COGNITIVE CODE LEARNING

The era of audiolingualism, with its emphasis on surface shapes and the scientifically generated practice
of memorizing patterns, began to wane as Chomsky's revolution in linguistics turned linguists and
language teachers towards "structure in" language. Increasing interest in generative transformational
grammar and focusing on the rule-governed nature of language and language has led some language
teaching programs to promote a deductive approach rather than ALM inductivity. Cognitive code
learning is not a method because it is an approach that emphasizes awareness of the rules and their
applications for second language learning. It was a reaction to the strict ALM behavioral practices, and
ironically, a return to some Grammar Translation practices.

DESIGNER" METHODS OF THE SPIRITED 1970S

The decade of the 1970s is historically significant in two ways. First, perhaps over another decade in the
history of "modern" language teaching, the rescue of second language learning and teaching grew from
a branch of linguistics into a separate discipline. The research carried out by designer methods has
enabled us today to incorporate certain elements of it in our current communicative approaches to
language teaching. Let's take a look at five products from this vibrant 1970s:

1. Community Language Learning

In the 1970s, as we became increasingly aware of the importance of the affective realm, several
innovative methods became very affective. Community Language Learning is a classic example of an
affective based method.

2. Suggestopedia

Other new methods of the decade are less stringent than CLL. Suggestopedia, for example, is a method
taken from the assumption of Bulgarian psychologist Georgi Lozanov (1979) that the human brain can
process large amounts of matter if given the right conditions for learning, including a state of relaxation
and surrender.

3. The Silent Way Like

Like the suggestopedia, the Silent Path rests on more cognitive than affective arguments for its
theoretical viability. While Caleb Gattegno, its founder, is said to be interested in a "humanistic"
approach (Chamot & McKeon 1984: 2) to education, much of the Silent Way is characterized by a
problem-solving approach to learning. Richards and Rodgers (1986: 99) summarize the learning theory
behind the Silent Way:

- Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remem- bers and repeats what is
to be learned.
- Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.

- qLearning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.

4. Total Physical Response

James Asher (1977), developer of Total Physical Response (TPR), actually started experimenting with TPR
in the 1960s, but it was almost a decade before this method was widely discussed in professional circles.
Today TPR, with simplicity as its most attractive aspect, Gouin designed his Scries Method on the
premise that language associated with a series of simple actions would be easily defended by the
learner. So, although the idea of constructing a language teaching method based on the principle of
psychomotor association is not new, it is this idea that Asher took advantage of in developing TPR. TPR
combines a number of other insights into its reasons.

5. The Natural Approach

Stephen Krashen's (1982, 1997) theory of second language acquisition has been widely discussed and
hotly debated over the years. The main methodological branches of Krashen victims are manifested in
the Natural Approach, developed by one of Krashen's colleagues, Tracy Terrel (Krashen & Terrell 1983).
In some cases, a second language is studied for spoken communication; in other cases for written
communication; and elsewhere there may be an academic emphasis on, say, listening to a lecture,
speaking in a classroom context, or writing a research paper again. The Nature Approach is aimed at the
goals of basic personal communication skills, namely, conversation in everyday language situations,
shopping, listening to the radio, and the like.

BEYOND METHOD: NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUSES

Since the innovative methods of the 1970s were touted by some and criticized by many, some of the
significant foundations for future growth that were being laid soon became popularly known as the
functional-functional syllabus. What began with the work of the Council of Europe (Van EK & Alexander
1975) and was later followed by various interpretations of the "Notional" syllabus (Wilkins 1976), the
functional-functional syllabus (hereinafter referred to as the distinguishing Characteristics of the NFS is
its attention to functions as clustering of circles). English curriculum, and in contrast to a structural
syllabus where a grammatical structure is presented as a committee.Reacting to overly attended
methods of grammatical form, NFS focuses strongly - and in some of its interpretations, exclusively - on
the pragmatic goals we employ. As such, it is not a method at all. It is close to what we might call an
"approach" but it is focused more specifically on curricular structures than on true approaches. "Ideas,"
according to Van EK and Alexander (1975), are both general and specific.

OR YOUR FURTHER READING

Anthony, Edward. 1963. "Approaches, methods and techniques." Teaching English 17: 63-67.
 In this important article, Anthony explains and provides examples of three title terms. The method is
seen, perhaps for the first time, guided by and built on solid theoretical foundations. The definition has
been valid to this day in informal pedagogical terniinology.

Richards, Jack and Rodgers, Theodore. 1982. "Methods: Approaches, designs, procedures." TESOL
Quarter 16: 153-68.

The authors redefined Anthony's original conception of the terms by seeing "method" as a generic term
covering approach, design, and procedure. A full description of the terms is offered and samples are
provided. This article also appears as a chapter in Richards and Rodgers (1986).

Richards, Jack and Rodgers, Theodore. 1986. Approaches and Methods of Language Teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This book provides a useful overview of the different methods in rubrics of the approaches that support
them, the course designs that make use of them, and the classroom procedures (techniques) that make
them happen.

Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen. 1997. "The place of second language acquisition theory in language teacher
preparation." At Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen and Hartford, Beverly. 1997. Beyond Methods: Components
of Second Language Teacher Education. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pages 18-41.

Since an understanding of the history of language teaching also implies the importance of locating
second language acquisition research, this section offers a useful bridge from research to practical
pedagogical problems in language classrooms.