BUKU 2

INTRODUCTION

A. Cytoskeleton and cell motility. The cytoskeleton plays an important part in

cell motility in all higher organism. It consits of microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
1. Microtubules help maintain cell and have a dynamic role in
chromosome movement during mitosis. They also important
components of cilia and flagella, motile organelles on the surface of
many cells that propel secretions (e.g., mucus in the respiratory tract)
or whole cells e.g., spermatozoa).
2. Microfilaments also the abudant in many cells and have an important
contractil function in cell motility. They are especially prominent in
muscle cells but are found in many other cell as well
B. Cytoskeleton and organelle motility, recent discoveries have revealed that
most cells have a complex cytoarchitecture.
1. The cytoplasm has a complex cytoskeleton of interlocking
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediete filaments, which
connect the plasma membrane to cytoplasmic organelles
2. The cytoskeleton mediates cytoplasmic organelle motion and controls
their distribution within the cell as the cells metabolic requirements
change during different physiologic states

MICROTUBULES

A. STRUCTURE
1. Microtubules are long, pipe—like structure. Direct observation of
flagella indicates that microtubule can be 200 µm long or longer.
2. Microtubule are hollow and 24 hm in diameter. The hollow center is
about 15 nm in diameter, yielding a wall thickness of about 4.5 nm
3. Each microtubule of 13 protofilaments, which contain globular
proteins called tubulins. Two classes of tubulin exist : α-tubulin and β-
tubulin. Both weight approximately 55 kd; however, there are subtle
chemical differencs between the two. The microtubular wall consist of
tight spirals of intertwined α-tubulin and β-tubulin.
B. Function
1. Microtubules help move chromosomes during mitosis. Thus, they are a
prominent feature of all dividing cells (e.g., cells in the stratum basale
of the skin)
a. Microtubules are attached to the centrioles and to the chromosome
 b. Some microtubules extend from one centriole but do not attachto
the chromosome. Others extend from one centriole to a
chromosome attachong to the konetochore (centromere)
c. As microtubules slide past one another, they move chromosome
from the metaphase plate to the centrioles at opposite poles of the
dividing cells
2. Microtubules also help maintain the asymmetrical shape of cells
a. Manyelongated (e.g., motor neurons) have abudance of
microtubules. The long axis of these microtubules is parallel to the
long axis of the axon
b. Many tall columnar cells have an abudance of microtubules
arranged parallel to the long axis of the cell
c. Some discoid cells (e.g., platelets) have circural array of
microtubules in their peripheral parts, which help maintain the cells
curved shape
3. Microtubules are essential constituens of cilia, flagella. Basal bodies,
and centrioles.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA, BASAL BODIES, AND CENTRIOLES

A. Cilia and Flagella

1. Cilia are moveable organelles that are 5-10 µm long and 0.2 µm in
diameter
a. Locations. Cilia are present on the apical epithelia surface of the :
(1) Respiratory tract (nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, and bronchii),
where they propel mucus and debris out of the system
(2) Female reproductive trach (uterine tubes and uterus), where
they propel ova and mucus through the system
(3) Sensori Orgns (olfactory, auditory, and visual epithelia), where
modified cilia help to form chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors,
and photoreceptors.
b. Structure and function. Cilia are visiblein the light microscope. The
electrone microscope reveals the complex internal structure of
cilia.
(1) Each cilium is surrounded by the plasma membrane and
contains a central doublet of microtubules surrounded by nine
pairs of fused microtubules. This characteristic 9+2 arragement
of microtubules and its associated structures constitute the
axoneme
a) The coentral pair is two complete microtubules connected
by a cm bridge and surrounded by a central sheath
 b) Each of nine outer pairs of doublets consits of a complete
subunit-A and an incomplete microtubule called Subunit-B,
which abuts on subunit-A
c) Projecting from subunit-A are hooked outer arm and an
angled inner arm : a radial spoke with a spoke heas also
projects from subunit-A toward the central sehath
d) The subunit-A outerand inner arms habe the adenosine
triphosphatase (ATPase) protein dynein
(2) Cilia bend as microtubules in the axoneme slide post one
another. The motion is driven by ATP hydrolysis caused by
dynein
2. Flagella are similiar to cilia ; however they are much longer.
Forexample, spermatozoa flagella are about 50 µm long. In
spermatozoa flagella, each othe outer doublet has a large, electrone-
dense outerfiber, which is absent in cilia. Outer fibers provide the
flagellum with rigidity.
B. Basal bodies and centrioles
1. Basal bodies. In ciliated epithelia, a basal body anchors each cilium to
the cells apical surface.
a. The arrangement of microtubules in basal bodies is similiar to the
arrangement in cilia however basal bodies have nine peripheral
triplets of microtubules rather than doublets and the ciliary central
doublet terminates where the cilia join the basal bodies
b. Striated bundles of fibers called rootlets anchor basal bodies to the
surroundingscytoplasm
2. Centrioles. Many cells have a perinuclear centrosome, which contains
a pair of centrioles
a. Centriles are paired during interphase. During cell division,
centrioles separate and migrate to the poles of the cell. Then,
centrioles form a microtubule-containing mitotic spindle that
moves chromosomes during mitosis.
b. Each centriole has nine peripheral microtubule triplets but lacks a
centralpair. It also has electron-dense pericentriolar satelites that
radiate away from the triplets like the vanes of a pinwheel
c. In ciliated epithelia, centrioles replicate and then become
concentrated in the apical epithelial surface. Centrioles probably
produce basal bodies, which, in turn, probably produce a ciliary
projection.

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
 A. Structure and function. Intermediate filaments are less well understood,
both structurally and functionally,than microtubules and microfilaments.
They are 10 nmin diameter, consisting of four or five protofilaments.
Intermediate filaments bind cytoskeletal elements such as microfilaments
to the plasma membrane.
B. Types of intermediate filaments. Although allintermediate filaments
appear similiar in the electron microscope, five types exist and each has a
district biochemical composition. Often, specific antisera ara used to
distinguish types of intermediate filaments.
1. Desmin filaments contain a protein called desmin, which has a
molecular wight 50-55 kD, desmin filaments are abudant in muscular
tissue, where they bind microfilaments to the plasma membrane.
2. Tonofilaments contain a protein family called keratin, which have
moleculer wights ranging from 40 to 65 kD tonofilaments are abudant
in many epithelial cells, especially radiating from desmosomes.
Keratin is the promasy protein in epidermal epithelial cells. When
extensively cross-linked, keratin produces a hydrophobic barrier in the
skin
3. Vimetin filaments are comprised of vimetin, a protein with a
moleculae weight of 50-54kD, vimetin is immunologically distict from
desmin and keratin. Vimetin filaments are a prominent component of
many meserichymally derived cells (e.g., fibroblast) and are abudant in
manytypes of differentiated cells
4. Neuro filaments are intermediate filaments in neurons
5. Glial filaments are intermediate filaments in glial cells.

MICROFILAMENTS

A. Structure, microfilaments are very long filaments with a diamert of

approxiamately 7 nm. they are composed of G-actin subunits arranged
end-to-end to produce F-actin. Actin is abudant in non-muscle
cells,typically accounting for 5%-10% of all cellular protein.
Microfilaments interact strongly with heavy meromyosin.
B. Location
1. The cortex of most cells is semi-regid because it contains a thick
bundle of microfilaments
2. Microvili and stereociliaproject from the apicalsurface of many
absorptive epithelial cells and contain many actin-rich microfilaments
3. The cleavege furrow during cytokinesis is rich in icrofilaments
4. Microfilaments are abudant in musclecells as the thin fillaments
C. Function
 Function. Microfilament contain actin,which interacts strongly with
myosin to generate the contractile force used in cell locomotion,
cytokinesis and movement of microvili

INTERACTION BETWEEN CYTOSKELETAL ELEMENTS

A. The cytoskeleton, in many cells, cytoplasmis an amalgam of microtubules,

intermediate filaments and microgilament linked together just as muscles,
bones, and ligaments are linked together in the entire body
B. Cytoskeletal function
a. Cytoskeletal elements are crucial for organelle translocation. Whwn
cell metabolice needs require that mitochondria moce from one part of
the cell to another, cytoskeletal elements coordinate the process
b. Cytoskeletal elements are crucial for cell movement. For example,
when a leukocyte moves cytoskeletal elements mediate tis locomotion
c. Coordinated cytoskeletal activity also produces muscle contraction
and, tuhs, gross deformation of organs and movement of the entire
organism. Table 5-1 contains a summaryod cytoskeletal elements and
their function

Structure Diameter Subunit Composition Function

Microtubule 24 nm α- and β- Hollow tube Cell motility,
tubulin consisting of Chromosome
13 movement,
protofilaments ciliary beating,
cell shape
maintenance
Intermediate 10 nm Desmin, Hollow tube Integration of
Filament Keratin,vimetin with 4-5 contractile units
protofilaments in muscle,
cytoskeletal
integration
innon-muscle
tissue
Microfilament 7-9 nm G-actin Solid thread of Muscle
polymerized contraction,
G-actin to changen in cell
form F-actin shape,cytokinese,
cytoplasmic
streaming