to explore pro-environmental behavior, including recycling, vehicle choice for
travel, energy consumption, water conservation, food choices, and ethical investment
(Stern 2000). , Staats 2003, in Egmond and Bruel 2007).
The central factor in the theory of planned behavior is the intention to perform a certain
behavior (Ajzen 1991). Intention is assumed to include motivational factors that
influence behavior, intention is an indication of how hard individuals want to try, how
much effort they plan to do in order to perform the behavior. As a rule of thumb, the
stronger the intention to perform a behavior, the stronger the likelihood of doing it.
However, the behavioral intention can only be achieved if the behavior is under
volitional control, that is, if the individual can decide whether or not to perform the
behavior (Ajzen 1991).
Although some behaviors can in fact meet these requirements well, the
implementation of these behaviors (performance) mostly depends on at least some
degree on non-motivational factors such as the availability of the required opportunities
(availability of requisite opportunities) and resources (time). , money, skills,
cooperation from other parties). Together these factors represent people's actual control
over behavior.
In the event that an individual has the necessary opportunities and resources, and
intends to perform the behavior, then the individual must be successful in doing so. The
idea is that behavioral achievement depends jointly on motivation (intentions) and
ability (behavioral control).
In the event that an individual has the necessary opportunities and resources, and
intends to perform the behavior, then the individual must be successful in doing so. The
idea is that behavioral achievement depends jointly on motivation (intentions) and
ability (behavioral control).
2.9. Previous Research on Demarketing, Value Orientation Ecological and Social

Advertising
68
The following relates several previous studies regarding demarketing strategies in

marketing management (Table 2.4.), ecological value orientation (Table 2.5), and social
advertising (Table 2.6), as follows:
Table 2.4.: Some Previous Demarketing Research
No Writer Title Result

.
1. Borkowski Demarketing of Health The high level of demand for health services
(1994). Services causes inefficiency in services, so it needs
demarketing, with the aim that health
services can be obtained by target patients.
69
2. Cullwick Positioning The demarketing strategy is an integrated part

(1975). Demarketing Strategy of the overall marketing strategy and focuses
on reducing or rationalizing demand in
situations of shortage of supply, such as fuel.
3. Gordon Relationship Demarketing unworthless customers to focus

(2006). Demarketing: more on profitable customers so that they can
Managing wasteful or build profitable long-term relationships.
worthless customer
relationships
4. Shiu, Hassan, Demarketing Tobacco Demarketing through product, price, place

dan Walsh through Governmental and promotion to change attitudes towards
(2008). Policies – The 4Ps cigarettes and the cigarette industry and its
revisited implications for intention to quit.
Demarketing is less effective in terms of
changing the attitude of smokers towards
cigarettes and the cigarette industry. Smoking
restrictions in the workplace and in public
places did not affect attitudes but had little
effect on the intention to quit smoking..
5. Wall (2005). Government The government's demarketing of cigarette

Demarketing: Different products did not get a response from the
Approach and Mixed target audience. The imposition of a penalty
Messages has more impact on reducing cigarette
consumption.
No. Writer Title Result
6. Grinstein Demarketing, Demarketing of public products

dan Nissan Minorities, and (consumption of clean water) for
(2008). National environmental sustainability among
Attachment minority and majority communities in
Israel. Majority and minority groups
respond differently to marketing efforts
by demarketing public products.
Differences in minority characteristics
affect the effectiveness of demarketing.
In general, demarketing saves 5.78% of
70
household water use.
7. Bebbington Changing Energy The aim of this study is to encourage

et al (2008). Consumption changes in energy consumption behavior
Behavior in at the University of St. Andrews. As a
Academic result, there is a significant saving
Departments: A impact, which is 7%. The most important
Longitudinal factor towards savings is the availability
Intervention Study of comparative information with other
schools.
8. Lane (2008). Visitor Management, The use of demarketing as a tool to

Changing Visitor influence the shift in visitors' holiday
Behavior, and Social habits (tourism) to tourist attractions is
Marketing – Briefing less effective than social marketing which
Paper focuses more on behavior change.
9. Harvey dan Perspectives on Analyzing the demarketing carried out by

Kerin demarketing during Exxon and Shell Oil to deal with the
(1975). the energy crisis energy crisis (supply scarcity) that hit the
United States in 1973-1974, using the
4P's. The level of effectiveness of the
demarketing strategy is not discussed.
10. Frisbie Demarketing energy: The use of psychographics in the context

(1986). Does psychographic of energy demarketing in energy saving
research hold the campaigns. Different market segments
answer? require different demarketing strategies.
11. Geoff Demarketing in park The use of demarketing through product,

(1996). and recreation price, place and promotion to reduce the
management number of park visitors during the "peak"
seasons that have the potential to cause
damage to the recreational park. The level
71
of effectiveness is not discussed.
12. Kotler Marketing during Marketers must be creative marketers, not

(1974). Periods of Shortage just creative marketers. The anticipation
of the marketing program during the
period of supply shortage is to reprogram
the marketing through the product mix,
customer mix and marketing mix.
Source: Processed from various sources
From the table above, it can be seen that research on demarketing is still very rare.
Previous studies on demarketing only used general demarketing mix tactics. There has
been no research on demarketing that examines in depth the use of social advertising by
using the framing of ecological value-oriented messages originating from the realm of
social psychology, the form of displaying threats and appeals, and the use of three
different message sources (senders), in the context of energy demarketing.
Furthermore, Table 2.5 also presents several previous studies related to the
orientation of ecological values, which in this study are used as framing messages, as
follows:
Table 2.5.: Several Researches on Ecological Value Orientation
1. Kennedy et al Why We Don’t Descriptive analysis provides a better

(2009). “Walk the Talk”: understanding of why good intentions
Understanding the (pro-environment values) are not always
Environmental translated (incongruency) with behavior
Value/Behavior Gap that supports the environment
in Canada (environmentally supportive behavior).
2. Schultz dan Zelezny Reframing Overall, Americans tend to have strong

(2003). Environmental (egoistic) self-enhancing values, which
messages to be are considered to be incongruent with
Congruent with values that lead to environmental care
American Value and pro-environmental behavior shown
by American society.
3. Clark et al (2003). Internal and This paper integrates themes from

External Influences economics and psychology to analyze
72
on Pro- pro-environmental behavior, both from

environmental internal and external variables. Then
Behavior: analyze specific motives for participating
Participation in in pro-environmental behavior (green
Green Electricity electricity program). The motives of
Program biocentric (biosphere) are first, second,
altruistic and third, egoistic.
.
4. Milfont, Duckitt dan A Cross-Cultural Comparing three motives for caring for
Cameron (2006). tudy of the environment (egoistic, altruistic and
Environmental biosphere) in a cross-cultural group in
Motive Concerns New Zealand (Asian and European
and Their descent).
Implications for Pro-
Environmental
Behavior
5. Dietz et al (2005). Environmental There are two currents of research on

Values value. First, focus on four value clusters:
self-interest, altruism, traditionalism, and
openness to change. The second, pro-
environment appears when basic material
needs are met. Individuals and societies
that are postmaterialist in their values
tend to exhibit pro-environmental
behavior.
6. Aoyagi-Usui How Individual The direct reasons for green consumer

(2001). Values Affect Green behavior vary, including economic
Consumer incentives and health concerns. The
Behavior?: Result determinants of green consumer behavior
from a Japanese are also different when it comes to value.
Survey Values play a significant role in
determining such behavior, and behavior
can sometimes differ by gender. Female
consumers tend to be more pro-
environmentally oriented.
7. Stern, Dietz, Abel, A Value-Belief-Norm The survey data shows that the Value-
Guagnano dan Kalof Theory of Support Belief-Norm (VBN) theory compared to
(1999). for Social other theories is the most appropriate
Movements: The theory to demonstrate pro-environmental
73
Case of supportive behavior.

Environmentalism.
8. Stern (2000). Toward a Coherent This paper develops a conceptual

Theory of framework for advancing the theory of
Environmentally pro-environmental behavior and reports
Significant Behavior. on efforts to develop this theory.
9. Garling et al (2001). Moderating Effects The survey was conducted to measure

of Social Value the intention to carry out pro-
Orientation on environmental behavior collectively,
Determinants of related to egoistic, social-altruistic,
Proenvironmental biosphere awareness, personal norms and
Behavior inherited responsibilities.
10. Jackson (2004). Motivating Conduct a review of behavioral theories

Sustainable and behavior change, in the context of
Consumption: a promoting behavior change to become
Review of Evidence pro-environmental in the context of
on Consumer sustainable consumption.
Behaviour and
Behavioural Change
From the table above, it is known that previous studies on ecological value orientation
have not used this value orientation as a framing of advertising messages in social advertising
communications in the context of energy demarketing in marketing. Previous studies only
discussed the relationship between ecological value orientations and pro-environmental
attitudes and behaviors in the realm of social psychology.
Thus, it is hoped that this research is the first research to expand the concept of ecological
value orientation from the realm of social psychology to be used in framing social advertising
messages, along with the form of advertising display and source (messenger of advertising).
Furthermore, the following Table 2.6 discusses previous studies on social advertising, as
follows:
74
Table 2.6.: Some Research on Social Advertising (Social Advertising):
No Writer Title Result
1. Hassan et al Modelling The capacity of an advertisement to

(2007). Persuasion in Social make the audience think about the issues
Advertising. raised and the perception of the source
of the message can both affect the
effectiveness of an advertising
campaign. The study was conducted by
a consortium of European Community
(EU) companies, as part of an anti-
smoking campaign. In this study, a
conceptual model was built that links
understanding and attitudes towards the
campaign with outcome measures:
responsible thinking about smoking and
the intention to quit smoking.
2. Henley et al Appealing to Positive The positive appeal (in this campaign)

(1998). Motivations and was well received by the target market
Emotions in Social and the initial results of this study were
Marketing: Example very encouraging (encouraging).
of Positive Parental Proving positive appeal in parental
Campaign. campaigns can work more effectively.
3. Henley and Unintended This paper presents a use case for

Donovan (1999). Consequences of motivation and positive emotions as a
Arousing way to minimize the negative impact of
Fear in Social using threat appeals in social marketing.
Marketing. In this study it is explained that the form
of display advertising in the form of fear
(fear) can have negative side effects that
are not intended (unexpected), but can
occur.
75
4. Owolabi (2009). Effect of Consumers The results showed that subjects in the
Mood on Advertising positive mood group had more positive
Effectiveness. attitudes and higher intentions to try the
advertised product, compared to subjects
under the negative mood group. This
research suggests that advertisers should
present their advertisements in a context
that creates happiness.
5. Griffin and O’Cass Social Marketing: This study focuses on testing social
(2004). Who Really Gets the advertising by collecting data on two
Message? social issues that are being advertised.
As a result, engagement and
trustworthiness influence attitudes
towards social issues for non-drinkers,
but only engagement affects drinkers.
Attitudes also affect the intention to
align with these social issues.
6. Bagozzi and Public Service The author develops and tests a theory
Moore (1994). Advertisement: of how public service advertisements
Emotions and function to influence responses to help
Emphaty Guide in campaigns to help campaigns for
Proposal Behavior. victims of child abuse.
76
7. Kover and The Rossiter-Percy This study presents the first validation of
Abruzzo (1993). Grid and Emotional the emotional aspect of Rositer and
Response to Percy's model. There are several
Advertising: An implications of this validation. Of
Initial Evaluation. particular importance is the suggestion
to Rositer and Percy's model that
emotions are not just 'hot buttons' to be
pressed again and again with advertising
becoming increasingly repetitive. But
the relationship is complicated (subtle)
and complex.
8. Drumwright Company advertising The researcher investigates managers'

(1998). with a Social goals for conducting corporate
Dimension: The Role advertising campaigns with a social
of Noneconomic dimension, examines the creation
Criteria. process and develops a model to explain
the factors that are key to success. While
these campaigns are not effective in
achieving traditional economic goals,
such as increasing sales, they are highly
effective in achieving company-oriented
goals, such as motivating the sales force
or communicating the essence of the
company's mission.
9. Brown dan Antecedents and This research is a meta-analysis of

Stayman (1992). Consequences of pairwise relationships involving
Attitude toward the attitudes towards advertising. The
Ad: A Meta-analysis. results show a number of
methodological variables moderate the
strength of the relationship (found in this
study) regarding attitudes toward
advertising. This study also indicates
support for the model and the important
role of indirect influence of advertising
attitudes on brand attitudes (via brand
cognitions) which was also found in
previous studies.
77
10. Henley dan Negative Outcome, The author argues that the term “fear
Donovan (1997). Threats and Threat appeal” is inadequate and recommends
Appeals: Widening “threat appeal” instead. "Threat appeal"
the Conceptual is more comprehensive (inclusive),
Framework for the because the perception of threat
Study of Fear and produces a variety of responses, namely
Other Emotions in cognitive and emotional, not just fear.
Social Marketing
Communication.
From the table above, it can be seen that previous research on social advertising has not
found any linking social advertising with an ecological value orientation as framing the
message (framing), together with the form of advertising display (appeal) and the source
(messenger) in a deep and integrated manner. In contrast to previous studies, this study
examines and discusses the effectiveness of the three elements in social advertising which
include: Message framing with an ecological value orientation, advertising display forms and
message sources on consumer responses integrally, in the perspective of energy demarketing,
using an experimental design.
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24

DEMARKETING, SOCIAL MARKETING AND PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL

2.1. Marketing Management Role

services it produces based on profit maximization, sales maximization, profit limits,

Meanwhile, marketing management is the art and science of selecting target

Table 2.1: Basic Marketing Tasks

Demand State Marketing Task Formal Name

1. Negative demand Disabuse demand Conversional marketing

2. No demand Create demand Stimulational marketing

3. Latent demand Develop demand Developmental marketing

4. Faltering demand Revitalize demand Remarketing

5. Irregular demand Synchronize demand Synchromarketing

6. Full demand Maintain demand Maintenance marketing

7. Overfull demand Reduce demand Demarketing

8. Unwholesome demand Destroy demand Countermarketing

Sources: Kotler (1973), Kotler and Keller (2009)

Selective demarketing is related to the company's intention to reduce demand in

examined the demarketing of public products (consumption of clean water) for

2.2. Social Marketing

Discussions on the expansion of the marketing realm to non-commercial fields had

Advertising as part of marketing communication has become an inseparable part

Advertising on social issues has become a major component of social marketing

2.4.1 Ecological Value Oriented Message Framing

On the other hand, psychologists concentrate on relating internal variables

Value Beliefs Pro-environmental Behavior

Figure 2.1.: Value Beliefs Norms Theory Model

Hypothesized structural model. (ACE=Awareness of consequences for oneself/egoistic;

Figure 2.2.: Value Orientation Model, Responsibility (Attitude), Personal Norms

Source: Garling et al (2001)

consumption of non-renewable sources has a negative impact on the environment, such

Table 2.2: Rossiter dan Percy’s (1987) Motivations

Negative (informational motivation) Emotional Sequence

1. Problem removal Annoyance > relief

Positive (transformational) Motives Emotional Sequence

6. Sensory gratifycation Dull (or neutral) > sensory anticipation

* Added by Donovan et al (1995).

new language (Intellectual stimulation/mastery). Someone who adopts the habit of

consumer behavior is currently growing rapidly, indicating the increasing importance of

is strong. The model is described as follows (Figure 2.3):

Figure 2.3.: Attitude Behavior Context Model on Recycling

Figure 2.4.: Early Theory of Interpersonal Behavior

Table 2.3: Social Psychological Theories of Behavior and Change

No. Social Source Description

Attitude-Behavior- Stern and A kind of field theory for environmentally

2. Cognitive Festinger Argued that people are motivated to avoid

Cultural Theory Thomson et al Propose a hypothesis regarding the four-fold

5. Field Theory Lewin (1951) An influential early social psychological theory

No. Social Source Description

Theory of Triandis 1977 Like reasoned action theory, interpersonal

6. Interpersonal behavior theory includes both expectancy-

7. Normative Conduct Cialdini, Cialdini's Normative Conduct Theory argues

Motivation-Ability- Orlander and An integrated behavioral model that combines

Means End Chain Gutman A qualitative form of expectancy-value theory

11. Persuasion Theory Hovland et al A set of theoretical approaches to the 'art of

feelings as three critical structural elements in a

15. Subjective Ajzen and A form of expectancy value theory that is

No. Social Source Description

16. Structuration Giddens (1984) Trying to provide a model of the relationship

Symbolic Blumer (1969), Arguing that people interact with things

17. Interactionism Mead (1934) (artifacts, institutions, others) on the basis of

Symblolic Self- Wicklund and A symbolic interactionist theory which argues

Theory of Ajzen dan Perhaps the best known model of behavior-

21. Value-Believe- Stern et al An attempt to adapt Schwartz's Norm