6630 Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.

2010, 49, 6630–6640

Dynamic Simulation and Optimization of a Urea Granulation Circuit

Ivana M. Cotabarren,*,† Diego Bertı́n,† José Romagnoli,‡ Verónica Bucalá,† and Juliana Piña†
Department of Chemical Engineering, PLAPIQUI, UniVersidad Nacional del Sur, CONICET Camino La
Carrindanga Km. 7, (8000) Bahı́a Blanca, Argentina, and Chemical Engineering, Louisiana State UniVersity,
Cain Department of Chemical Engineering South Stadium Road, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

A dynamic model for a complete urea granulation circuit is presented in this work. The flowsheet includes
a fluidized bed granulator, a cooling unit, a vibrating double-deck screen, and a double-roll crusher. This
contribution is based on mathematical models for all the equipments, some of them previous validated against
industrial data. All the units are modeled by means of the population balance equation (PBE). In addition, the
granulator energy and mass balances for urea and air (used as a cooling medium and fluidization agent) are
solved simultaneously with the PBE to properly represent the unit dynamics. Furthermore, mass, energy, and
population balances are developed for the cooler. The individual units are successfully integrated under the
gPROMS Model Builder Environment, which allows one to have a powerful tool for the circuit simulation
and optimization. A sensitivity analysis is performed by running several dynamic and steady-state gPROMS
simulations in order to evaluate the influence of different operating variables on the particle size distributions
and mass flow rates of the circuit streams, as well as the mass holdup and thermal conditions in the granulator
and cooler. The results indicate that both screen deck apertures, together with the crusher lower gap, are the
variables that most affect the circuit performance. The circuit stability is also analyzed. Finally, different
optimization scenarios are carried out to determine the values of the selected manipulated variables that
maximize production on specification, minimize the recycle fraction, and allow a plant revamping. The urea
granulation process simulator (including mass, energy, and population balances) constitutes a powerful tool
to study the circuit responses under different disturbances, determine the optimal combination of operating
and design variables in order to meet the production requirements and explore new process flow diagrams.

1. Introduction
Granulation is a key particle size enlargement process, widely
used in the pharmaceutical, food, mining, and fertilizer
industries.1,2 This operation converts fine particles and/or
atomizable liquids (suspensions, solutions, or melts) into
granular material with desired properties.
The granulation process is considered as one of the most
significant advances in the fertilizers industry, providing prod-
ucts with higher resistance and lower tendency for caking and
lump formation. Particularly, urea granulation is a complex
operation that cannot be carried out in a single unit; rather, it is
achieved by a combination of process units with specific
functions constituting the granulation circuit (Figure 1). The
main unit is the granulator, where small urea particles known
as seeds (generally product out of specification) are continuously
introduced and sprayed with a concentrated solution of the
fertilizer. The seeds grow through deposition of the fertilizer
solution droplets onto the solids surface followed by water
evaporation and urea solidification.3 The granules that leave the
size enlargement unit are cooled down and subsequently
discharged into a conveyor that transfers them to be classified
in double-deck screens into product, oversize, and undersize
streams. The product is transported to storage facilities, while
the oversize fraction is fed to crushers for size reduction. The
crushed oversize particles are then combined with the undersize
granules and returned to the granulator as seeds.4
Generally, in fertilizer granulation plants only a relatively
small fraction of the material leaving the granulator is in the
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: 54-291-486-
1700, ext. 269. Fax: 54-291-486-1600. E-mail: icotabarren@
plapiqui.edu.ar.
†
Universidad Nacional del Sur.
‡
Louisiana State University.
10.1021/ie901885x  2010 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 06/16/2010
specified product size range; therefore, high recycle ratios are
common. The characteristics of the recycle, which are the
consequence of what happened previously in the granulator,
influence what will happen later on in that unit. Thus, cycling
surging and drifting of particles might take place. In extreme
cases, these periodical oscillations coupled with large dead times
can result in plant shut down or permanent variations in the
plant capacity as well as product quality. To minimize these
problems, it is necessary to have a fundamental understanding
of the effects of the recycling material on the behavior of the
granulation circuit.1,5
In view of this and the relatively high current installed world
urea capacity and its forecasted expansion (a net growth of 46.8
Mt between 2008 and 2013, to reach 210.3 Mt in 2013), the
dynamic modeling and simulation to optimize the urea granula-
tion circuits operation will play an important role in this fertilizer
economy.6
Even though there are publications in the field of granulation
circuits and its dynamics, none of the reported studies covers
completely the scope of this work. Wildeboer,7 Adetayo,8
Adetayo et al.,1 Zhang et al.,9 Balliu10 and Balliu and Cameron11
studied the dynamics and stability of drum wet granulation
circuits, by solving the mass, energy, and population balances.
Due to the wet nature of these processes and the type of
granulators within these circuits, the results of the sensitivity
analysis carried out by these authors are not valid for the urea
melt granulation that takes place in multichamber fluidized bed
units. Although Heinrich et al.,12 Heinrich et al.,5 Drechsler et
al.,13 and Radichkov et al.14 studied circuits including fluidized
bed granulators, all these continuous units are constituted by
just one chamber where wet granulation processes occur. In
addition, either these authors assumed constant mass holdup

Figure 1. Typical urea granulation circuit.
for the granulator and/or hypothetical particle size distributions
for the outlet crusher stream (i.e., the crusher operation is not
modeled).
There are many plants of urea granulation spread around the
world, which are generally operated by trial and error. On the
basis of the urea world installed capacity and the forecasted
growth of the urea market, there is a particular need to focus
the research on urea granulation circuits to improve the
efficiency of the plants in order to increase their competitiveness.
Simulation tools, as the one developed in this work, can be very
useful to explore new concepts of the urea granulation circuits.
As aforementioned, the studies about circuit dynamics available
in the literature cannot be extended to industrial urea granulation
straightforwardly. A tool that takes into account the nature of
the urea process (i.e., melt granulation, multichamber fluidized
bed granulator with variable mass hold-up, the cooling stage,
and validated models to represent the crusher and screens) has
not been previously reported.
In this paper, following our previous work,4,15-17 an inte-
grated dynamic environment is implemented to evaluate and
optimize the urea granulation circuit within a process of urea
granules production. In this way the earlier developed models
for the screen and crusher are integrated with the cooler and
granulator model (which assumes accretion as the main growth
mechanism in the multichamber fluidized bed granulation unit)
into a dynamic circuit flowsheet. In our approach, all the units
are modeled by means of the population balance equation (PBE).
In addition, the cooler and granulator energy and mass balances
for urea and air (used as cooling and fluidization medium) are
solved simultaneously with the PBE to properly describe the
size enlargement unit dynamics. The complete circuit dynamic
model is then used to carry out sensitivity analyses by studying
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010 6631
the effect of different operating variables on the particle size
distributions (PSDs) and mass flow rates of the product and
recycle streams. Once the critical variables are identified,
optimization studies are carried out aiming to maximize the plant
production while the marketable product granulometry is
maintained, together with other optimization scenarios. The
modeling work was carried out using gPROMS modeling
language, which provides a complete environment for modeling,
analysis, and optimization of complex systems such as the one
described in this work. Each of the components (see Figure 1)
of the overall granulation circuit model is discussed briefly
below.
2. Crushers, Screens, Granulator, and Cooler
Mathematical Models
Bearing in mind the importance of the simulation tools to
predict the granulation circuit performance, which cannot be
done intuitively, reliable models for all the circuit units are
required.1,7,13,14
The double-roll type of crusher is commonly used as the size
reduction unit in urea granulation circuits. This device is
constituted of two pairs of rolls that rotate in opposite directions
at a certain speed. The rolls can be smooth, corrugated, or
toothed and the distance between them (GAP) is a key variable
that strongly affects the crushed material’s PSD. In the breakage
of urea, the double-roll crusher is preferred over other com-
minuting equipments because narrow size distributions, low dust,
and limited noise generation are expected.18 The crusher model
was presented in a previous contribution4 and is based on the
one developed by Austin et al.19 for the mineral processing
industry. It was validated using industrial data from a large-
6632 Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010

ṁkout ) CDAko√2gFkbed(FkbedHk - Fk+1

scale urea plant. In order to predict the performance of the
bed H
k+1
) k ) 1-5
crusher (i.e., the outlet product PSD), the particle size distribu-
(2)
tion of the feed (screens oversize fraction) and the gap settings
are the only required inputs.
The fertilizer industry requires, as above-mentioned, a clas- ṁ6out ) CDA60F6bed√2gH6 (3)
sification step that is usually performed by double-deck vibrating
screens. Vibrating screens have been extensively studied by where A0k and Hk are the passage area and fluidized bed height
numerous authors also in the context of the mining processing of chamber k, respectively. CD is the discharge coefficient.
industry.20-24 Models in the literature can be classified as According to Massimilla,27 CD takes values around 0.5 for
phenomenological, empirical, and numerical, being based on particles much smaller than the passage or discharge areas. Fbed
k

theory of the screening process, empirical data, and computer is the bed density, defined as
solutions of Newtonian mechanics, respectively.25 The screen
model used in this contribution was developed in a previous Fkbed ) Fp(1 - εk) + Fkaεk (4)
work.15 It is founded on the one proposed by Karra20 that
represents a nonideal classification operation, like the actual Fp, Fak, and εk being the particle density, the fluidization air
screening process, by determining the oversize partition coef- density, and bed porosity in chamber k, respectively.
ficients for each size interval. The screen mathematical model To complete the set of equations to be solved in order to
reported by Karra20 (usually recommended for predicting the determine the mass dynamics, the fluidized bed height within
performance of industrial vibrating screens26) was found, after each chamber was computed as
thorough discrimination of several empirical, probabilistic, and
kinetic models, as the most suitable one to reproduce available
mkT
industrial data. Hk ) (5)
Pseudo-steady-state models were used for the screen and FpAkT(1 - εk)
crusher as the dynamics of these processes are much faster than
those of the granulator and cooler and therefore do not have a ATk being the cross-sectional area of chamber k.
significant influence on the whole circuit dynamics.7 The following dynamic energy balance given by Bertin et
The urea fluidized-bed granulator is basically a bed of solids al.,16,17 which assumes complete evaporation of the small water
fluidized by air, fed continuously with small urea particles fraction present in the urea solution (≈4 wt %),3 was considered
(seeds) and a urea concentrated liquid solution (about 96 wt to compute the temperature Tk in each chamber.
%) that is sprayed from the bottom of the unit. The bubbling
nature of the fluidized bed, which is responsible for the strong
dTk
solids mixing, promotes the repeatedly circulation of the mkTCpu(Tk)
dt ∫ k
) ṁkin Tk-1 T Cpu dT + ṁkmelt(1 - xkmelt) ×
granules through the spraying zone. The granules grow through
the deposition of tiny liquid droplets on the seed material, ∫ Tk
Tk
melt
k
∫
Cpu dT + ṁkmeltxkmelt Tk T Cpw dT -
melt
followed by cooling and evaporation of the water content of ṁkmeltxkmelt∆HEV(Tk) + ṁkmelt(1 - xkmelt)∆HDIS(Tkmelt) +
the droplets, which cause the solidification of the urea present
in the solution. To increase the residence time of the granules ∫ Tk
a
∫
Tk
ṁka Tk Cpa dT + ṁkaYk Tk Cpv dT
a
Tk(0) ) Tk0 (6)
and narrow the outlet product PSD, the industrial units possess
several growth chambers (where the urea concentrated solution k
where Tmelt , Tak, and Tk-1 are the temperatures of the melt,
is sprayed) connected in series. Subsequently, fluidized bed fluidization air, and solids entering chamber k, respectively. Tk
dedusting/cooling compartments are arranged to meet specific is the chamber temperature, and according to previous studies3
requirements for further processing of the granules.3 it can be accurately considered equal to the outlet solid and air
In this work, the granulator model developed by Bertin et temperatures. ∆HDIS and ∆HEV are the latent heats associated
al.16 was implemented. The granulation unit was represented to the urea melt dissolution and water evaporation. Cpu, Cpw,
by three growth and three cooling chambers in series. Dynamic Cpa, and Cpv are the mass heat capacities of the solid urea, liquid
mass and energy balances were solved for all the fluidized beds water, air, and water vapor, respectively.
together with the population balance equation. Bertin et al.16 developed the population balance model for
The dynamic urea mass balance for a chamber k was given the urea fluidized bed granulator assuming that only growth by
by the authors16,17 as accretion occurs (elutriation, agglomeration, breakage, attrition,
and nucleation were supposedly negligible). Therefore, the
dmkT
) ṁkin + ṁkmelt(1 - xkmelt) - ṁkout mkT(0) ) mkT0 (1) dynamic PBE for a well-mixed granulation chamber results
dt
where mTk, ṁink and ṁout
k
are the solid mass holdup, inlet, and ∂nk ∂(Gknk)
+ ) ṅkin - ṅkout (7)
outlet particles mass flow rates, respectively. Due to the series ∂t ∂Dp
configuration, ṁink ) ṁout
k-1
for k from 2 to 6. ṁ1in represents the
k
seeds mass flow rate to the first growth chamber, while ṁmelt where Gk is the growth rate, Dp is the particle’s diameter, and
k
and xmelt are the urea solution mass flow rate atomized into ṅink and ṅout
k
are the number density function of flows in and out
chamber k and its water mass fraction, respectively. Considering of the chamber k, respectively. The PBE discretization technique
that the granulator has three growth chambers and three cooling developed by Hounslow and Marshall28 and adopted by Bertin
compartments, ṁmeltk
) 0 for chambers 4-6. et al.16 was implemented to solve the discretized form of eq 7
The particles flow between chambers is proportional to the together with the initial condition nk(Dp,0) ) n0k.
square root of the pressure drop through the under-current Assuming that particles belonging to different size intervals
passage area. The outlet solids mass flow rates were obtained grow proportionally to their fractional surface area, Gk is defined
by applying the Bernoulli equation: as16

2ṁkmelt(1 - xkmelt)
Gk ) (8)
FpAkpT
k the range 2-4 mm.31 For this reason, in addition to the SGN,
where ApT denotes the total particles superficial area within
chamber k. This equation states that all the particles, independent
of their sizes, grow at the same rate.
The numerical solution of eqs 7 and 8, together with the
corresponding initial conditions, gives the dynamic evolution
of the PSD within each granulator chamber.
To avoid the particles caking and for better handling of the
product, the granules that leave the granulator at relatively high
temperature are further cooled down in a fluidized bed by using
ambient air. The cooler was represented as a continuous stirred
tank analogous to one of the cooling granulator chambers.
Therefore, the dynamic mass, energy, and population balance
equations solved for this unit are the same as those previously
described for the last granulator chamber.
3. Implementation Environment
gPROMS is a multipurpose tool mainly used to build and
validate process models, for steady-state and dynamic simula-
tions and optimizations.29 The models of the circuit units
(dynamic multichamber granulator and fluidized bed cooler,
stationary screen, and crusher) were integrated in the gPROMS
Model Builder Environment in order to perform dynamic
simulations and optimizations. The mass flow rate and PSD of
the recycle stream (constituted by the crusher product and the
screen undersize fraction) were successfully calculated, achiev-
ing convergence. Once all the units were integrated and the
recycle was properly solved, a sensitivity analysis was performed
in order to explore the circuit performance under changes in
different operating conditions.
The optimization tools presented in the gPROMS Model
Builder Environment were also used. In the case under study,
the optimization was specified to be a constrained point
optimization in order to satisfy the bounds imposed on the
variables during the steady-state operation by manipulating a
set of decision variables.29
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Open Loop Dynamics and Sensitivity Analysis. This
study was performed by running different dynamic and steady-
state gPROMS simulations of the entire granulation circuit. The
standard mathematical solver for the solution of mixed sets of
differential and algebraic equations in gPROMS, namely DA-
SOLV, implements variable time step/variable order backward
differentiation formulas (BDF).29 The aim was to determine the
influence of different operating variables on the circuit perfor-
mance. The manipulated variables chosen for the sensitivity
k quently, after a complete cycle, the granulator product SGN
analysis were the urea melt flow rate (ṁmelt ), top and bottom
decks screen apertures (hT and hB), upper and lower crusher
gaps (GAPU and GAPL), and the granulator fluidization air flow
rate (ṁak); each of them were disturbed (10% around the initial
steady state values. All the dynamic simulations were started
at t ) 0 in the initial steady state and the imposed disturbances
were introduced 1000 s afterward. The circuit performance was
monitored by tracking different variables, particularly the plant
capacity (product flow rate), product and recycle quality, recycle
fraction, granulation chamber heights, and temperatures. The
quality of the solids streams was followed by the product and
recycle SGN (size guide number) and the product fraction on
specification. The SGN represents the particle size in millimeters
for which 50% by weight of the product is coarser and 50% is
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010 6633
finer, multiplied by 100. For the special case of granulated urea
production, values of SGN between 300 and 320 are sug-
gested.30 Furthermore, the product size is preferred to be within
the cumulative mass fractions (W) under 2 mm and greater than
4 mm were also studied as a measurement of quality of the
solids streams.
In order to understand the effect of the disturbed variables
on the granulator operation, the chambers’ heights and temper-
atures were also tracked. The chambers’ heights have a direct
influence on the pressure drop, solid mass holdup, and degree
of drops net deposition on the granules surface. These bed
heights should be within certain values to guarantee stable
operations and avoid the undesired attrition and agglomeration
mechanisms. In addition, these heights should not exceed the
chamber weir height, which would cause solids overflow or
bypass. The growth bed temperatures have to remain high (not
lower than 100 °C) to avoid the melt solidification in the spray
nozzles and ensure complete water evaporation. However, too
high temperatures (i.e., close to the urea melting point) would
lead to partial or total quenching of the bed.17
As an example, the open loop dynamic analysis is shown
through Figures 2a-f for a +10% step disturbance in the screen
bottom deck. When the bottom deck aperture is increased,
immediately bigger and more particles per unit time are allowed
to pass through it to the undersize stream (7 and 38% initial
increments in the undersize SGN and mass flow rate, Figures
2a,b). Consequently, coarser and less particles per unit time
remain in the product stream (P), which at first lowers its mass
flow rate 20% and augments its SGN 3%. The oversize stream
remains unchanged at this first moment and until the disturbance
reaches it after cycling through the whole circuit. The recycle
stream is constituted by both the undersize (U) and oversize
(O) streams from the screens, the oversize later being reduced
to fines in the crusher. However, the undersize mass flow rate
is 1 order of magnitude bigger than the crusher one. Therefore,
the recycle behavior is almost a replicate of the trend exhibited
by the undersize stream. As soon as the bottom deck aperture
increases, the seeds flow coming into the granulator is higher
and the particles are considerably bigger (initially changes of
+35% and +7% for the seeds mass flow rate and SGN,
respectively) as a consequence of the increments in the undersize
stream SGN and mass flow rate. When the recycle particles enter
the granulator immediately after the disturbance in the bottom
deck aperture, the particles number in the growth chambers starts
to raise, except for the first chamber, whose particles number
initially shows a slight decrease (Figure 2c). The general
increment in the particles number leads to greater solids
superficial area and therefore to lower growth rate in all the
chambers (Figure 2c), as can be inferred from eq 8. Conse-
decreases but its mass flow rate increases, because more particles
per unit time are recycled to the size enlargement unit (Figures
2a,b). Thus, transitorily the stream that goes back to the top
deck has a lower mass median and higher mass flow rate. As a
result of the lower coarse fraction, the mass flow rate and SGN
of the oversize diminish after the first cycle. For the screen
product and undersize, reductions in the SGNs and increments
in their flow rate are observed. The cycles take place until all
the effects are compensated and the new steady state is reached.
The behavior of the circuit can not be predicted without its
simulation; in fact, both the quality and the mass flow of each
solid stream have to be accounted for. Therefore, the tool here
presented is essential to study the dynamics of the circuit.
6634 Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010

Figure 2. Open loop dynamic analysis for a +10% disturbance in the bottom deck aperture.

It is interesting to note that allowing more mass flow rate
into the granulator by increasing the screen bottom deck aperture
highly augments the solids mass holdup and therefore the
fluidized bed heights in each chamber (Figure 2d). Together
with this effect, the temperature of each chamber gets lower
(Figure 2e). During the cycles, as the bed heights decrease, the
temperatures increase and vice versa. As the mass holdup
increases, the inlet enthalpy provided by a constant melt flow
rate becomes relatively lower per unit of bed mass, and as a
result, the bed temperatures of the growth chambers have to
decrease. Regarding the product quality, at the instant of the
disturbance, there is an increase in the fraction of particles bigger
than 4 mm and a decrease in the fraction of the particles smaller
than 2 mm with a net increment in the stream SGN (Figure

Figure 3. PSD (number density) evolution with time for the last granulator
chamber and a +10% disturbance in the bottom deck aperture.
2a). Nevertheless, both effects compensate and the fraction of
product on specification remains almost unchanged during all
times (Figure 2f). Even though this mass fraction is kept
approximately constant, the marketable product stream evolves
to a final steady state with higher SGN than the one corre-
sponding to the initial steady state (Figure 2a).
Even though, for a +10% disturbance in the bottom screen
deck aperture, the system achieves a final steady state without
any control action and the product SGN exhibits relatively low
changes (as maximum 2% with respect to the initial steady
state), the granulation beds show important deviations. The
circuit has certain capability of self-control; however, the bed
mass holdups should be kept under control to ensure the desired
growth mechanism.
Figure 3 shows the dynamic behavior of the particle size
distribution (number density function) for the last granulator
chamber and the +10% disturbance in the bottom deck aperture.
As it is appreciated, the PSD exhibits oscillations during time.
The time evolution of the PSD is in agreement with the effect
described in Figure 2c (i.e., as the bottom deck aperture is
increased more particles per unit time are allowed to enter the
granulation unit, and consequently, the number of particles
within the chambers increases, too).
Figures 4-7 present the final steady-state response of some
relevant granulation circuit variables when different disturbances
are applied to the system. According to the steady-state
simulation results, the screen top and bottom deck apertures
are the variables that most influence the circuit performance.
Figures 4a and 5b show that the product and recycle SGN
increase as the top deck aperture increases because bigger
particles are allowed to pass into the product stream. The
presence of bigger particles in the feed to the bottom deck
increases the probability of big particles passing through it to
the undersize stream, which together with the crusher fines
constitutes the recycle. In addition, the proportion of bigger
particles in the oversize stream augments, although its total mass
flow rate decreases. Accompanying this effect, the fraction of
material in the product bigger than 4 mm increases while the
fraction smaller than 2 mm decreases (Figure 4, parts c and b,
respectively). Because the fraction of bigger particles increases
in a higher proportion than the fraction of smaller particles
diminishes, the fraction on specification in the product stream
decreases (Figure 4d). Figure 6a,b illustrates that both the
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010 6635
undersize and oversize streams diminish as the top deck aperture
increase. Therefore, the recycle fraction, which is defined as
the ratio between the material out of specification and the
product [(O + U)/P], also decreases (Figure 5a). The overall
effect of increasing the top deck aperture is a decrease in the
fines that circulate through the granulation circuit; however, this
advantage (as it is discussed below) is counterbalanced by more
unstable operations. Since both screen apertures become more
spaced as the top deck aperture increases, more particles per
unit time are allowed into the product stream but not necessarily
within the commercial size range. As expected, due to the lower
seeds mass flow rate that enters to the granulator (Figure 5a),
the bed temperatures increase (Figure 7a, first chamber tem-
perature) while the bed height diminishes in all the chambers
(Figure 7b, second chamber height variations). The aperture of
the bottom deck is also a variable that highly affects the recycle
and product streams. The effects of disturbing this variable were
discussed above (Figure 2a-f). Although the screen top and
bottom deck apertures cannot be changed under operation, the
study of their influence on the circuit performance can be useful
to define the appropriate screen meshes or to predict the effect
of the apertures blinding.
Regarding the impact of the urea melt, Figures 4a and 5b
show that the product and recycle SGN decrease as the melt
increase. Even though both the screen oversize and undersize
streams increase (Figure 6a,b), the recycle fraction decreases
because the product flow rate increases by the same amount
the urea melt does (Figures 5a). Contrary to the effect caused
by the screen apertures, the fraction of fines in the final product
increases and that of the coarse material decreases, leaving the
specification fraction almost unchanged (Figure 4b-d). Except
for the product and oversize flows, the melt flow rate does not
greatly affect the granulometry and flows of the others solids
streams. Due to the higher seeds mass flow rate, the bed heights
in the granulation chambers increase. Nevertheless, the increase
in the granulator mass holdup is not enough to fully compensate
the increments in the chambers temperature caused by the higher
melt flow rate (Figure 6a,b).
The simulation results indicate that the circuit variables seem
to be quite insensitive to changes in the crusher upper gap. Even
though the PSD of the upper pair of rolls outlet stream varies,
the gap of the lower pair of rolls (constant for this analysis)
allows almost reestablishing the final granulometry of the
crushed stream.
On the other hand, the influence of the lower gap on the
product and recycle variables is relatively more important than
the effect caused by the upper gap. As the lower gap increases
(Figures 4a and 5b), both the product and recycle SGN increase
because the particles undergo less breakage (i.e., bigger particles
are generated by the crusher). The increment in the coarse
material flow through the circuit results in a decrease of the
fines classified by the screen and an increase in the oversize
flow (Figure 6) with, as shown in Figure 5a, a net decrease in
the recycle fraction (the undersize flow is higher than the
oversize one). Regarding the product quality, an increase in the
material bigger than 4 mm and a decrease in the material less
than 2 mm are observed (Figure 4c,b). Overall, the product on
specification slightly decreases, as shown through Figure 4d.
As a consequence of the decrease in the recycle mass flow, the
bed heights become somewhat lower and the chambers’
temperatures become higher (Figures 7a,b).
The fluidization air does not directly influence the circuit
PSDs and mass flow rates but has significant effect on the
chambers levels and to a less extent on the bed temperatures.
6636 Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010
Figure 4. Product quality variables.
Figure 5. Recycle variables.
As expected, increases in the fluidization air flow rate lead to
higher bed heights and lower temperatures in the granulator
chambers (Figure 7).
As can be seen in Figure 7a,b, some disturbances in the top
and bottom deck apertures generate responses that are beyond
the imposed limits for the chambers temperatures and heights,
respectively. Therefore, the operation needs to be controlled to
not surpass those limits.
4.2. Circuit Stability. To analyze the circuit stability, the
effects of different step disturbances on the variables that most
affect the oversize mass flow rate were studied. As was
described by other authors, the granulation circuits become less
stable as the flow rate of the crushed material gets lower.5,12-14
Figure 8a presents the dynamic evolutions of the product SGN
caused by changes performed in the crusher lower gap. As
previously discussed, smaller lower gaps lead to more fines in
the circuit and consequently to less material classified in the
screens as oversize. This considerably augments the circuit
instability, as indicated by the product SGN oscillations.
Regarding the screen top deck aperture, the same effect

Figure 6. Classification screens variables.
Figure 7. Multichamber granulator variables.
Figure 8. Different step disturbances in the crusher lower gap and the screen top deck aperture.
described for decreases in the lower crusher gap was observed
when increasing this deck aperture (Figure 8b). Nevertheless,
the circuit seems to be considerably more unstable for the top
deck aperture, basically because the effects of hT on the oversize
flow rate are instantaneous while those of GAPL are delayed
by the dynamics of the granulator and cooler, which act as buffer
stages.
4.3. Process Optimizations. Different circuit optimizations
were performed by means of the optimization tools presented
in the gPROMS Model Builder Environment. In the case under
study and to establish the optimal design circuit variables, the
optimizations were specified to be point optimizations, i.e.,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010 6637
optimal steady-state operations. For this reason, end-point
constraints were imposed. From the two available standard
mathematical solvers, namely CVP_SS and CVP_MS, the first
one solves steady-state and dynamic optimization problems
while the second one is just for dynamic optimizations.
Therefore, the CVP_SS is used in this case, which employs by
default the DASOLV code for the solution of the underlying
DAE problem. Detailed description on this optimization solver
can be found elsewhere.29
The first optimization was performed with the aim of
maximizing the fraction of product on specification (within the
range 2-4 mm), by manipulating the lower crusher gap and
6638 Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010

Table 1. Optimization Results maxhT,hB,GAPL(R)

base case optimization 1 optimization 2 optimization 3 300 e SGNproduct e 320
Objective Function 0.5Hweir e Hk e Hweir for k ) 1-6
fraction on 86.39 94.73 - -
specification (%) 100 °C e Tk e 120 °C for k ) 1-3
recycle fraction R - 0.71R - W2-4mm g 90%
product mass P - - 1.15P
flow rate
As indicated by the results (Table 1, optimization 2), the
Optimization Variables control variables were changed in the same direction as in
GAPL GAPL 1.29GAPL 1.21GAPL GAPL optimization 1. However, the overall effect causes a diminution
hT hT 0.87hT 0.92hT hT
hB hB 0.98hB 0.87hB hB
in the recycle fraction, which implies less mass in the granulator,
urea melt ṁmelt ṁmelt ṁmelt 1.15 ṁmelt as reflected by the lower heights and higher temperatures.
flow rate Therefore, there is a compromise between having more product
Constraints on specification and less recycle to the granulator.
product SGN 317.68 300a 300a 315.74 Another interesting optimization analysis includes a plant
(mm ×100) revamping, the objective function of which can be formulated
height chamber 1 0.74Hweir 0.92Hweir 0.60Hweir 0.92Hweir
height chamber 2 0.80Hweir Hweira 0.65Hweir Hweira
as maximizing the product mass flow rate by manipulating only
height chamber 3 0.77Hweir 0.96Hweir 0.61Hweir 0.95Hweir the urea melt (hT, hB, and GAPL remain constant) but satisfying
height chamber 4 0.78Hweir 0.98Hweir 0.63Hweir 0.97Hweir the constraints imposed in the optimization 1 (Table 1,
height chamber 5 0.72Hweir 0.91Hweir 0.57Hweir 0.90Hweir optimization 3):
height chamber 6 0.67Hweir 0.84Hweir 0.53Hweir 0.84Hweir
temperature T1 0.96T1 1.06T1 1.04T1
chamber 1 maxmmelt(P)
temperature T2 0.98T2 1.03T2 1.04T2 300 e SGNproduct e 320
chamber 2
temperature T3 0.98T3 1.02T3 1.04T3 0.5Hweir e Hk e Hweir for k ) 1-6
chamber 3
fraction on 86.39 - 90.00a - 100 °C e Tk e 120 °C for k ) 1-3
specification (%)
Other Variables According to the results, the plant capacity can be increased
fraction on 86.39 94.73 90.00 86.42
specification (%) up to 15% with a decrease of about 10% in the recycle and the
recycle fraction R 1.24R 0.71R 0.90R fraction of product on specification will be kept almost
product mass P P P 1.15P unchanged with respect to the base case. For product flow rates
flow rate
higher than 15% with respect to the steady state, the height in
a
Active constraint. the second chamber surpasses the specified weir height.

both screen decks apertures. This optimization was accomplished 5. Conclusions

by considering the following constraints: the product SGN must
be within the 300-320 range, the granulator bed heights within
the weir and minimum operating limits and the growth chambers
temperatures (chambers 1, 2 and 3) within 100-120 °C.
Mathematically, the first optimization problem can be formulated
as
maxhT,hB,GAPL(W2-4mm)
300 e SGNproduct e 320
0.5Hweir e Hk e Hweir for k ) 1-6
100 °C e Tk e 120 °C for k ) 1-3
The values of all the granulator variables for the base case
and this optimization (optimization 1) are shown in Table 1.
The crusher lower gap was shifted toward less fines production,
making the circuit performance more stable. Both deck apertures
were modified in order to have a narrower product size range,
increasing the proportion of granules on specification. The
objective is achieved by lowering the product SGN, increasing
the recycle and the bed heights, and diminishing the tempera-
tures in the granulator chambers.
Even though optimization 1 leads to an increase of 10% in
the product mass fraction on specification with respect to the
base case, the recycle stream is forced to increase significantly.
Because of this, another optimization was designed. The
objective was to minimize the recycle but keep the production
on specification greater than or equal to 90%:
A detailed mathematical model to represent the steady and
dynamic operation of a urea granulation plant was developed.
The open loop behavior was analyzed by disturbing different
operating variables in order to determine their impact on the
circuit performance. Even though the assayed disturbances affect
the system variables, the sensitivity analysis indicated that the
circuit has a certain capacity of self-control. The present study
revealed that the effect of the variables on the circuit operation
verifies the following order of importance: hT > hB > GAPL >
k
ṁmelt > ṁak > GAPU. This result indicates that the screen apertures
blinding over time may affect the product quality significantly,
being particularly important for the bottom deck that handles a
lot of fines. It was also demonstrated that, for the urea
granulation circuit here presented, the circuit stability also
strongly depends on the oversize flow rate, as mentioned by
other authors. In this work, the effect of the top deck aperture
on the oversize flow rate (i.e., circuit stability) was found to be
stronger than that caused by the lower crusher gap. Another
application of the circuit model is the optimization of urea
granulation plants. Through three different scenarios it was
possible to determine the combinations of the operating variables
with more impact that allows one to maximize the fraction of
product on specification, to minimize the recycle fraction to the
granulator, and to revamp the plant production without losing
product quality and keeping the granulator heights and temper-
atures within the operating limits. This work illustrates that the
developed granulation circuit simulator, besides providing the
PSD of all the circuit solid streams, is a valuable tool to select
the appropriate variable values to meet the desired production
requirements that can vary over time according to the market

rules. Also the presented flowsheet can be combined with control
loops of the granulator heights and temperatures, a bypass to
manipulate the recycle stream, etc.; these flowsheet refinements
together with dynamic optimizations will be the subject of future
papers.
Acknowledgment
The authors express their gratitude for the financial support
by the Consejo de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas y Técnicas
(CONICET), Agencia Nacional de Promoción Cientı́fica y
Tecnológica (ANPCyT), and Universidad Nacional del Sur
(UNS) of Argentina.
Notation
ApT k
) total particle superficial area within chamber k (m2)
A0 ) passage or discharge area (m2)
k
ATk ) chamber k cross-sectional area (m2)
CD ) discharge coefficient
Cpa ) mass heat capacity of air (J/kg K)
Cpu ) mass heat capacity of solid urea (J/kg K)
Cpv ) mass heat capacity of water vapor (J/kg K)
Cpw ) mass heat capacity of liquid water (J/kg K)
g ) gravity acceleration (m/s2)
Dp ) particle diameter (m)
Gk ) growth rate for chamber k (m/s)
GAP ) distance between rolls in the crusher (mm)
GAPL ) crusher lower gap (mm)
GAPU ) crusher upper gap (mm)
Hk ) height of chamber k, k ) 1-6 (m)
hB ) bottom deck aperture (mm)
hT ) top deck aperture (mm)
Hweir ) weir height (m)
ṁak ) fluidization air mass flow rate in granulator chamber k, dry
basis (kg/s)
ṁink ) particle mass flow rate entering granulator chamber k (kg/s)
k
ṁmelt ) urea melt mass flow rate in granulator chamber k (kg/s)
ṁoutk
) particle mass flow rate coming out granulator chamber k
(kg/s)
mTk ) solid mass holdup in granulator chamber k (kg)
mTk0 ) initial solid mass holdup in granulator chamber k (kg)
nk ) number density function in chamber k (no./m)
ṅink ) number density function flowing in chamber k (no./m s)
k
ṅout ) number density function flowing out chamber k (no./m s)
O ) screen oversize mass flow rate (kg/s)
P ) screen product mass flow rate (kg/s)
PBE ) population balance equation
PSD ) particle size distribution
R ) recycle fraction
SGN ) size guide number, particle size corresponding to the 50%
of the mass cumulative size distribution (mm × 100)
t ) time (s)
Tk ) temperature in chamber k, k ) 1-6 (K)
T0k ) initial temperature in chamber k, k ) 1-6 (K)
Tak ) temperature of the fluidization air in chamber k (K)
k
Tmelt ) temperature of the melt entering to chamber k (K)
U ) screen undersize mass flow rate (kg/s)
W ) product cuts, mass fraction (wt %)
Yk ) mass air humidity in chamber k, dry basis (kgwater/kgdry air)
k
xmelt ) fraction of water in the melt stream of chamber k
Greek Symbols
∆HEV ) latent heat capacity of water evaporation (J/kg)
∆HDIS ) latent heat capacity of urea melt dissolution (J/kg)
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 49, No. 14, 2010 6639
ε ) bed porosity of chamber k
k
Fak ) air density in chamber k (kg/m3)
Fbed
k
) fluidized bed density in chamber k (kg/m3)
Fp ) particle density (kg/m3)
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