LESSON 1

BRAINSTORMING FOR RESEACH TOPIC

LECTURE 1

WHAT IS INQUIRY?

- An inquiry is carried out systematically to bring about new ideas, concepts, technologies, and products
for practical. An inquiry entails five major elements as illustrated below. Research emanates from a
simple situation, a hypothesis, a problem, or a mere observation that requires a factual answer. The
driving force to do any research undertaking involves generation of new information and plausible
solution. These basically would lead you to ask why, when, who, what, where, and how.

INQUIRY

- HYPOTHESIS

- STRATEGIZE

- MOBILIZE

- SYNTHESIS

- PUBLICIZE

An inquiry is carried out systematically to bring about new ideas, concepts, technologies, and products
for practical. An inquiry entails five major elements as illustrated below. Research emanates from a
simple situation, a hypothesis, a problem, or a mere observation that requires a factual answer. The
driving force to do any research undertaking involves generation of new information and plausible
solution. These basically would lead you to ask why, when, who, what, where, and how.
LECTURE 2

THE RESEARCH

What is RESEARCH?

- Research is a study on investigation which is done systematically, empirically, scientifically, and

logically for the purpose of achieving knowledge and helping solve situational problems.

- Research is a stepping stone to scientific and technological advancement.

- Research could: 

• Validate a hypothesis or a theory which leads to an increase in knowledge and to development

• Provide solutions to problems through new, technological applications and development or

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROCESS

Systematic 

-well defined designs, an orderly procedure

Empirical 

- measurable and observable things or phenomenon that you can put in print on the bases of your sense

Scientific 

- can be tested

Logical

- justifiable and acceptable by reason

 PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH

 1. Discover new knowledge

 2. Help solve situational problem

SYSTEM FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH

INPUT = PROCESS = OUTPUT

INPUT - Skills and abilities necessary in conducting Research / Scientific Investigation

OUTPUT - Theories/ Principles Pure/ Basic Research Solutions to Problems Social Responsibility

CRITICAL RESEARCHER

- has the "3rd EYES", seeks the truth from what he reads, does not take them hook line and sinker, does
not jump into conclusions. Treat opinions as opinion.
LECTURE 3

BRAINSTORMING FOR RESEARCH TOPICS

Begin with a TOPIC in mind

"TOPIC must be RELEVANT, SIGNIFICANT, FEASIBLE"

BIG IDEAS FOR BRAINSTORMING

The following will help you find the right topic for your research:
1. Scheduling
2. Team teaching
3. Evaluation of learning, reporting to parents
4.Student regulations
5. Learning Style
6. Peer Tutoring
7. Field Trips
8. School Facilities
9. Extracurricular Programs
10, Uses of ICT instructions
11. Stress Management
12. Guidance Counselling Programs, etc.

TOPIC IDENTIFICATION

Key Questions:

1. What do I know about the topic?

2. What should I know about the topic?
3. What do previous studies say about my chosen topic?
LESSON 2

IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM AND ASKING THE QUESTION

LECTURE 1
SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING A PROBLEM

What are the specific considerations in choosing a problem?

--- WORKABILITY -----

- Is it within the limit and range of your resource and time constraints?
- Will you have access to the number of samples required?
- Is there reason to believe that you can come up with the answers to the problem?
- Is the required methodology manageable and understandable?

------ CRITICAL MASS ------

- Is the problem sufficient in magnitude and scope (are there enough variables and
potential results?

---------- INTEREST --------

- Are you interested in the problem?
- Does it relate to your career interest?

-------- THEORETICAL VALUE -------

- Does the problem fill gap in the literature?
- Will it contribute to the advancement in your field?
- Does it improve the " state of the art "?

---------- PRACTICAL VALUES --------

- Will the solution to the problem improve practice?
- Are practitioners likely to be interested in the results?
- Will the findings aid he managers in making sound decisions? 
- Will the system be changed by the outcome?
LECTURE 2

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Situational Problem
- See Experience
- PERCEPTION
- OBSERVE 
HEAR
 READ
FEEL
- Meaningful sensation of the condition in the environment that bothers you and which
you alone cannot solve.

• Research Problem
- Situation in the Environment
- SOCIAL 
POLITICAL
 PHYSICAL
  ECONOMIC
   RELIGIOUS/MORAL
- The SOURCE of SITUATIONAL PROBLEM

A research problem may arise from specific situation or occurrence requiring thorough
and conscientious effort prior to solution. Your research problem must have novelty and
significant impact, and must be innovative and relevant. Searching for relevant literature
allows you to expand your ideas on a specific research topic.

A research problem is a scientific investigation of the different dimensions associated

with the situational problem involving 2 or more factors or variables.

"The research problem is just a part of the whole pie. It Investigates two or more
variables, particularly, how these variables are related."

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM

This introductory page acquaints the reader with the problem to be dealt with. This
orientation is best accomplished by providing rationale or background. The background
intends to draw clearer picture of what you want to say. It describes clearly, colorfully,
and vividly the problem situation which serves as the rationale of the study. Also:
- It is the representation of the concept of the study in a very effective manner
- It must be a loaded statement that would drive an impact to emote interest from the
reader.
- It must include an assumption of significance.
- It must be simple, clear, specific and related to the topic.
- It presents in details the problem situation based on what you.

• SEE and OBSERVE

- Happenings
- Events
- Phenomenon
- Personal Experience
- Records of Critical Incidents

• HEAR
- Lectures/speeches
- Radio and TV broadcasting
- Conversations
- Interviews
- Records of Opinions, Position Values

• READ
- Newspaper
- Journal
- Books
- Reports and Monographs

The purpose of the background is to highlight the need for the study by presenting what
is happening at present and what ought to be using the data that the researcher has
gathered.

It identifies the area in which the problem is to be found, and points out that the problem
had not been fully studied. 
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This deals with the key concept and related literature underlying the framework that
guides the study. The purpose of this is to:
- To expand the context and background of the study
- To help further define the problem
- To provide an empirical basis for the subsequent development/ formulation of
hypothesis.

The initial step is to identify the key variables of the study. This refers to the
INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT AND MODERATOR VARIABLES to be investigated.

The second step is to look for the definitions of the variables. For the dependent
variable the following should be done:
1. Define the variable (universal definition)
2. Describe its characteristics and indicators
3. Discuss its importance (how it affects other variable) and how it is affected by other
variables (independent variables)

For the independent variable, define and describe its characteristics and indicators.
Discuss its effect on the dependent variable on the basis of the review of related
literature and studies. The same should be done for the moderator variables.

The discussion should be point out how the previous studies relate to the present
investigation by highlighting their similarities and differences. More importantly, it must
include some relevant theories and concepts that help in the development of the
present study.

Organizing the literature review section by subheadings makes it easier for the
researcher to follow. To be meaningful, this subheading should reflect the variables and
their relationship.

We should remember that the purpose of the literature review is to provide a basis for
the formulation of hypothesis.

The conceptual framework is summarized or synthesized into a logical network of

relationship of the key concepts or variables involved in the study. This is further
simplified by presenting a research paradigm or hypothetical illustration of the
relationship of variables and their corresponding indicators.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS (for quantitative research)

WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS?
- The hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some evidence. This is
the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into a
prediction. It includes components like variables, population, and the relation between
the variables. A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship
between two or more variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
Following are the characteristics of hypothesis:
- The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
- If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship
between variables.
- The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
- The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Following are the sources of hypothesis:

- The resemblance between the phenomenon.
- Observations from past studies, present-day experiences, and from the competitors.
- Scientific theories.
- General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:
- Simple hypothesis
- Complex hypothesis
- Directional hypothesis
- Non-directional hypothesis
- Null hypothesis
- Associative and casual hypothesis
1. SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent
variable. For example - If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here,
eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent
variable.

2. COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more
independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing
skin, reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure,
and some cancers.

3. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The
relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children
aged four years eating proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels
than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of effect.

4. NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists
between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.

5. NULL HYPOTHESIS
It provides the statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It's a negative statement,
and there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol
is denoted by "HO".

6. ASSOCIATIVE AND CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS

Associative hypothesis occurs When there is a change in one variable resulting in a
change in the other variable. Whereas, Causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect
interaction between two or more variables.

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS
Following are the examples of hypothesis based on their types:
- Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a simple
hypothesis.
- All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null hypothesis.
- If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps less.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis:
- Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.
- It becomes the start point for the investigation.
- Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
- It helps in directing the inquiries in the right directions.

HOW WILL HYPOTHESIS HELP IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD?

Researchers use the hypothesis to put down their thoughts directing how the
experiment would take place. Following are the steps that are involved in the scientific
method:
- Formation of Question
- Doing background research
- Collection of Data
- Creation of Hypothesis
- Designing an Experiment
- Result Analysis
- summarizing the experiment
- communicating the result

approaches for developing hypothesis

There are two approaches for developing hypothesis:

DEDUCTION - starts from generalization or theory by logical deduction

 INDUCTION - starts from observation, opinions to generalizations.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A problem statement is usually one or two sentences to explain the problem your
process improvement project will address. In general, a problem statement will outline
the negative points of the current situation and explain why this matters. It also serves
as a great communication tool, helping to get buying and support from others. *
One of the most important goals of any problem statement is to define the problem
being addressed in a way that's clear and precise. Its aim is focus the process
improvement team's activities and steer the scope of the project.

A problem statement must have the following characteristics:

1. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly, unambiguously and usually in question form.
3. It should be possible to collect data to answer the question asked.
4. It should not represent a moral or ethical position.
If you do not have the data to hand, defer writing the final problem statement until you
have been able to quantify the problem. You should be able to apply the 5 'W's (Who,
What, Where, When and Why) to the problem statement.

A problem statement can be refined as you start to further investigate root cause.
Finally, review your new problem statement against the following criteria:
- It should focus on only one problem.
- It should be one or two sentences long.
- It should not suggest a solution.

One or two sentences will normally suffice to state the problem. Often statement begins
as follows:
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between... (state the variables,
locale and time as the case maybe).

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Definition of terms is an alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms that you define,
particularly ambiguous terms or those used in a special way.

Your thesis proposal will likely include terms that are not widely known outside of your
discipline. These terms include particular theoretical constructs, formulas, operational
definitions that differ from colloquial definitions, schools of thought and discipline-
specific acronyms. This part of your proposal offers the reader a list of definitions of
these terms.

- How you define such terms could considerably affect how the reader understands your
thesis
- Be sure you use these terms in a consistent fashion throughout your proposal and
thesis
There are 3 approaches or types of constructing definitions. These arbitrarily labelled as
A, B, and C by Bruce Tuckman.

A type A definition can be constructed in terms of the operations that must be performed
to cause the phenomenon or state being defined to occur. "An intelligent child can be
defined operationally as the child produced by the marriage of above average,
intelligent couples."

A type B definition can be constructed in terms of how the particular object or thing
defined operates, that is what it does or what constitute its dynamic properties. Thus,
"An intelligent student can be operationally defined as a person who gets high grades in
school or a person who demonstrates capability for solving complicated mathematical
problems."

A type C definition can be constructed in terms of what the object or phenomenon being
defined looks like that is what constitutes its static properties. Thus, "An intelligent
student can be defined for instance a person who has a good memory, large
vocabulary, good reasoning ability, good mathematical skills, etc."

Ideally, the operational definition should contain three parts. The first part is its universal
meaning. The second part is how it is being used in the study. The third part is how it is
being measured.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

It is at this point that the researcher described who will benefit and what benefits can be
derived from the findings of the study. The writer, under this section, tries to sell its
importance to the panel or to the funding agency.

In simple terms, the significance of the study is basically the importance of your
research. The significance of a study must be stated in the Introduction section of your
research paper. While stating the significance, you must highlight how your research will
be beneficial to the development of science and the society in general. You can first
outline the significance in a broader sense by stating how your research will contribute
to the broader problem in your field and gradually narrow it down to demonstrate the
specific group that will benefit from your research.
While writing the significance of your study, you must answer questions like:

1. Why should your research be published?

2. How will this study contribute to the development of your field?

Example of Importance of the Study:

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will redound to the benefit of society considering that
mathematics plays an important role in science and technologies today. The greater
demand for graduates with mathematics background justifies the need for more
effective, life-changing teaching approaches. Thus, schools that apply the
recommended approach derived from the results of this study will be able to train
students botter. Administrators will be guided on what should be emphasized by
teachers in the school curriculum to improve students' performance in mathematics. For
the researcher (or researchers if it is a group study), the study will help them uncover
critical areas in the educational process that many researchers were not able to explore.
Thus, a new theory on learning mathematics may be arrived at.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This section tells the specific boundaries of the study by describing the place or venue
of the study, the population, subjects/respondents, time frame, the variables and their
indicators.

Any weakness of the study such as failure to use a more precise data gathering or
measuring instrument or failure to execute an important procedure due to certain
circumstances beyond the researcher's control form parts of the study's limitations.

The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area will be explored in
the work and specifies the parameters within the study will be operating.

Basically, this means that you will have to define what the study is going to cover and
what it is focusing on. Similarly, you also have to define what the study is not going to
cover. This will come under the limitations. Generally, the scope of a research paper is
followed by its limitations.

As a researcher, you have to be careful when you define your scope or area of focus.
Remember that if you broaden the scope too much, you might not be able to do justice
to the work or it might take a very long time to complete. Consider the feasibility of your
work before you write down the scope. Again, if the scope is too narrow, the findings
might not be generalizable.
Typically, the information that you need to include in the scope would cover the
following:

1. General purpose of the study

 2. The population or sample that you are studying
3. The duration of the study
4. The topics or theories that you will discuss 
5. The geographical location covered in the study

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED:

Upon reading this lesson, I have learned and knew the specific considerations in
choosing a problem. I have also knew the importance of background of the problem,
conceptual framework, research hypothesis (for quantitative research), statement of the
problem, definition of terms, importance of the study, scope and limitations of the study.

Now, I am ready to write the first part of my research...

LESSON 3
READING ON RELATED STUDIES

What is a literature review?

- A literature review is a survey of scholarly (such as books, journal articles, and theses)
related to a specific topic or research question.
- It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories,
methods, and gaps in the existing research.
- It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, in order to situate
your work in relation to existing knowledge.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research
project:
- To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
- To ensure that you're not just repeating what others have already done
- To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can
address
- To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
- To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing
research and what new insights it will contribute.

How to write a literature review?

Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as books and
journal articles), critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are five
key steps:

1. Search for relevant literature

2. Evaluate sources
3. Identify themes, debates and gaps
 4. Outline the structure
5. Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn't just summarize sources - it analyzes, synthesizes, and
critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.
Why write a literature review?

When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a
literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review
gives you a chance to:
- Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
- Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
- Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
- Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this
case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your
knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a
literature review follows the same steps.

Step 1: Search for relevant literature

- Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic. If you are
writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search
for literature related to your research problem and questions.

A. If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to
choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a
dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting
original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing
publications.

B. Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of
the key concepts or variables you're interested in, and list any synonyms and related
terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your
literature search.

C. Search for relevant sources.

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. When you find a useful book or
article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources. To identify the
most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same
authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.
You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar - a high
citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should cetainly be
included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the scences you
usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take along
historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning
over time).

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later
incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarim. It can be
helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full ctation information
and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you
remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free citation generator to quickly create correct and consistent APA
citations or MLA format citations.

" If you still from one outdoor it's plagiarism if you still from any it's a research "

Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps

To begin organizing your literature review's argument and structure, you need to
understand the connections and relationships between the sources you've read. Based
on your reading and notes, you can look for:
- Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become
more or less popular over time?
- Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
- Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
- Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the
direction of the field?
- Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be
addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable)
show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

STEP 4: OUTLINE YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW STRUCTURE

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review You should
have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these
strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is
discussed chronologically).

1. Chronological
- The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if
you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing souses in
order.
- Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction
of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

2. Thematic
- If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature
review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
- For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health
outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural
attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

3. Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research
methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that energe from
different approaches. For example:
- Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
- Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical
scholarship
- Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources
4. Theoretical
- A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to
discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
- You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine
various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Step 5: Write your literature review

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main
body, and a conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your
literature review,

A. Introduction
- The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

B. Body
- Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body
into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or
methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

- Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and
combine them into a coherent whole
- - Analyze and interpret: don't just paraphrase other researchers-add your own
interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the
literature as a whole
- Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
- Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw
connections, comparisons and contrasts.

C. Conclusion
- In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the
literature and emphasize their significance.