1
Energy Efficient Buildings based on Occupants
Behaviour: A survey
Fahim Ahmed1 , Sheraz Aslam1 , Muhammad Hassan Rahim1 and Nadeem Javaid1,∗
1 COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
∗ Corresponding author: www.njavaid.com, nadeemjavaidqau@gmail.com
Abstract—Residential buildings consume significant energy
and play a key role in increasing demand all over the world. The
major sources of energy consumption in buildings are heating,
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system, lighting and
plug loads. The concerns have been raised over balancing the
demand and supply, occupants comfort and rapid depletion of
energy resources. Therefore, an efficient utilization of energy is
an essential component in buildings to cope with these challenges.
In this work, an extensive survey is carried out on state-of-the-
art work for occupants comfort management and efficient energy
utilization. The main areas under consideration include indoor
environmental comfort, energy optimization, computational al-
gorithms, control strategies, energy consumption sectors, energy
sources and simulation tools.
Index Terms—Energy Efficient Buildings, Smart Grid, Smart
Buildings
I. BACKGROUND
With an exponential increase in utilization of energy re-
sources, the world’s primary energy resources are at the brink
of depletion. Buildings sector consume up to 40% of total
energy in developed countries [1] and responsible for 30%
of CO2 emissions. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems are the major sources of energy consumption
in buildings. The emissions of CO2 , the dearth of energy
resources and economic concerns demanding an efficient
utilization of buildings’ energy with an optimal control of
occupants’ comfort.
People usually spend about 90% of their time in buildings.
The primary objective of building energy and comfort manage-
ment (BECM) system is to achieve and maintain occupants’ in-
door environmental comfort while alleviating the use of energy
at the time of building operations. Indoor comfort is the key
component in buildings so as to preserve occupants’ health,
productivity, working efficiency and gratification. Generally,
indoor environmental comfort parameters: thermal, visual,
plug loads, air quality and humidity are considered in BECM
systems.
Thermal comfort is a state of mind in which occupants’
satisfaction with respect to thermal environment is expressed
[2]. The transfer of heat between human body and its surround-
ing significantly affects the degree of thermal comfort. Visual
Comfort is the measure of maintaining desired illuminance
level inside a specific zone. Whereas, plug loads are the end-
use energy utilizing devices other than HVAC and lightning
loads [3]. Pollution-free air and presence of water vapours in
indoor environment are also the metrics of occupants’ comfort.
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Authors in [4] investigated dynamic and adaptive models for
energy optimization. Besides dynamicity, consumers’ satisfac-
tion is also analyzed. Results of the survey demonstrate that
40% of energy can be saved for both HVAC and lightening
control loads. Moreover, significant attention is given to user
preferred control as well as occupancy based control. By
utilizing the modern information and communication technolo-
gies, the proposed model is more reliable and computationally
efficient.
In [5], indoor environmental comfort parameters of building
along with energy conservation are reviewed at large scale.
Computational algorithms are widely demonstrated so as to
optimize the performance of buildings. Moreover, various
control mechanisms and simulations tools are discussed in
detail.
II. O PTIMIZATION O BJECTIVES
Authors in [6] mainly focus on the operation of HVAC, as
it directly affects consumers productivity and indirectly affects
energy conservation. The main purpose of the proposed work
is to optimize the energy consumption and occupants’ thermal
comfort.
In [7], Christos et al. developed a concept of grid connected
microgrids which mainly depend on photovoltaic source. The
ultimate objective of the presented model is the minimization
of energy consumption cost and thermal comfort of consumers.
The cost is minimized by utilizing maximum renewable en-
ergy and minimum grid energy, moreover optimal control of
thermal load based on occupancy pattern reduces significant
energy consumption cost. A model comprises of peak demand
reduction and short-term energy prediction is presented in [8].
The minimization of peak energy consumption is achieved by
maintaining peak load with in a predefined limit. Moreover,
users activities are analysed so as to forecast short-term power
demand.
The optimization of thermal comfort is considered as a
primary objective function in [9], as thermal comfort is a core
component while describing the operation of HVAC system.
The proposed paradigm aims to learn user thermal comfort
profile, so as to control the HVAC operation by providing
and maintaining the occupants thermal preferences. Besides
maximizing the thermal comfort, energy conservation is also
achieved.
Authors of [10], [11] presented their models with an ob-
jective of maximizing users satisfaction while keeping the

total budget with in predefined limits. Electrical appliances
are taken under consideration. Based on user satisfaction
index and cost associated with each appliance, an optimal
consumption pattern for appliances are determined. Authors
in [3] devised a model to reduce the peak demand via optimal
control of consumers load. Cooling, lightning and plug loads
are considered as major sources of energy consumption. The
occupants preferences are taken under consideration while
controlling and managing the end-use loads. Cooling set
points, illuminance level and shedding and shifting of loads are
optimally adjusted while respecting the peak demand reduction
and occupants preferences.
In [12], the synchronization between energy supply and
demand is achieved with an objective of maintaining occupants
thermal comfort. Moreover, a robust and scalable optimization
model is achieved. A model is presented in [13] that aims to
maximize thermal comfort and minimize energy consumption.
Thermal comfort at end-use is maintained by automatically
adjusting the temperature set points of HVAC system. [14]
and [15] proposed a model for efficient utilization of energy
while respecting the thermal comfort of consumers.
III. C ONTROL S TRATEGIES
In [6], programmable communicating thermostat (PCT) is
used to control the operation of HVAC system. Intelligent PCT
is capable of learning and adapting the occupants preferences
so as to optimally adjust the HVAC set points.
In order to maintain occupants thermal comfort, a pro-
active control strategy is adapted in [7]. P. Cottone et al.
in [8] presented a user activity tracking model to limit the
energy consumption with in a predefined threshold. The model
uses energy demand optimizer to maintain peak energy de-
mand within limits. Thermal comfort and energy saving is
efficiently addressed in [9] by using fuzzy predictive model
and complementary decentralized control strategy respectively.
Genetic algorithm (GA) is used as an optimization technique
to optimally handle user satisfaction and cost [10]. Integrated
automation control strategy is presented in [3] to control
three types of loads. Energy management system (EMS) is
a core component which co-ordinates the end-use devices to
the main Energyplus module. The EMS sensors obtain the
environmental information about thermal comfort, illuminance
light level, and plug loads operation. This information becomes
the input to EMS controller and appropriate action is taken
against each comfort parameter.
Two level supervisory control strategy is developed in [12]
with the aim of minimizing energy consumption cost and
thermal discomfort of a microgrid. At lower level, local control
strategy is applied for measuring the dynamic parameters of a
building, and at second stage the centralized control strategy
is employed to monitor and update the local controllers so as
to reduce the energy cost and occupants thermal discomfort.
In [13], an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system and par-
ticle swarm algorithm is proposed to determine the thermal
comfort set points. Feedforward-feedback control and self-
tuning control are implemented to maintain thermal comfort of
the building. in The model predictive control (MPC) strategy
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2
based on feedforward artificial neural network is proposed in
[14] so as to control the comfort parameters. As the proposed
control strategy is capable of coping with non-linearities with
the provision of accuracy.
Model predictive control design based on dynamic thermal
sensation is used in [15]. Two types of MPC strategies are
implemented, namely chance constrained based MPC control
and rule based-PI control.
IV. C OMFORT M ANAGEMENT T ECHNIQUES AND
A LGORITHMS
Azim keshtkar et al. [6] developed rule-based expert systems
to learn the user behavior and predict consumers preferences.
Rule-based algorithms are embedded into programmable com-
municating thermostat (PCT) to control the operation of heat-
ing, HVAC system. Knowledge base maintains the information
about house parameters, user preferences, electricity prices,
operation mode (heating / cooling) of HVAC and temperature
set points. The rule-based system utilizes this information from
knowledge base to predict user pattern. If any change in user
behavior is detected, then rules are updated in knowledge base.
When a change is detected for the first time, this change is
treated as prediction error. When same change is detected
for three times, then rules are updated in knowledge base.
These rules are used for decision making to control HVAC
operation. Authors in [7] proposed parameterized cognitive
adaptive optimization (PCAO) algorithm to control HVAC set
points and fan speed. The PCAO algorithm is formulated
to minimize the performance index containing the building
thermal state and HVAC set points. Authors used Hamilton
Jacobi Bellman (HJB) equation to check the optimal electricity
management system (EMS) strategy.
Authors in [8] utilized data mining approach to learn the
user behavior for energy usage. There are different phases
for user activity model building and training. First of all,
preprocessing is performed on input data from sensors. In
preprocessing step event templates are generated from sensors
input data. This event template is then analyzed for discovering
frequent patterns, and alphabet symbols are assigned to these
patterns. Then the preprocessed data is forwarded to activity
model builder (AMB) which provides model of most common
user activities. Activity recognizer and tracker (ART) uses this
data for online recognition. Based on predicted user activities,
users’ plan and energy demand provided by energy demand
simulator (EDS), energy demand optimizer (EDO) provides
an optimal energy plan.
Fuzzy predicative model is presented in [9] to enhance
thermal comfort. The model integrates occupants personalized
thermal profile into thermal HVAC control logic. In learning
phase, occupant set their preferences for different tempera-
ture ranges. Thermal preference index (TPI) denotes different
preferences for occupants thermal preferences. The underlying
patterns in data is discovered by using fuzzy pattern mining
approach. These patterns in data are used to generate the
occupants comfort profile. This comfort profile associated with
location is used to control indoor temperature in each zone. To
enhance occupant comfort, the algorithm minimizes the sum
of deviations from occupants preferred temperature.

Authors in [10] applied genetic algorithm to enhance user
satisfaction for electrical appliances within user defined bud-
get. Satisfaction index for each electrical appliance is provided
showing user satisfaction level for operating an appliance at
any specific time slot. The algorithm start working by selecting
an appliances and then determines the hour of maximum user
satisfaction. The algorithm proceeds until all appliances are
scheduled.
R. Yang and L. Wang developed a multi-agent system
(MAS) for occupants comfort management [16]. Three kinds
of agents are utilized to manage thermal comfort in a building
including central agent, local agent and personal agent. Local
agent interacts with sensors to receive environmental data
whereas personal agents collects occupants behavior infor-
mation. Central agent interacts with both, local and personal
agents. Agent system configuration and collaboration between
local agents are the major functions of central agent. Central
agent manages the operation of local agents by using agent
system configuration service. It also provides communication
and collaboration platform for local agents. Central agent also
acts as a negotiator to resolve conflict between agents based
on predefined rules.
In paper [17], authors proposed a control lighting comfort
based on occupants activity. The occupancy information of
the room is collected through passive infrared (PIR) motion
sensors. Light sensors are deployed to capture the light inten-
sity in a room. Occupant manually switch on the lights when
luminance falls the desired level. From the collected data, set
points are determined to control light intensity in a room.
Authors in [18] applied mixed integer nonlinear programming
(MINLP) for cost minimization and user comfort maximiza-
tion. The algorithm takes pricing signal, indoor and outdoor
temperature user preferences and weather condition as input.
Different parameters are considered for underfloor heating and
cooling model like walls insulation, heat loss, circulation loss
and buffer radiation loss.
An intelligent facade based approach for visual comfort is
proposed in [19]. Different rules are defined to control lighting
intensity and transparency. Rules 1-3 validate lighting and
transparency (LAT) comfort. In LAT validation, window size
and orientation, shading devices and walls insulation. Rules 4-
6 validate sophistication and electricity usage. In these rules,
schedules are prepared of load usage and light sensor position
is adjusted. Then the type of shading devices is checked to
add shading control. Authors used daylight glare index (DGI)
to validate the performance of their proposed model.
Authors in [20] proposed fuzzy approach for modelling of
users preferences. Membership functions (MF) are utilized for
model thermal comfort, visual comfort and indoor air and
indoor air quality. 3D fuzzy set is applied for the modelling of
comfort. The MF of 3D fuzzy set is calculated by finding the
distance between vectors. GA is used for the tuning of fuzzy
controller-agent (FCA). The chromosome in GA is binary
coded vector whose bits define the fuzzy logic controller.
Performance of the proposed algorithm is measured in terms
of percentage of people dissatisfied (PPD).
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3
V. ACTIVITIES C ONSIDERED FOR C OMFORT AND
E NERGY M ANAGEMENT
Different activities have been considered in literature to
enhance user thermal and visual comfort. These activities
include real-time occupancy, user preferences prediction and
users status (active or inactive status).
A. Real-Time Occupancy Information
Occupancy sensors are deployed to check real-time occu-
pancy of user, which confirms the presence or absence of
occupants [6]. This occupancy information is then utilized
to control the operation of HVAC. Beside occupancy infor-
mation, occupants preferences and electricity prices are also
considered for maintaining the room temperature. Authors
in [7] considered percentage of occupants present in rom
for controlling temperature of a room. Percentage of people
present in room is quantified from 0 to 10, where 0 indicates
that room is empty and 10 indicates that room is fully
occupied. Based on this occupancy information, the controller
adjusts the HVAC set points and fan speed. Z. Nagy et al. [17]
considered user occupancy to control the lighting operation
of a building. Authors applied ON/OFF control mechanism
to adjust luminance level of a room based on consumers
preferences.
B. User Activities Prediction
In [8] authors used three different data sets for training of
their model. These data sets contain different users activities
which corresponds to the operations of different appliances.
These activities include hand washing, meal preparation,
cleaning, eating and medication use and telephone use. The
association between appliances and activities are: hob, stove,
microwave oven and kettle are associated with meal prepara-
tion, vacuum cleaner is associated with cleaning, lamp has an
association with telephone use and associated appliance with
hand washing is instantaneous water heater. Hidden Markov
model (HMM) based activity recognizer first recognizes the
occupants activities and then starts the operation of associated
appliance. Authors in [9] used location based comfort profile
for the settings of HVAC operation. Each thermal zone has its
own associated thermal profile which maintains user preferred
set points for each thermal zone. In [16], authors used artificial
neural network (ANN) for training their model. In this work,
the identification of a specific person and his preferences are
also considered instead of all occupant in a building. Moreover,
to control the operation of lighting and HVAC operation, the
number of occupants is also considered. A.I. Dounis et al. used
light luminance and outdoor temperature to control lighting
and carbon dioxide intensity in a room based on user behavior.
C. Other Activities
Authors in [10], [11] used appliances operational time
information and associated satisfaction level with appliances
operation. Each appliance has its own starting time and
associated satisfaction level for the operation of appliance,
 4

TABLE I: Optimization objectives and control strategies (1.Thermal Comfort:TC, 2.Visual Comfort:VC)
Reference Indoor Comfort Parameters Energy Control Strategy

TC VC Plug Loads
[3]    - Integrated automation control
[6]  - - - Programable Communicating Thermostat
[7]  - - - Pro-Active control
[8]  - -  Predictive control
[9]  - -  Complementary decentralized control
[10] - -  - ON/OFF
[12]  - -  Two level supervisory control
[13]  - -  Feedforward feedback and self tuning control
[14]  - -  Model predictive control
[15]  - -  Model predictive control
[16]   - - Agent based control
[17] -   - Adaptive control scheme
[18]  -   Load scheduling based control scheme
[19] -  -  Adaptive control scheme
[20]   -  Fuzzy control scheme

TABLE II: Energy sources and simulation tools

Reference Energy Source(s) Sector(s) Simulation Tool(s)
[6] Main Grid Residential MATLAB GUI
[7] Main Grid,Microgrid Residential,Commercial,Industrial EnergyPlus
[8] Main Grid Residential -
[9] Main Grid Commercial HBI-TC frame work
[10] Main Grid residential -
[11] Main Grid residential Matlab
[3] Main Grid Commercial EnergyPlus
[12] Main Grid,Microgrid Office,residential,Commercial EnergyPlus, TRNSYS
[13] Main Grid Commercial -
[14] Main Grid Industrial EnergyPlus and MPC
[15] Main Grid Residential -
[16] Micro Grid Commercial -
[17] Main grid Commercial -
[18] Microgrid Residential GAMS with cplex solver

which is used for scheduling of the appliances. Indoor and out-
door temperatures, building structure, hot water demand and
circulation losses are considered for maintaining occupants
comfort [18]. Authors categorized the load into time-shiftable
and temperature-shiftable load. Time-shiftable appliances can
delay their operation to another time while considering users
preferences, whereas temperature-shiftable appliances operate
for a long period of time and can be interrupted to change their
temperature within an acceptable temperature range. Authors
in [19] considered geometrical and non-geometrical parame-
ters to enhance visual comfort. The geometrical parameters
include window size, orientation and shading devices whereas
non-geometrical parameters include walls insulation, HVAC
and infiltration rate.
VI. E VALUATION C RITERIA
Authors in [6] considered cost, temperature and energy
conservation in order to evaluate the performance of their
proposed model. In [7] authors have considered predicted
percentage of people dissatisfied (PPD), robustness and con-
vergence speed to evaluate the performance of their proposed
model. Authors also considered the performance of their model
with rule-based controllers. Cost and energy conservation
are taken as performance parameters in [8]. Authors tested
the performance of their model on three different data sets:
adlnormal, aruba and kast. Results show the worst performance
on aruba because of the presence of many unlabeled triggers.
Air flow and average room temperature are taken to evaluate
the performance of proposed human-building interface (HBI)
[9]. Authors divided the office building into different zones,
where each zones has its own preferences. Three zones of
the buildings were used to validate the performance of pro-
posed framework. User electricity bill and satisfaction within
predefined budget is considered as performance parameter
[10]. Authors also analyzed their proposed technique for three
budget scenarios and also analyzed cost per unit satisfaction
with respect to budget and percentage of satisfaction versus
budget. Hourly cumulative satisfaction is also calculated to
evaluated the performance of proposed technique.
R. Yang and L. Wang built a relationship between thermal
comfort and user satisfaction [16]. Different satisfaction levels
are associated with different thermal comfort points and the
relationship between user satisfaction and thermal comfort is
shown by gaussian curve. Authors also analyzed the relation-
ship between user comfort and indoor temperature. Authors
in [17], [19] evaluated their proposed model by using energy
saving, time delay and illuminance threshold as performance
parameters. Different illuminance set points are defined to
maintain visual comfort for room occupants.
In [18], authors considered cost and user discomfort in
order to analyze the performance of their proposed model.

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 5

TABLE III: User activities considered in state-of-the-art work R EFERENCES

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control infrastructure for buildings. In this survey, various
optimization algorithms and control strategies are presented to
increase the efficiency of buildings in terms of indoor environ-
mental comfort and energy savings. Moreover, simulation tools
along with energy consumption sectors are briefly discussed.
Users’ activities and energy resources are also described.

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