Introduction to GEOMETRY OT By the Same Author CROMETRY i a i iPreface 1 am gratetul tothe readers ofthe rat edition who have made suggestions {orimprovement. Apert fom some minor conertons, the principal change se a fllows The equation connecting the curvatures of four mutually tangent els, ov Loot atthe Deserts Cirle Thorens (p i paved along the Fines Suggested by Mr Beecroft on pp. 91-96 of “The Ladys and Gentleman's Diary forthe year of our Lord 1842, being the second after Bisex, de signod prinspaly fr fe gana aa satin of Skagen a Mo tates: comprising many useful and entertaining particulars, intresting 0 Allpertons engaged i at delightful pursuit Fo smarty the playa teatent (pp, 79-76) was ouggsated by ALL. Stper when he was sophomore at tne Universit’ of Toroto, For Smarty in space, a eiferat treatment (p. 103) way siggsted by Professor Marla Wonenburger. A new evercive on p90 snroduees che wet eonuept So imersve dice Another hac heen inserted om p. 127 to exhibit R KKeasnodgbek's drawings of symmetrical loxodromes. Pages 205-20 have Deon rose so 38 clay the treatment of apouies (ohich presren collinearity) and equlainion (which preseroe seen) The ‘ew material includes some chaleaging exercises. For the discovery of finite {fometrics(p. 237), credit has been given fo Yon Slauat, who antepated Fano by 36 years Page 395 records the completion, in 1968, by G. Ringel and J. W. T. ‘Youngs of project bein by Heswood in 1990. The result i hat we a0 Seno, for every kind of surface xcept the sphar (or pane), the minimal numberof colors that wll ufc for coloring every map on the surface. "Ansrs ate now given for practically al the exetlpes: 2 separate booklet ia no longer needed. One of the prtitot answer (p 453) wa kindly sup lied by Professor P. Suir of Budapest. HSM. CoxeterPreface to the first edition Forth lan hiny ony yet att Asians hove somehow" lst in terest in ezometrs, The present book coastictes an ailempt to revitalize this sadly neglected subject. he tour pars coreyponl vouphly Uke fous scar of ollgs work However moat of Pat I ci be read before Part i, and most of Part 1V before Pat IIL The ist eleven chapters (tha is Parts Tand 1) wil pro- Vide a course Tor students who bave soue huowindge of Dust and Imemtoty anlgtic genmetry ut have not et made up their minds to spe- ‘Gale in mathematics or for enterprising high schoolteachers who Wisk {Se what Is happening Just beyond tier usual wsicalum. Part TH dss ‘Sorte tountione af geometry insane projstive weometey and Byber- folic non Euclidean geometry.” Part TV datroduces diferent geometry. Combinatoncl topology and four-dimensional Fuclican geonety Tn spite of the lrg mumbor af era vfernces each of the Cent 80 chapters is easonablyself-comtained: any of them can be omitted on fst reading without spoiingone' enjoyment of the rest. For instants, Chaptes Taser8, De and 17 woald makes gond short course There are relevant Cheeies at the end of almost every section; the hardest of them are pro- ‘Sided with hints for their olution, (Answers to some of the exercises te TER ihe end ofthe books Aniwers to many af the remaining exrcises Ste provided in 4 separate booklet, availabe ftom the publisher upon re- {Guent)The unifying thread that rune through the whole work 1s te nea Sta poup of transformations ori a single word, symnerny ‘The castomary emphasis on analyc geometry is likely to give students the impression that geometry is merely & part of algebra or of analyss. It [s‘cteshing to observe thet there are come important instnoes (eich 8 the Arvand diagram described in Chapter 9) in which geometrical idea are ineded a8 csetial tools inthe development of these other branches of in his Erlanger Programm (Eslanuen program) o fet that, besides pane and solid Euclidean geometry, there are many other feouietiee lly won of atinon, Por notanse, many of Euc'sn ‘propositions belong to the wider Red of fine geometry, which i ald notsty in ninety spe bu alo ia Minkowski: apace time, 20 euecssilly voit by nse n his speci theory of reac. ‘Geometry btseful not only in algebra, analysand cosmology, bot also in Nieman tsseallopraphy Grhor se azocated with the theory of troupe in entities where finite geometries help in the design of exper- fren), and even in botany. TRE subject of topology (Chapter 2) has been {vedo widely tat nem stands on is wn foe ntend of Being re trod ye porto geomet: But it ils into the Erlangen program, and its Eur stages have the added appeal of fimous unsolved problem: that of ‘acing whether evry posible map can Be colored with four oles ‘The materia! pen” out of courses of lectures delivered at summer inst: tutes for schoolteachers and others at Stillwater, Oklahoma: Linenburg Nova Scotia; Ant Actus. Michigan, Stanford. Calionis, and Thode iton ‘New Renwick, alongwith several public Iectures sven tothe Friends of| Scripta Mathematica in New York City By imitation ofthe late Profesor Sekuthel Ginsburg The must popular Vf Uso sepusat Iuuies 39 the ‘ann the poles Section and pilots, whichis embodied in Chapter 1. ‘Apart from the general emphasis on the idea of transformation and on ‘me denrabity of spending some ume in such unusual environments 353 fine spc a shone space the chief novels are as follows: a simple treatment of the orthocenter (§ 1.6: th use of dominoes to iustrate sx of the seventeen space groupe of two-dimensional erytallograph9 (@ 8) 2 onsrection forthe invariant pont of a ilaton reflection (886). 4 dere fom ofthe general ice preserving transformation (867) and of the Sp Similanty (8 7.6 an “explanation” of pilots (§ 113), an “ordered nt of Syltstars problem (f 12.3}; an economical sstem af sions for afine geometry (§ 13.1); an “absolute” teatment of rotation groups (154): an elementary Weatment ofthe horosphere(§ 168) and ofthe ex- treme frwary quadntic for (f 184) the somrastion ofa prevalent eror oncerning the shape of the monkey sadle¢f 198): an application of peo ‘ese polar coordinates to the foundations of Myperbobc tigonomety (6204), the dassication of roglar maps om the sphere, projective plans, torus, and Klein bottle (f 23); and the suggestion of statistical Roney- comb (6225) Tor since thanks to MW. ALD J.J Burskhards, Werner Fea ‘hel L. M. Kell, Peter Scherk. and FA Sherk far ertaly reading various ‘chapes: also fo HG. Forde, Martin Gardner, and C. 1. Seiba for their lpn provieauing, te 8 1. Gould, J. . Litlewood, and J. L Synge for fpermisson tn-guote certain passages from ther published works. and 10 NEC Escher, I ittosser ad the Royal Society of Canada for permission {0 reproduce ie piste, HSM Coser Part | 1 TRANGIES, Li oid . 12. Primitive sonespis and axiins 13 Fontaine Ls The median an she centroid 15 The nee and the reumeircle 16. The Baler linc ond the orthocenter 17 The nine-pint ace Two extremum problems 13 Minigys denne 2. REGULAR POLYGONS 2 22 33 oa 35 7 2s Cylotomy ‘Angle trsction hhometey Symmetry Groups Te radu uf ow seetios “The kaleidoscope Star polygons Translation Glide retection Refsnes half tas ‘Summary of els on bometies Contents % 2% 2% et » 36 » a 3B36 a Hielmte's theorem Patterns on a stip 4 TWO.DIMENSIONAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 41 2 43 44 43 a Lattices and their Dirichlet egions The symmetry group ol the genetl latoce Six patterns of bricks ‘The eystllographic restriction Regular teselltton> Sylvester problem of collinear points |S SIIARITY IN THE EUCLIDEAN PLANE ay 52 3a 35 Dilatation (Centers of simitude ‘The invariant pot ofa sinilariy Diret silat Oppose sity 6 CRIES AMO snEnEs 63 7 69 Tnersion of ins and circles The inverave plane Contal ele ‘The circle of Apollonius Gielesreservingteansormations Teepe plane 7 SOMETRY ANO SUMILARITY IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE mW 2 4 5 ” Direc and opposite isometries 5 ‘The product of tree reetions Twist Dilsive rotation Sphere-preserving transformations 6 a 90 38 6 a o 0 n a ” » 2 % 96 0 io los Part Il st 3 86 87 {Caresun coordinates Dolor connate The circle “Tangent te length and aren Hyperbolic functions Theeangie pa 9 COMPLEX NUMBERS ot 92 34 95 36 97 Rational numbers Real numbers ‘The Argand dogo Modulus and amplitude ‘The formals oI Roots of equations Conformal transformations ° 10 THE AVE PLATONIC SOUDS tox 102 oa Toa 103 Pyramids, prisms, and antprsms Drawings and models Fle’ formal Rac and anges Reciprocal polyeara 11 THE GOLDEN SECTION AND PRYLLOTAXIS 12 "3 MS De divin proportion The golden spa ‘The Fibooaoe! numbers Phyllotanie Tr rm 5 as 150 19 Iss 10 162 ir toPort it 12 ORDERED GEOMETRY 1241 The extraction of two distinct geometries from Euclid 122. Invemediaey 19% Sjlvcters pole of calinae points 124. Planes and hyperplanes 123. Continuity 198 Parallelism 13 AFFINE GEOMETRY 181 Theasiom of palin snd the “Pecan 132. Dilottions 133. anmntes TE Raging 135. Two-dimensional lates 156 Vetors and exntroide 138 AMine space 139 ‘Threeaimensonalatuces 141 Axioms forme general projective plume 147. Prejative oodinnt 143 Desargues' theorem [43 Quadrangular and harmonic sts 146 Collineations and correlations JMS Projective space 49, uclidean space 15 ABSOLUTE GEOMETRY 184. Conaruence 152. Parallelism 154 Finite groups of rotations 153. Finite groups of Someutes (156 Geometcal rysallograpty 7s 75 m 18 10 i 191 wa 193 208 m2 2 20 2s 29 2a 261 263 268 2 20 m 157 The polphodral kaleidoscope IS8 Disetete groups generated by inversions 16 HYPERBOUC GEOMETRY 161 The Euctidean and hyperbolic axioms of parallelism 162. The question of consistency eS ne angle ot paalelism ‘The Fntenes of tangles 16S Area and angular detect, Yee. Css horses fd equsstnt curves 68 The horosphere andthe Euclidean plane Port 1V 17 OFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF CURVES 171 Vector n Eusidean space 172. Vector functions and thee derivatives 173 Convature, evoluss and involues| 11S. The actin 176 Twisted curves 129 The siealar he 178 The general helix 179 Theeoneho-spral 18.1 Dual bases 183. Reviroca ates Id Theeridea lati of a sphere 18S Genera eoordinats 186 The alteratine symbol 19 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF SURFACES 19.1 The use of two parameters oma surface 20 27 2st ass Ds 236 07 3k. aH 39 zl erty mS Re ey an 33s ul saa 3a 385 rmcplcuatres 136 Umbies 19:1 Dupin’ theorem and Louies theorem 108 Papin indi 20 GEODESICS 20.1. Theoremeceregium 202 The diferetial equations for geodesics 205 the integral curvature of a peste 205 Surfaces of constant curvature Shis ‘The ange of paralleism 307 The penndnephere 21 TOPOLOGY OF SURFACES 211 Orientable surfaces 312 Nonorientable sirfaces 213 Regular maps 314 The fal prolem 215. The siceolr theorem, 26 A sumcien numberof solos far any sure 319 Greco that non the fal marr f alors 22, FOURDIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 22. The simplest four-dimensional gures 222 A nevenary condition forthe existence of (p47) 223 Consiructions fo egulr polytopes 271 Chace packing of equal spheres 25. A satiical honeycomb. vanues ANSWERS TO EXERCISES moe 386 9 sel ws 366 Ke us i 3 as S10 m7 a 300 i 39 BI be 304 398 wm ao wo 0s a Ine group pg, genera by «wo pale hide reetious Plates ‘The group em, generated by a relection and parallel de retection [A wire model ofthe regular cell, (53,3) ‘Chse-packed sic a the Eucidean plane os 406Mathematics posote na only ath, but sprome booty ~abeuy cold ard user, ite thot of sculpture, without eppedl te any port of our weoker notre ‘sttinly pore un ape ofa sen pert suchas only the oreatest or con show. emoan wUsst (1872-1970)Part |1 Triangles In this chapter we review some of the well-known propositions of ele- rentary geomet, sucsing de ele of yummy. We fete wo Buell propositions by his own suber, ish have heen sed tyoushou the ‘world for more than two thousand yeas. Singe the time of F Commandino (50 1829), who translated the works uf Asshineden, Ajluniuny snd Pappus, many other theorems inthe same spirit have been discovered Soch reiuts were studied in great deal during te nnctcnthesntury. AS the present tendency isto abandon them in favor of et Dranctes of mathematics, we shall be content to mention a few that seem particularly interesting 1a eucuD cs wor il i ang tlh bol a the prt dey tre paraded and organ hon of te met meno ob Sir Tomar Leah (1.1 About 300 3. Euelid of Alexandria wrote a teats io thirteen books called the Eleni, Of che thor (ometines oprdtably ws with the alee philosopher, Euclid of Megara) we know very litle. Prolus (410~ 4485 4.0) sid that he “put together the Elements, colleting many of Ea oxu'stheoteins,pefetingtnay of Thencttann wd wae ing 1 fefragible demonstration the things which were only somewhat looeely Proved by his predecessors. This man lived in the ime ofthe Birt Pialemy, [wt] wate shed hin i thee was in growieuy ay shower way th tha ‘ofthe Elemente and he ancwered that tere was nn tal read sang” Heath quotes a story by Stobacus, tothe elect that someone who had be- ‘gun to Sead goonety with Bueld asked him "What shall] get BY learning ‘hese thines™ Euclid caled his slave and ssid "Cive him ain ince he ‘ivst make gain out of what he learns”‘ rues Cf me tineen books te ist sx may Be vey ey eid va, ey ye au our on the theory of numbers ici two notable eohcrements HD and X where ts proves that nly aehieemen ce un int 2 rational ary 9,19 S23 TBAEY Qt'tan inodactign to solid geometry, XU deals with Pyramids ons and ender, and XI sone Be paar tence te eamstruction of he soled Platonic igsres” This notion sr Beli’ purpone is supporied bythe Platonic theoty of @ mst! con Sespodence ween the out sds triton gu ae fu “men ‘otabedon, i man a Isovahedzon Usater ct Contr top I) viene 1th sory spp hy he ithe Ue Cone ore wing nade for inten ‘eke ta or any ppicson ts 8 1.2 PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS AND AXIOMS en a td Romp 88 in oh ro Lewis Carol (1822-1878) {Bodin 2 Cos. 1 tn the logiea development of any branch af mathematics, each dfition fs concept o relaon volves other concept and reations, Therefore he ony way fo old a lous cir wallow ein rin consents ASTRA (only sc few as posible to remain undefined [Synge VPP Sap Simtaty, the prof af each proposition wses other propostions, 2 encore cttain primitive propesitions called ponte oF avioms ila remsin enpeoved Fc fi not specify his primitive concepts and ‘ations, but was content to give delitions in terms of ideas that would Fetumae to everybody. HIS Ave Postlaes are a> Fallows bea sragh ine may be sare fons any pot toa other pain se je ag ti gy ha te comin a tah ie Ba rte may he dveribed with any comer and ny rads 1.24 4i! ght anes are cual one anther. leh inc mcs wo festa esas make Be 0 i os teh ts an I gt angen te ther Cconcwuence . trai lines if extended indefinitely wl ect otha deo wh the ies ee les then two right angles Wis quite natural that aftr a lapse of about 250 yeas some deal re row seen to be capable of improvement, (For instance, Euclid .1 con: tus ai equal ube Uy dawg tn cen, Dot how dr we br ‘hat these two ctl wll intersect?) The marvels that so much of Eve's ‘Work remains perfectly valid. In the modern teatment of his geometry {beefs iotance;Cunete 3 p. 161-189) it anual wo tecopie the prt live concept point and the two primitive relations of tmermediae! (the ‘de that ome point may be Between two others) and congruence (the idea ‘ta ine distance seoween two poste may be eal w the distance Between fa ether pint. ar that twalne sogmente may have the sane length) “There are also various versions of the axiom of connuly, one of which ss that every convergent sequence of points has a hit. ite “principle nf sperpstion.” weed in proving 14, rises the gue sion whether a give can he moved without changing its ineral structure ‘his prneple 1 nowadays replaced by a further explicit assumption such stom of "the iahity ofa tangle with tail” (Figure 12a) 1.26 I ABC iso tiangle with D om the side BC extended, while De analogously related o another itangle A'B'C. andif BC = BYC,CA = CA, AB = 4'B, BD = BD, then AD = 4D: prea ‘This arom canbe to extend the notion of congracice fot ite 4 ‘ments co more complicated gues such as angles, so that we can sa) pre~ ciely what we moun bythe relation 2 AB cane. ‘Then weno longe aed th questionable principe of superposition in r= davis prove Ea bt me ‘fon triante have ose ual tn two sides expects and have the anges comaied bythe ea ses equa hey il se have hel hd ses let ema ame ea rep the il ensue 16 how fn cat wto! sh mau omed1.3. PONS ASINORUM hc pi pe 3 yn se Toe rr eet wala sto oe co Selo te a en wa on oon TS dao ent cy pnagnet cnt a belie ed agi oon 13. The anges athe be oan sls trian ar pa ‘he ne einai tha famous theorem eobably aos from ancthdgult¢apcarinceo Es pte he consrstion ies = rit trates compitned po su om the ton ht enone SENS eg mas he nwa Forutly afar snp Boot SBE Sppicay Panes of Alana show 40 (igre 183) \ i\ L,\. esate tent ine ih Al AG, Lt tn angst wo ange md mpc nina Sse 4B AC md 4m 48, theo a tech we, 40" Ab ican 4 Wal oe see intestine Then Sesteeannow od “a eh eta ete Ce = ce SaUhcThemnia an ab replete erg meetinndetiesctamgts onan Sn Scone Copan tik Mec a el thoes teat th Mas Saat Seve hedas ey ‘Any Sigur, however eegular is shape may be, Fields a sjameuhal by tre when we place it next toa mirror and waive the distinction between objet and image. Such bilateral symmetry is characteristic ofthe external fot mot animals Given any point Pon either side of a geometrical miror. we can con structs reflected image P’ by drawing the perpendicular from P tote ‘hiror and extending this perpendicalas line to aw equal atunce om he tthe side. so thatthe mireorperpendicalaely bisects the line sepment PP” ‘Working inthe plane (Figure 13) with a line 48 for ior, we draw 60 wloctes with centers 4, 8 and radi 4P, BP, "The two pots Or nersecton thee levee ate Pan ts image PP ore 136 ‘We shall ind that many geometrical proofs are shortened and made more vivid by the use of reflections, But we must remember that ths procedure ib merely a short cut: every such argument could have Been avoided By ‘means ofa citeumlocuton involving consrueatwiangles, For instance the above construction is valid because the anges ABP, ABP” are congruent ‘Pons asnorwn has many useful consequences, sich a the following five WLS, tfadhameer of cite ei cho which does ops chro he ener is gerendaar oon ere Hi Bets IML20. trace he anglt he come cae se angle a theca, hon shea rin th ans mee he ccgeree nh same os ofthe to ars determined by tear (een Figure U3, POD 2 PPO? Leap ane qudog rid naire ae ea HLS, facond of acc be dean fom th pit of cot ofa tangent ale sma yn hora oe angen eu nea sense yh cd a po eta at of oe ccunforence nich bes om the for sd of he chard a re ec ore cree ‘We shall also have occasion to se two familiar theorems om similar r= ale.VLE peso ae 0 ram oa ne ik of hn te ter sud none an Seo he ane ec proprio tei Imperato ide Mi icp geome anna encore tne ‘Combining this ast result with I1.21 and 32, we deduce two significant proper of cents ofa cl (Figue 3) 1nns3. ym aioe 28 urge nese ac er, he ene ote segment of thane egal tthe tol oid B the seme of hohe Gi OF OP = 00 x 00) ise pom epee ci as mt tig ean th sag ontaied Bh wl san adhe pt ease eee il be ut the sare ‘nih tong hes OP X OF = OF Book VI ako contains an important property of area VL19. Simao ave one anh the sured a of her caren side ey BARC und 2° ssa anpoy tae age nthe ea aR a ‘This result yields the fllowing easy proot for the theorem of Pythagoras [sce Heatn 1, p. 353; 2, pp. 210, 232 209) La igh ine he sro ee ea 08 0 In the triangle 4RC vghtangled at © deaw CF perpendicala to the hypotenuse 4A, asin Figure Ld Then we have thre similarrightangied nanpes Au, ACP, Ce, Ml Rypotenuses 4B, At, UB. By ¥ii% se Evidenly, ABC = ACP + CBF. Thsehae A A “ Tews 13 1. Using rectangular Cartesian coonints show that he releton nthe ae 2 Deco L47 fom 1.36 apie tobe ciclewith center A andre 40) {Inside a square ABDE tak apoiat Cs that CDE san sscls riage with sng S"at and © Wha hind otrangis 48" “4 Prove he Eid Mord hora: IP is any pit wane ARC nd 0, Rat the et of the perpediculis fom O upon the espetive sides BC, CH A+ UN + OC > AUP + OL + OR, (en Le. Ps ang rade et of ne perpendclas om an Qupon HC. De fine analoaas print and Os Rs ant Reon heather eT he ints ofthe isles PAP, and OBR, exes P,P ines of RF, OR and OB. After sub 04 + OB + OC OME + FPA RO + OBI + Cony7 Soca FRR OR, collet he eras ining OF, 00, O,reipesiels) ‘Unie what steunstances cm he sgn >in Ex. Be replay 04 x OB OC > (00 + OROR + OPKOF + 00) (A. Oopenhcim,Amerium Mathematica! Mou, 68 (1961), 230, See sao LJ ied Mate Grete, 48 (1983), 9p. 313-218). 1._Prove te teerLebs theorem: Aay tangle Bing tno egal itera anpe anne each ci tm ots tothe agp iene (Mart TR rng has to diferent angles, the sal angi bs felons cal Boer) Leon Baki Maras! Moh 8 (95 Fo te ate 8 cay iit SS an ea 88 pH a Foun p72 For hms ro the Cuter and Ge 39.1,0 manus 1.4 THE MEDIANS AND THE CENTROID Santen ng Tie Grol Lae as omeon, ‘Sher cage So Geek manos “permoren” ore pe ‘ona! ws ho it Kareena wi Be ene? 6.H Hoo 7 190) ios Bet Tigre 140 “Thelin joining «verte ofa tiangle tothe midpoint ofthe opposite sve fread «mean Tet two ofthe thee medians, sy BB" and CC, meetin G (Figure 14a. Latand bee midpomntecf GB and GC. By Euclid Vi.zand (whieh Ivete quoted on page 8), als CD" and LAF are parla to BC and half as Tag "Pheeeone BTM ea paalelotam. Since the diagonals of paral: Iclogram bisect each other, we have BG=GL=1B, CG=GM=MC “Thus the two medians BB, CC wisect each other at G._ In other words, {his point, which could have bos define as «point of tizaction of one neem saan apron of trgecton of anotter. and similarly of the thd We have shus proved (by the method of Court 1, p. $8) the flowing Beat The dvce medio of any inangle all poss shomugh one pol This common point of the three medians is called the centroid ofthe tangle, Atehimedes (287-212 ne) obtained tas th center of gravity of {Tinangula pate of uniform ens. a 1 Any wing having vo eu medians neces ‘hen ih ncn geet pad. hes ps Be om ese [ann op st | VV \ Euclid 11.3 tells us that a cet is symm the major and minor axes) It flows thatthe angle between two inte. Sehng angen Ducted bythe deter toh hc Common ot 5 by reflection in any diame:comsideing dhe ha of pint euidintn fm pie of eden of 3 Pseame: we soe thatthe internal and external sels of the three ules of the ingle met by threes infor points yf fo a8 Figure Tur These poin arcu centers of the four cscs hat ca be drawn 10 toh he tive nes RC CA. AB. On of them th nent 1, being inside the tangles he seater ofthe inserbed eee or merle (Fuelid 1) he other thee ae the excner Tofyf the entets of the the xed ies evrnee (Crt pp. 79-88) The rai of he incl and exci Sie are the nas ran the ered Th deserbnga tang ABC, Is cata wo eal he siks a= ae, the semiperimeter s=Merbso, the angles 4,8, Cand the are ‘Se d+ D4 C= 180% we have 1 EPIC = 907 | a. resule whist we sal fd uncut i § 1. ‘Since FBC is transl with base @ and height is areas dor. Adding hoe such triangles we deduce Asvetbtorsm Similarly A= 4b 4 € ~ ae = (6 ~ aire Thus 182 Bawa - ers 6-0 ‘From the well-known formula, cos 4 = (# + c? ~ a/2be, we ind also (= oFe Sin A = [nat — B= ct 26% 4 220 4 DBE Dh, whence Be dbesind asa DA [Sat— oe ee ante ztat + Loey Tile Toro a bbs en baat hob [as ~ ays — B49 ~ oh “This remarkable expression, which we shall use in § 184, is atibuted to Heron of Alexandr (about 60 xD), Dut twas really discovered by Archi- tices, (Gee D. Lavan dor Wacrden, Sojence Awol ong Oxford Unset His New Yk, p36 37) Combing Hero's formula wh 152 Ne obtain rane = (3) Another consequence of the symmetry of a circle i tha the perpendicular bisector ofthe tre sides of a tangle all pas through the crcumcenter 0, aot 2 (2) whichis the center ofthe citcumscrted ctcle or crcumeircleEueli 1V), ‘This ithe only circle that ca Se drawn through the thice vertices, By Ins radige scaled the crumradius of the angle, Since the "angle at he center” 2 BOC (Figure $0). is double the angle 4, the congrvent right shed uiaugles O24, OCA” ul have a nolo dat, heme i 28 SA = SinB = Sn Draw AD perpendicular to BC, and lt AK be the diameter through A of the exeumorle, as in Figure Se By Euclid TL21, the right-angled t= angles ABD and AKC ate sail, echo AD AC a ap = aks 20 = 3 Since A = 48C x AD, it fellows that 155 44k = abe Ee — fo = 9) + Hs — 6 — @) + 6 — aN — 8) - m9 Wg sty a ae pratesbt ines saunter on Hence the ive radi are connected by the formula 1.56 WRantnennr Let us now consider four circles Fs. Es, Es, Es tangent to one anther at six distinct points. Each cle E; has a bend, defined a the reciprocal of ity aun wih w suitable sig ataced, namely ashe contact te Ox ‘ermal fs in the case ofthe light cies In Figure Sd). the bends are all, postive, but one cre surrounds the other thee (asin the ease of theNN 187 deat aly te bet ol awe 80 re st “This Descartes cil thorem was rediscovered in 1842 by an English am eur, Philp Beet who observed tha the four ccs Ey determine ater ser tourwinos thy mately tangeat a tho same six pointes Hy though the three points of contact of Es, Ex by. and soon. Let, denote the bend OTL i the centers of Ey, Ea, Ey form a tangle ABC, Ha 1 either the gat tn he later (Figure 15/), fl 1 1 neither ease, we see from $31 that wer tem tans (Lat lene Similarly nons + nam + nome = 4, and of course we cam permate the sub Gay) a0 gt Lda Fb Since this expression inelyss «abd oy symm, ealeo equal to (Sars hos stedtobaon tm em +> Aso. since (te te als te eo P alate ter et pete et + Ine (hom + net a) + te Fo nena 9 Ge Begone tt tina + Dn = Sol be EE tse fbn nna In Adding fur such uations after squaring each side, we deduse Se? whence 28ee = Bat 4 Ent “Thos 1.57 has been proved. In 1936, this theorem was rediscovered again by Si Prederck Soddy, who had received 2 Noll prize in 1921 for hs ascovery of wotopes. He eX proved the theorem inthe fron of 4 poem. The Kier Prien which the Iida verse rans as follows Sey “he slr at he Dee The tend jst te sve of ‘Though their intrigue left Euclid dumb ewer seta ighel es was” Naa os cai tis SenSine aro Bens a dead sight ine heeft ee of al fe de shal te sare of tum 1. Fin the lous ofthe image ofa ed pia # by election ie vara ine 1 or the ener rangle ABC, cbse ens eee exe an respect corre 44 The ctcumcente ofan obtosanged tang is oaide the wang Whee thecioamener ofa vightangel ange? ABC. The prpedicalatso the Sues a hese points ate concent abd oy 1 Aimangessnghangied suns ony st r+ 28 = Te sand rbot = there 9. For any fou umber saising 4 m 8 iar” hang bene Ak De = GEN Ga Gane eee een eee Ty SEIT ae (int: Expesse ea tata fantom fee. 8 10, Irthwe ccs, externally ange! to ose anther have cents foming at snp ty a ge 1 rr nye = ay “Pesto co cana. ML. Given goin Ponte cicuncicle of wanle te et ofthe netpendiclrs from Poth the der alicona sgh ine (Tes nes common eld the Si vif Pah sepette he ange shor taste enone yw. Wallac, thin yas ar Simons death [ohton yp 1) om Ptothesides BC: CA, Alt Let Ars Cy be devied analogously ow A,B,C, {ising the sts a ABC tom Aone Then 4s cect sew ABC. [ney tip 98] iin PRA 2 ZPAIG. = ZPCoBy = ZPBedu) Thsreslthas been ede by BM. Stwat om he hid eed tae oft wap fo te mh SEined non ofan n bom cesan Mvathmaa! Moniy 491900). #6226) "He CONCURKENCE OF anTUCes ” iu te Gran wore iy, mt ny gna ut Fete 1729) wom25 187) From now on, we shall have various occasions to mention the name of L Euler (1707-1783), a Swiss whu speut ost ise it Rossa, aking i> portant contributions tall ranches of mathematics. Some of his simplest “scoveres arco such «nature that ane can well imagine the ghost of Ec Saying. "Way on earth gdm 1 tink of shat “4 Bs a ere 1.8 the circomeenter 0 and centoid Gof a tiangle coincide, each median fsperpendiculart these that tices, and the tangle io oosectes chee ‘wavs that is equilateral. Hence. ifa triangle 4BCis not equilateral. its Greumeenter and centoid leon sunigue lite OG. On this so-called Euler line cousides 4 point macs tat OFF = 300, hats, GH =206 (igure 1160) Since also Gk = 24°G, the ater half of Euclid VL2 tls us that 420 is parallel to 4°O, which isthe perpendicular bisector of BC. Thus 4H is Perpendicular to 8c. Simlany BH is perpensiuli o CA, sou CH wo 4B “Theline through a vertex perpendicular tothe opposite sides clled an lide, ‘The above remarks ff. Court 2, p, 101] show that The three altitudes of amy rangle al pass through one polnom the Euler ne. ‘This common point ofthe thee altitudes i ealled the orthcenter of the mangle 1. Tivough each sre fa gen wane BCH ine paratil othe opaste sid The perpendicular bcos of he sides fhe angio rmsd wget amar:2 Anvil brine elitr bense ‘S Comirctan tose ingle 48€ (with ase AO ge the mein BH ant wcuhete Be ims The cenald twos hey om Bo} Fo Stal These 4D ofan ng ABC length akin Bain C A trseElerine pn sogh ere then tr ae or ice orb ‘Sie Ele ie pei thes Benge an 089 7 rHe NiNe-romir cimeLE ai Pon 910.) (Pes 0.1) Tue tet ft aes hati se pons ike Bia Fg 160 fm theo a or sedans" a ABC, The camel ofthe ‘leap ele te nnept ore or “Feuerbach ele") te Bato si other snifeant pots ie fact 1.70 The moa he ests, he mignon rng the ote nee ease Proof Coxeter 2,929) Let’ BY, C3 4%, Br, Ce the widpuine uf Be CA, AB, HA, 118, HC, andietD, E, Fe the feet ofthe aiades asin Fi Zand 4 again, both Cand B°C” ate parallel to 1nd CD” aye paleo AUl. Since AUT is pespeialat t BC'B'C"is a tecanale. Similarly C4'C7A" ins rectangle, Hence 4'4”, B°B", C'C” ate three diameters of acitele. Since ise diameters subtend right angles at, especuvely, te same ccie passes hough hear pine tn 1 four points in a plane rejoined in pars by sx isint lines, they are called the vertices ofa complete quadrangle, andthe lines are its sx sides To sides atau ty be oppositely have wa cmmaun veten. Any point intersection of two opposite sides vealed» digomal point There ma he asmany as thre such points sce Figure 1.26. ps. ZEN Ta triangle ABCis nt sight-angled, its vertices and orthocenter form a special kind ot quadrangle wnose opposite sides ae perpendicular. this terminology the concurrence ofthe tee alitlen cen he expesed foe lows 1.72 If wo pairs of opposite sides of «complete quadrangle ae pairs of perpen Une, he remuiing ses are Ukenine perpen ‘Sacha quadangle ABCH in called an orthocenrc quadrangle. isn sides RO Ch AR HA WR He ‘age theses and altitudes of the rangle A BG, and its diagonal points D. F are the fet ofthe altitodes. Among the four vertices of the quadrangle, ‘ur autaton aceunW ive wal ue ye weston Clealy weve, 73 Bach vertex ofan orthocontrLe quadrangle i the orthocenter ofthe triangle formed bythe romaning thre vertices. ‘The four triangle (st one of which is acute-angled) all have the same foriie tangle ana consequently the same nine point rete se proved in ioe on fie geometry (ch ae Courter 2,87] thatthe midpoint of test sides of any complete quadrangle andthe three diagonal Pins allie on comic. Ine above remarks show that, whea the quadrangle(esses, enteral? 2. Theft alte dopo ne it il it ee ac he ‘ch lows One ae contin juston of hese pants, another contains Wo, and thet contain tre form 4’ D. Take points Y,Z simul. on the ares BE, CF. Then XYZ.is an equ tater ing ft Ta aaa at tases fy rane fom a ethane quae [Coes oe 74) 5 Inthe notation of 15th Eulelie ffs: 1. 1 Thefour anges sa osu inun ethene ian ave egal eu ‘TWO EXTREMUM PROBLEMS ‘ovlcon roy pthc ante area ee people 6H Hye 4) HorRatmecer(12- (Hoseasons Teac oe 6 We shall describe the problems of Fegnano and Fermat in considerable eta bwaune uf de nteening wlan une using deny, The St was Droposed in 1775 by JF. Toschi di Fasano, who solved it by means of Uiferental callus, ‘The method given here was discovered by L. Fejer ‘wine ne wasa staden[Radeuaces aad Tucpi¥, pp 30-22} FAGANO'S PROBLEM, Ina given cute angled rangle ABC, scribe trintle UVW whose perimeter is as smal as possible ‘Consider fist am arbitrary tangle UW with U on BC, Von CA, Won Then ” Uv 4 VWs WU = UV + Pw + HU which sa path fom Ut U, usually broken line with angles at ¥ and Soci pu lsvus Oto Un minimal when ts sight asin Figre 184, Hence, among all incethed rianglee with» given vertex Hon RC the one ‘wth males perimeter occurs when Fan W leon the sright ine UU" ‘munis way weamama dente tangle UY W toreaen choca Uon HC which sequal tothe perimeter. Few 1.0 Since AU" and AU” areimages of AU by reflection in AC and 4, they se wongiuent and 2uabn 4 ‘Thus AU'U" is an isosceles triangle whose ange at A i independent ofthe hice of U. "The base UU" is minimal when the equa sides are min mal, tats, when AU i minimal” 19 other words, AU Is te shares ds tance from the given point 4 tothe given ine RC Since the hypotennee of A rightangled tangles longer than either eathetus, the desired locaton of Uissuen tnat AU's perpendicular tS. Taus AU's tealttue fom 4 ‘Tas choice of Usields a unique tangle UVW whose perimeter is smaller than that of any other insribed wrangle. Since we could equally wel have ‘Bor C instead of A, we se that BY and CW ave the altitudes Hens ‘The rane of minal perimeter inseribed in an acwevangled triangle ABC lth orth rangle of ABC ‘Thesame method can be used to prove the analogous rect for spherical Iwiangles Steiner 2, 9.48, No. TL “The other problem, proposed by Piere Fermat 1601-165) likewise seeks omimmize te sum of thre distances. The soltion given hee is due J FERMAT'S PROBLEM. Ina piven acute-aneled trianele ARC: locate a point P whose distances rom A, B, C have the smallest posible une Consider first an arbi Pinside the wiangle. Join two 4, BC that ABC and PAP are equilateral angles, asin Figure 183. Then AP + BP + CP = CP 4 PP + PC, ecko ac Maisie, et mabe awhich sa path rom C40 Gwsually a broken line with anles at Pan P. Such path Goining C’to.C bs asequence of three segients) is minima Potaighy ia shih eae 7 RPC = 180" — Z BPP = 120° and 2APB = LOPS = 180" ~ £PPB = 120 “Thus the desired point P, for which AP + BP + CP is minimal, the point fom which each ofthe ides 2c, C4, 4B subicul an sgl of 1 Ful-ecmat point" most simply constrated ste second intersection of theline CC” and te cisle ABC (thats, the ereumerce ofthe equilateral tangle ABC’), Tr hes been pointed ovt (or example by Pedoe 1. pp. 11-121 thatthe ti angle €8¢ need not be assumes to be acate-anged. The above solution is ‘aid whenever theres no angle grater tan 120 Tinea of thee angie {Con 47 onc ust as well Bae ranman equilateral rangle BCA’ on BC, or CAB’ on CA, ain Figure 18 ‘Thus the thee lines AA BB, CC’ passthrough the Ferma point, end iy twouf teu provadeanalternative conztevtion for it Moreover. the Iinesepments 4, BaF, CC ace allequal wo AP + BP + CP. Hence Teaulaeral triangles BCA’, CAB, ABC’ are dra outwards onthe sides oftisiiangie ABC: the lne scgmenis AA, BUF, CO re ea seen hain lined 0 10 one ameter cee ofan) angen aio wage nero idacise eiitly that sunt s stopped by fiction) erence BYw aint CZw AY) OAT Luceuburg) = “ [Forder 2, p. 0.) “ oars ver 1.9 MORLEY'S THEOREM som enema wy gain en enh on 7) Lune ot tne most surpsing tnoorems in elementary gooey was Sinwor= i shout 1899 by F- Morey hous son Christopher wrote novels soch 38 Thunder on the Lef, He mentioned it to his foends, who spread it over * conf 18-107) Sea Mahe 19% vod yn esptne world inthe forms of matismatval guns, AC Yast, afer ton year a ind an elementary proot bY MONEY'S INEOREM. The tree pints of erection of the aacent tt sorne of the angles of ons tinal frm an eolateral transl In other words, any trianale ABC yields an equilateral triangle POR if the anges 4 2, Care trseced by 40 and AR, BR and BP, CP and CQ, ‘Sin Fgsc eM wou xpaenod we eae arrose, but the difcaltes disappear if we work backwards, beginning with an equi lateral rangle and budding up 2 general triangle whic is aflerwardsiden- tied with ihe given angle ABC) ‘On the rxpectve side QR. RP. PQ ofa given equilateral trianale POR, cexetisonceles triangles POR, Q'RP, R’PQ whose base anges a, By satst) theequation and nequaliies es HY= IW, ac, BCH, 1H sa Bsmt 1 Cape af Dat hon ae 1493, Cae gine id © ROL wont oe SE Ee era loth ep ke NR A cae pon ws deed independent Pesan) Extend the sider af the fntceles rangle Below their hates until they meet again in points 4, BC. Sincea + + y + 60" = 180", we can imme. intely inter the measurement ot some other angles, as masked in Figure Se. Forinstance, the tangle AQ must have an angle 6D" a i vertex 4 since its angles at Q and R area + Bandy + a ‘Referring to II, we see that one way to characterize the incenter I of a teangle AC i to devenbe it as lying onthe biaeor ofthe angle at uh distance that ZBIC =90" +44 ‘Apolving this principle to the point inthe trianale PBC. we observe that the ine PP" (which is a median of both the equlateal tangle POR and le inoeelen Wlangle POOR) Binet te angle at P= Alb the aif age at P'igo0 — a and LEPC = 180° — @ = 90" + 90" — ah Hence P is the incenter ofthe tangle PBC. Likewise Qs the incemter of. QCA, and Rof RAB. Therefore al the three small angles at Care eal [bkewise at and at, In other word, te angles of the mangle «Bc are trnected. “he thee small angles at A are each §4 = 60° ~o: similarly ac Band ©. Thus asw 44 Bam 5H yee se . by choosing these values forthe base angles of our isosceles triangles, we cam envure that the above procedure yields 2 angle ABC hati similar {o any sven triangle “This eompletes the proot 1 me ter ines PF, QU. AAC (Figure Lu age concateat_ Th omer Wor the itor mest agnn fom another tangle POR which peri tive withthe eulteral Wane POR (In eeoeal P's ma gusta) "Eee ales ot oy wll make the inane AB equ, (0) MEME stl ieee? Sketch hegre each ase ‘Let Py and Ps (oa C4 and 48) be he nage of Phy eect ia CP and BP. nce be oir puts Fe Zs K sae eveay Space og We CUE AINE ‘spec ewer the riansle ADC i eltra. hee four poms ost amoae e ‘ests of eur eneago on in which Aste vertex oppose ote de OR2 Regular Polygons We hopin thie chapter by discussing (without prof) the possiblity of constructing certain regular polygons with the instruments allowed by facts We ten consider al theve plpyons,regaulss ut the question of onstmsthiliy from the eandpoint of evmmatrs. Finally. we extend the Concept ofa regular polygon so as to include star poyons 2.1 cycoromy Th vp! de we! ses taig 2 elon vcls's postulates imply a restriction on the instruments that he allowed for making consrucinn scl the restietion to role (or steaightodge) fn compasses, He consructed an equlateral tangle (L1), a square (1V-6) 2 regular pentagon (1V.11)areglar hexagon (V.15) and a regular IS-gon {ivTo)_ Ine number ot ses may Be doubled agin and syn by wpe fnglehisersione Ics natural to ask which other eegular polygons can be ‘onsructd with Encl instruments. This question was completely a ‘Srered by Cause (17/1-1993) atte age of rineeen fee Suh , py. 201 30a], Gave found that replae gon ay (n)- canbe so constructed if the od prime factors of mare distinct, ‘The only known primes of this kind are FoaBsla3, Rakelss avslel, BeBe 12257, Fa 4 1 = 65557, ‘To inseibe a reularpentazon in a. given circle. simpler concretions than Euclid’ were given by Plolemy and Richmond * The fcmer has been spied i any seatbodas. Fae ait ish ws (Figure 4.10). "To inscribe a regular pentagon PaPsPyPsP. ina cicle with center O- daw the radius OB perpendicular to OPp: join Po to D, the midpoint of OB: Insect he angle Uy to odtain My On UP: and draw Ns erpendica 10. OPy to obain Pym the cle Then PyPy ies side of thee pen tagon: Op (ys (Fizure 219) Join Ps J. one quate ofthe way from O to B. On the iameter through Po take E, so that OJE is one quarter of OJFy and TICs 43". Let the vscle on FP9 as diameter cut OB ss K, aud et the Girle with ceater E and radius EK cut OPs in Ny (between O and Po) and ‘Ne. Draw perpendiculars to OP at these two points, to cut the ongin ‘lei Py td Pa. The the are PyPs (ad Kenic PP) is te t= ‘eumferenee. (The pron involves repeated application of the peice that the roots ofthe equation s# + 2x a 2C — I'= Oare an C and —col C) ‘Richelot and Schwendensein consiructed the regular 257-00 In 1832, 4. Hermes spent em years the pla S¢7- gn a cee he am Script in a large box in the University of Gotingen, where it may sill be rouna ‘The next numberof the form Fa ~ 22° 4 Vie Fy = 4294067207, Fer tat incorrectly assumed itt be prime. G. T Bennet gave the following eat proot that ts composts (Hardy and Wright 1, p14: the number OH aS 2ST EL, ‘icing both 54-2242 and S++ 2% divides their diference whichis Fs, AEN Bete, gue te ares 310, 9 29627, ea "Fhasbaeedby Kanne tema Get 48(95, 9.31The questi naturally ates whee Fy maybe prime for some greater valeofkIinow known tat this can hapoen onl if Fe divides 3-2 wP1 Using this enterion, electronic computing machines have shown that Fiscomposite for k= 16. Therefore Here's eoostvetion isthe ast ‘tite Hind that wil eer he ndertae! 1. Vest the correctness of Richond’s costruton fo (5) (Figure 2). 2 Assuming Richmond's contruction for (17) ow would you insribe SI) ia 2.2 ANGLE TRISECTION (an 2) Gauss nas lect setialy wae fhe fie tha hc gelato oaition is secsary as well av suet, but he dows no sce to hive Said 30 © usiy, the mibslog step ms sppucy by Wane who proved taf Bes prone ott of reno dict ermal prime, () cannot Be onstuced with rer and compe. For instance, sine 7is ot aFemat ‘ume, Fucks instruments wl ot ue forthe regular hepagon (1) 200 Flaten ctr of are nov diy the emote te forthe enneagon (2) “The problom of wiscting an arbitrary angle with rule and compasses cxresedtheingenly of potasonal and amateur mathemati To (wo Ctowsand yeas Dall yp 298-205) of courn ey To eee cor tai partiaar angles sh are angle” But any constuction fort String avatar ale could be apd fo an angle o 0, and then we Sul aw sreguaremeagon. law of Wants theorem we may 2 {hat hasbeen Enown sins 197 that he cla seton problem can never bese thi probably the reason why Mk» These (519) was ot dis court i the tenth century: people uneasy about menoning the recto of a angle However although the tractors cannot be con- Sect by means Or he flr and compte, ey can Ue fund a thes opted at Rates tp 208-211) Even these more versa i Sraments had ever ben disovered, he theorem wou stil be meaning. "Mls mathemaccane ae wing acept the exten f ings Bey tsace ve ictanee wat eroved 1909 ital the Fermat numbers Fy and Fy are composite, butter smallest prime faotor sil rman to be computed SE Wane, Joma de atuangue pu ppc 2 (1897) 99366372 2.3 ISoMETRY ‘ha tate ang he nton of engranen Congo ft of ove, hon one acid by ame he ‘tn point prc o te by cenarng opt Pal Vwi ai ont eaw cram pot Ff. an ta he ea of me: ines aly a «magnon oot oso on oy ave aw Pa gace ant tans ore mopping nF canbe ea We (185195) (Ser Yeo] We shall find it convenient rouse the word ranformation in the special sense of a one-to-one correspondence P=» P' among all the points in the plane (or la space, that is «rule for associating pairs of poiats ‘wth the understanding that each pair has ast member P and a second ‘member P and tht every point occur as the fist member of just oe pair Sindy asthe second member of just one pa ey happen at he ‘members ofa pair coincide thats. that P” cincies with P= this ese P iS called an marian point or “double point”) ofthe transformation. ‘tm parucula, an uomerr (or “congruent transformation,” oF “congr cence") ta ansformation which preserves length so that if(P, P) and (G. 0") are two pairs of corresponding points, we have PQ = PO: PQ and °g"are congruent segments. For stance, a rottion ol the plane aDovt Piowahoat line throughs Ppeependicalar tothe plane) a snmetry hat ing Pas an invariant point, Duta translation (or “paralel displacement”) ‘as ng invariant potas every pos is moved "A rfction i the special Hind of twometry in which th ivarian pots ‘consi ofall he points ona line (or plane) ealled the mirror. ‘A sl simpler Lin of transformation (0 simple that it may at fist seem too aval tobe worth mentioning) i the ido which eaves very pot Unchanged. ‘The result of applying several transformations suceessiely i called their product. Ifthe product of two transformations i the identity, ‘ach sale the imrse ofthe oes, and this product inthe reverse order isagain the identity. 2.31 Ifa isometry has more thon one variant pons, mus eer the entyoFaretection the line 411 (Figure 1.35, The corresponding point P.ststyine AP AP RP = AP, ‘must leon the circle with center 4 and radivs 4, and onthe ice with cen-2 seoae routcons ter Band radius BP. ‘Since P is no on AB, thee cece da not touch each other but intersect ia two points, one of which is P. Hence Ps either P The Tae tug ih Dare ney ar ma Wim 75-827 When we say that a gure is “symmetrical” we mean that we can apply ‘eriain isometries, called symmer) operations, which leave the whole figure ‘unchanged while permating spare, For example she vapital lets Esa ‘A (Figure 24a have bilatcal sjmmety, the miror being horizontal fo the former, vertical forthe latter. The etter N (Figure 2.) symmetrical bya half urn or rotation trough 190" or "coi va ingot “een version”), which may be regarded asthe result of releting horizontally and then verally, or vce versa.” The swastika (Figure 2) i symmetscal by ‘rotation trough say number of right angles FAN re 24 Pere 46 {:qouncing tne symmetry operations ofa gure st x usual to include the identity: any Bgure has thi rv metry. “Phas the swat admits our distinct symmetry operations: rotations through I, 23, or4 right anges ‘ne lasts te entity. thetest and third ae inveses ofeach othe, since thei eae ete deny ‘This use ofthe word “product” sugnests an alcbrac symbolism in which the transformations are denoted by capital lees while I denotes the iden. e four symmetry operations ofthe swastika ae SS aS and Se Since the smallest power ofS that equal othe identity isthe fourth power. syesny that Si of pried Simin 8, hing halleie, eof erin ere Constr 1, p. 39). The ony tansformasion of period Tis the Wemiy. A teansation fs aperiodic (hat it as no pend), but 8 conveniently Sa tbe of inate period ‘Some Sgurcs admit bth elections and rotations as symmetey operations ‘The eter H (Figute 24d) has a horizontal miror (ike E) and a vertical smiror lke Ajyas wellasa center of rotational symimatry (ike N) wher the fo mirrors intersect. Thus thas four symmetey operations: the identity 1, the horizontal reflection Ry, the verucal rection Ra, and the halF-trn RiRe= Rahs 1. Every omer of period 2 ether fetecbon ora aura achmann Pp. ah 2 expres) halen (quater, as uansformatins of) Caran co orl pea coorsinates Take he erg to vee ete vlan) ny wide cx nro ou my ein meaning iene Herman We 9.5] ‘A st of transformations [Biskol and MacLane 1) pp. 11S 18) said to form a grow ift contains the inverse ofeach and te produc of any two, out of oe with self or withts inverse). The numberof Unto inte) Cleaty the symmetry operon of any Bgure form 2 troup. Thieis called the symmetry group ofthe figure Tn the extreme case feo the gute fs vonipletalyinogular (ike the nassra! 6) symmetry [rovp i of order one, consisting of the Wentty alone“Te symuaty group of the eter Bor A (Figure 2.) the soled Ihedral ero of order 2 generated by asogle reflection and denoted by Ds (hc name is easly remembered, asthe Greek origin ofthe word "ibedral [Satmost equivalent the Latin origin of teal") The symmetry group ‘tthe letter N (Figure 24bvis likewise of oder 2 butin this case the genera for is halétura and we speak ofthe elle group, Cx. The two groups Dy find Cy ae abstract ental 1 somo they ase diferent geometcal feprecentations af the ingle abstract aroup of order 2, defined by the re= Tation 231 R for R = R4[Coneter and Moser 1, pI ‘The symmetty group ofthe swasUka i Cy the eyeie group uf uedes $, genera by the guater-trn Sand absraely defined bythe elation S*= 1 That ofthe eter H (Figure 24d) sD, the dihedral group of order 4 ener ted bythe two reflections Ry, Ke aed abstractly denned bythe elatons 282 Real, Rel Rike= Rok “Although Cy and Ds both have order 4, they aren somorphi they have aclterent tractus ifrentmultplionton able” To see this it enfices {oobserve that Cy contains two operations of period 4 whereasal the opera~ tions in Ds (except the identity) are of period 2: the generators obviously, fd els prsist aby sis (Ri, = RIRARGR: ~ RAIA, = RRER, = RAR, = RP = 1 L Thuis ast semtkilutctes wa we man By saying that 2.52 an ab sirac dintion for Ds namely that every tue elation concerning the enera- {ers Rr, Reisan algebraic consequence of thesesimple relations. Am alter~ 233 Rah Ret 1 PURSE = trom which we can easly deduce RyRe = Rak "The general pric group (afer hat the abstract definition ase wel tus ingle gonerator Sof pio» ic conveniently eprnceted bya rotation thvough 360m. Then Srisa rotation trough mes this angle, and the ‘operations in Care given by the values of k irom I To of fom O40 0 ~ Th parelar, Cy occurs in nature ae the symmetry eronp af the peviwinkle ower. Fepes ton thrush ae «abot the oii a wanormatin of pola cote area corner) = bacco or acne pose 26 THE pRonucT OF Two asriEcTIONS 1 ag 18185) (oan Inany grup af ranctrmatinns the acnvatve law casyr = RST) {santomatcally catced, ht the commtitive fa doce not necessarily hold and cae must be taken ineerting« proves, for example, (asp = 59R, not RAS-, (This becomes clear when we think of Rand $s the operations ‘f puting on or socks and shoes, espectivey) The product of reflections in two intersecting lines (r planes) is rota tion through twice the angle Between them. In fet if 4,8, GD,» are svenly paved una isle with vente O,let Ry aud Ry be de olen (0B and OC (Figuee 26a). Then Ry reflects the triangle O4B into OCB, Which is refeted by Ry t9 OCD, thus RR the rotation through 2 AOC or € BOD, whichis wive & BOC. Siz a ota i wmpltely dees aoed byits center ands angle. Rs Ro is equal to the product of reflections in any {wolines through O making the same angle as OB and OC. (The rections Ss ane Gare aly Kika and Ry, hove poet 9 ROR Any two perpendicular Ties through 0. Since RyRy fs a counterclockwise ron, Ray the cmtesponing lice tation: in et Roy = Ret RARau equa rourcons ‘This the sameas RARe ifthe 180 mirors RiRe isa all-turn and (RR)? 1 right angle, in which case 1. ‘The rout of cuter tcs in th same sens) about Cand isthe alter shout heceateraasgungehaing BC or ne "E LeLACPQ und BARS eyestrain AC and BA ofa langhe ABC. 1D and Crema Ste he 4 vac rey, PS pases hous sed point. 2.7 THE KALEIDOSCOPE essa special case of te general diel group Dy whi osm > 2 thesymmety group of the regular gon. (Se Figure 27afor the cases n= 3,4)5),Thiets evidently a group of orde 2, consisting of» rotations (through ene m etectvely cisuner multiples of 300"7m) and rections When mc each of them mirrors jin a vertex tothe midpaint ofthe op: posite side; when mis even, 4 iors join pais of opposite vertices and tn Dhnect pats o opposite sds ee Biro 4d MacLane ty pp 11/-118, 135 Hee “The m rotations are jst the operations ofthe eylc group Cy. Thus the ‘operations of Dy inlude all he operations of Cin tetnicl longings, Cy isa euberou of D.. The otationthroush 360° /n, which zenerates the sub troup, may be described as the product § = RR, of reflections in two adja- en mitts (ouch Of nd OC ha Piguse 2%) which ave feline’ at Tan Let Rs, Re, Re denote the rections in their natural order of ar rangemeat. ‘Thea RyRy, Deng te product of rections in two mirrors incline a Gms Tay, en tation the mee AD" "Ths Raga = RS, and them elerione may he expressed as RRS RSE RASEH Inother words, Duis generated hy Ry andS. By substinting RsRo for S.We a the ations an Ry (RI = 1 (The first two relations come from 2.51 andthe tied from 24) These re- lations ean be shown to slice for an abstract definition [see Coxeter and Moser 1s pp: 6 26) ‘A practical wav to make a model of Ds toin two ordinary mitra bya hinge and stand them onthe ines OB, OC of Figure 2.7aso that they ae in- lined at 180"7m, Any bjext paved between the minut yes 2n vibe images inching the abject ll). Whe aoc yo eight hand, mo the images wil look like a left hand, ustrating the principe that sine refie- ‘on reverses sease, te product orany even aumber ol fenactons preserves sence andl the peniet any dd mmber of reflections revere sente ‘The fst published accouat of this instrument seems to have been by Athanasius Kucher in Lodo, The ame kaleidoscope (Irom rahe, beat ‘ior a form; tnd ewor, 1 8) wae colnad by Sip Dawid Brewster, ho ‘wrote a treatise on its theory and history. He complained [Brewster 1, p, Tr] that Kitchen allowed the angle betwen the two mirrors f0 be aay Sb line f 360" instead of restiting ito slbmmllpes of 160" The cate when n = 2s, ofcourse, familiar” Sunding between two per- pendiclar mirrors as ata corner ofa room), you se Your image in each fd alo the image ofthe image, which ir the way ocr people se you Having decided to vse the symbol Dy forthe dikedral group generated by reflections in two planes making 2 “dihedral” angle of 180°/n, we dtutaly suet the wotativn vas tallow the eatcwe value = 1 Ths Dyisthe group of order 2 penerated by asingle reflection, that the sy~ ‘metry goup of the eter Er A, wheres the isomorphic group Ca, generated Dy aia isthe symmuecey group uf the eles ally wall gonorated by and By which satefy St Poominuclierchneaea ict ant Dba amc EBM NE Heep Badan’ ‘ie cy ‘poop Dy ‘aon eC ‘mye teiy Dhow och ep gp 39.00) “ Lecnve ie symmetry sour ot (0 evade ana (0) sateen,(©) areca ( ancl 2 Use ier ante sso aro prove ager e cancetaion re IimplisR = 8. "Show bow the ual ening lations for D, samy 271 wth = 3,:may Bede scat sledale unpuation om the snp ans 4. Teselicgrap ics wherapnt¢iCandoniitthe mame ma dso of ‘in pail, in pine the slyshgroupe of Cra Cy and Cy 2.0 STAR potvcons Instead of deriving the dihedral group Dg from the regular polygon (), ‘neta lave deve the polygon from the group: the versce of the poly on are just the nimazes of «point Py (the Cof Figure 27a) on one of the {io mirrors of the alekdoscope. Io fac, there is no need o se the whole group Dy is subgroup Cuil sulle, The veiten Pa of the polygon PoP, Pecan be derived from the iil vertex Po bya eoation through times 360° jos about a fined punt O dough augies 0,20, 30 oldstinet from 0) ito other points Pi Po Ps become increasingly dense on te cee; Bui the angle # i wouneioe. blewith right ange. only» nite marae of them will edistnet._ In par~ ticular, if 360"/n, where asa postive integer greater than 2, then there ‘wll bem poinis Py whore successive Joins PoP abs are the sides ofan ordinary regular r-gon. Tet us now extend this gtion by slowing mo be any rational mimer rcter than 2, sy the faction p/d (where pand date coprime). Accord- {ngly, we define a (generalized) regular polygon n} where 8 = pd. Us P ‘ersoss at drive fon Py By repeated rotations through 240°/», and te sides (enclosing the center d times) are PoP, PyPayo oo Pr-sPo Since ray coming out from the center without passing through a vertex wil eros fof the psd, this denominator 1s called the densty of the polygon [Coseter Ne pp. O94), When d= 1, wnthat n =p we have the a crdinary tegular pgm, (7) When d > 1, the sides crt ne another, bt the erosing points are not counted as vertices. Since d may be any pore tive integer relatively prime to p and les than fp, there a regular Poly {gon [n) foreach ational number > 2. In fact ie oeeastonally dese. Able to include also the digon (2), although its two sides coincide ‘When p = 8, e have the pentagon (3) of density 1 andthe pentagram (4) of density 2 which was aed an epecalsymbl bythe Babylonians and bv the Pvihaporeans.Siilariy, the actgram (4) and the decazram [°9) have density 3, while the dadecagram ('¢) has density $ (Figure 28). Those ypatcules polygons have qames as well ay symbols beeaube they occur a2 faces of interesting polvhedra and tssllations * Me Ads i 8 i Polygons for which d > 1 are known as sar polygons. They are fre quently used in decoration. ‘The eles mattewatieal dacesion of them Sas hy Thomac Rrvdwarine (1780-1340), who hecame archbishop of Can- {exbury forthe last month of his bf, They were also studied by the great German seienst Kepler (1371-030) [see Coxeter 1, p. 114). 1c yas the Sonie mathematician L. Sch (IRU4-IROS) who fet weed mmercal Symbol sich as (pd). "This notation it justied by the occurence of for~ bulas that hold for (n} equally well wether m be a integer oF a traction. For instance, any tide of (x) forme with the center Q an foselee tangle (PoP (Figure 28) whose angle at O is 2n/m. (As we are introducing ttigonometrcal ides its natural (0 use radian measure and write Z= n= ‘Mend of 360") The base of thin uoselstrangle, being a side ofthe py fon, is conveniently denoted by 2 The other ides of the range are equal to the circuntadius R ofthe polygon. The altude or median ftom Os te imauins ofthe polygon. Tlence 201 Roloc, re teots Im = p/A the area of the polygon i naturally defined to he the sum of the areas ofthe p scl tranle, namely 11.5.4 Cones MS Line gg a CF Mle ner snes Ral Sey ae 80 5 ie Pah