THERMODYNAMICS

This is the science of the relationship between heat, work and the properties of the systems.

DEFINITIONS:

1. System: this is a collection of matter within an arbitrary prescribed region e.g the fluid

contained by the cylinder walls, cylinder head and the piston.

2. Surrounding: the region enclosing the system is its surrounding. The surrounding may be

affected by changes within the system.

3. Boundary: this is the surface of separation between the system and its surroundings.

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 4. Properties: this is the characteristics that define the condition of a system e.g pressure, temperature,

volume, internal energy, enthalpy etc.

5. Work and heat: forms of energy in transition and cannot be contained or possessed in a body.

6. Reversibility: when a system undergoes a reversible process, then both the fluid and its

surrounding can be restored to its original state.

CRITERIA OF REVERSIBILITY

o The process must be frictionless. The fluid must be non-viscous be friction is not reversible.

o Infinitesimal differences of pressure and temperature between the system and its

surrounding.

From the above criteria, reversibility cannot be achieved, hence we define INTERNAL

REVERSIBILITY. In internal reversibility although the surrounding cannot be restored to their original

state, the fluid within the system is assumed to be in equilibrium and the path of the process cannot be

retraced to its original state.

REVERSIBLE WORK

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Assuming we had an ideal frictionless fluid contained in a cylinder behind a piston and that there was no

friction between the moving parts, also movement is very slow, then

Work done by fluid = force x distance moved by the force

= PA x L

= PV

Where V = A x L

Since this was a reversible process, if it took place between state 1 and 2, then by carrying out a summation

of the small quantities of work done from initial to the final state, we can find the total work done.

Thus, total work done=  pdv

Hence if we can express ‘p’ in terms of v, the integral can be evaluated.

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FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When a system undergoes a thermodynamic circle the NET HEAT transferred to the system from the

surrounding is equal to the NET work done by the system on the surrounding.

dQ = dW

WORK HEAT SIGN CONVETIONS

Q in W in
Positive Negative
Heat supplied Work done on the
system

SYSTEM

W out Q out
Positive Negative
Work done by the Heat rejected
system

STEADY FLOW PROCESSES

o Non flow processes: work and heat transfers occur across the boundary of the fluid but the

working fluid is confined within the system boundary.

o Flow process: in addition to the work and heat transfers occurring across the boundary of

the system, the working fluid itself also cross the boundary. Flow processes are

characterized as steady or unsteady.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A STEADY PROCESS

o The boiler is under a constant load

o A water feed pump keeps the water level constant

o The furnace supplies heat energy at a steady rate in order to maintain a steady rate of steam

generation

STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION (S.F.E.E)

The total energy possessed by a fluid in motion at a given time is:

C2
U  Zg per unit mass
2

Where

U = internal energy per kg

C2
= kinetic energy per kg
2

Zg = potential energy per kg

Suppose this fluid is passed through an apparatus shown below

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 The energy required to induce a unit mass of fluid from the surrounding to the system will be

given by:

Energy = force x distance

= PA x L

= P(AL)

=PV

Where V = AL

= specific volume m3 /kg

Q and W are the heat and work done at the inlet and outlet respectively.
If we now consider the total energy entering and leaving the system, in the absence of losses they
should be equal.
Thus,
C2 C2
Q  U1   Z1 g  P1V1  W  U 2   Z 2 g  P2V2
2 2
The term u + pv = h, and is known as the specific enthalpy.
Thus,

C2 C2
Q  h1   Z1 g  W  h2   Z2 g
2 2

Where

Q = heat supplied per unit mass

h1 and h2 = specific enthalpy at inlet and outlet

C2
=kinetic energy per unit mass
2

Zg = potential energy per unit mass

Given the specific volume v, mass flow rate m and the velocity C; then

mv
The cross sectional area A 
C

Since the mass flow rate is constant at any stage in a steady flow process

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 CA
m  CA , where r is the density at the section.
v

The continuity equation becomes

C1 A1 C 2 A2
m 
v1 V2

APPLICATIONS OF THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

BOILERS

In a boiler operating under steady conditions, water will be pumped into a boiler along the feed

line at the same rate as which steam leaves the boiler along the steam main; and heat energy will

be supplied from the furnace at a steady rate. The steady flow energy equation becomes:

 C 2  C1 
2 2

Q  W  m h2  h1   
 2 

In this equation

o Q will be the amount of heat energy passing into the fluid/sec

o W will be ZERO, since a boiler has no moving parts capable of effecting work transfer

o K.E will be small compared with the other terms and may be neglected

o M will be the rate of flow of the fluid

Hence, the equation reduces to

Q = m(h2 + h1)

CONDENSERS

A condenser is a boiler in reverse, ie whereas in a boiler heat energy is supplied to convert the

liquid into vapour; in a condenser heat energy is removed in order to condense the vapour into a

liquid.

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If the condenser is in a steady state, then the amount of liquid leaving the condenser must be equal

to the amount of vapour entering the condenser. The steady flow energy equation gives

C  C1
2 2

Q  w  m[(h2  h1 )  2 ]
2

Note

o Q will be the amount of heat/sec transferred from the system

o W will be ZERO as in a boiler

o The KE term may be neglected as in a boiler

o M will be the rate of flow

The equation reduces to

Q = m(h2 + h1)

TURBINES

A turbine is a device which uses a pressure drop to produce work energy which is used to drive an

external load.

The steady flow energy equation gives

 C 2  C1 
2 2

Q  W  m h2  h1   
 2 

Note

o The average velocity of flow through a turbine is normally high, and the fluid passes

quickly through the turbine. It may be assumed that, because of this, heat energy does not

have time to flow into or out of the fluid during its passage through the turbine and hence

Q = 0.

o Although the velocities are high the difference between them is not large, and term

representing the changes in KE may be neglected

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 o W will be the amount of external work energy produced/sec

o The SFEE becomes

-W = m(h2 + h1)

W = m(h1+h2)

COMPRESSORS

The action of a compressor is the reverse of a turbine ie it uses external work energy to produce a

pressure rise. In applying the SFEE to a compressor, exactly the same arguments are used as for a

turbine and the equation becomes

-W = m(h2 + h1)

Since h2  h1 , W will be found to be negative

NOZZLES

A nozzle utilizes a pressure drop to produce an increase in the KE of the fluid.

The SFEE gives

 C  C1 
2 2

Q  W  m h2  h1   2 
 2 

Note

o The average velocity of flow through a nozzle is high, hence the fluid spends only a short

time in the nozzle. For this reason, it may be assumed that there is insufficient time for heat

energy to flow into or out of the the fluid during its passage through the nozzle ie Q = 0

o Since a nozzle has no moving parts, no work energy will be transferred to or from the fluid

as it passes through the nozzle. Hence the SFEE becomes

 C  C1 
2 2

0  m h2  h1   2 
 2 

Often C1 is negligible compared with C2. In this case the equation becomes
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  C  C1 
2 2

0  m h2  h1   2 
 2 

C2
 h1  h2
2
C 2  2h1  h2 

THROTTLING

A throttling process is one in which the fluid is made to flow through a restriction eg a particular

opened valve or orifice, causing a considerable drop in the pressure of the fluid.

The SFEE gives

 C  C1 
2 2

Q  W  m h2  h1   2 
 2 

Note

o Since the throttling takes place over a very small distance, the available area through which

heat energy can flow is very small and it is normally assumed that no energy is lost by heat

transfer

o Since there are no moving parts, no energy is transferred in form of work energy ie W = 0

o The difference between the C1 and C2 terms will not be gret and consequently the terms

representing KE will be neglected

o The steady flow equation becomes

M(h2-h2) = 0

h1=h2

ie during a throttling process the enthalpy remains constant.

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 NON FLOW PROCESSES

Processes which are undergone by a system when the fluid cannot cross the boundary are called

NON FOW PROCESSES, eg in an internal combustion engine.

NON FLOW ENERGY EQUATION (NFEE)

The steady flow energy equation for a unit mass of the working fluid per kg/s is;

C2 C2
Q  U1   Z1 g  P1V1  W  U 2   Z 2 g  P2V2
2 2
If the fluid is undergoing a non flow process from state 1 to 2, then the terms P1V1 and P2V2 (which

represent the amount of work energy required to introduce and expel the fluid from the system)

will be ZERO, since the fluid will still be in the system at the end of the process.

For the same reason, the changes in KE and PE of the fluid will be ZERO. Thus the general

equation becomes

U1+Q=W+U2

This is thee non flow energy equation and it states that

“The change in internal energy of the fluid is equal to the nett amount of heat energy supplied to

the fluid MINUS the nett amount of work doe from the fluid”

U2 – U1 = Q-W

CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESSES

Consider the amount of fluid contained within the boundary. If the volume is to remain constant,

then the piston will not be moved. That is, no energy transfer in form of work can take place W=0.

Thus, if there are to be any energy changes, they must occur by the fluid either gaining or losing

energy by the transfer of heat energy.

If U1 = initial internal energy

U2 = final internal energy

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 Q = nett amount of heat energy passing into the fluid

Then, Q-W=U2-U1

Q = U2 -U1

CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESSES

Consider the quantity of fluid within the boundary at state 1.

If the pressure on the fluid remains constant at a pressure P N/m2, the amount of energy transferred

from the fluid in form of work energy in moving the piston reversibly from v1 to v2 m3 is given by

W= P(V2-V1)

If u1 and u2 are the initial and final internal energies and Q the amount of heat energy passing into

the fluid, then

Q – W = U2 - U1

Q = (U2-U1) + P(V2-V1)

= (U2+P2V2) - (U1+P1V1)

SINCE P1=P2=P1

Thus Q = h2-h1 , since h = u + pv

ADIABATIC PROCESS

In this process, no heat energy is allowed to cross the boundary ie Q=0

Let u1 and u2 be the initial and final internal energies, W the net amount of work energy; thus

W = u1-u2

POLYTROPIC PROCESS

Its represented by the equation

PVn = constant, where n is the index of expansion or compression.

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If a fluid changes from an initial state 1 to 2 by such a process, the amount of energy crossing the

boundary is

p1v1  p 2 v 2
W 
n 1

Applying the NFEE to the polytropic process

p1v1  p 2 v 2
Q  u 2  u1  
n 1

PRESSURE VOLUME (P-V) DIAGRAMS

When a liquid is heated at any one constant pressure, there is one fixed temperature at which

bubbles of vapour form in the liquid. This is BOILING. A series of boiling points plotted on PV

diagram at various pressures will appear as a sloping line shown below.

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Further constant pressure heating of the liquid at boiling point results in a change of phase from

liquid to vapour. During this change of phase the pressure and temperature remains constant.

The heat supplied during this change of phase is known as the LATENT HEAT OF

VAPOURISATION. It is noted that there is a definite value of specific volume at which

vaporization is completed; hence a series of these points can be plotted and joined to form a curve

above.

When the curves already plotted are put on the same axes and extended to higher pressures, they

form a complete curve shown below.

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Definitions

Wet vapour:

Is a mixture of dry vapour and liquid.

Saturated state:

It is a State at which change of phase starts without change of pressure and temperature.

Superheated steam

Steam heated beyond its saturation temperature

Degree of superheat = T2-TS

Dryness fraction

o The condition or quantity of a wet vapour

o The mass of dry vapour in 1kg of the mixture(designated x)

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 o It varies from x=0 on the saturated liquid line to x=1 on the saturated vapour line

massofdryvapour
o x
massofmixturedryvapour  liquid

Total volume of mixture = vol of liquid present + vol of dry vapour present

volumeofliquid  volumeofdryvapour 3
specificvol  m /kg
totalmassofwetvapour

For 1kg of wet vapour, if there are x kg of dry vapour and (1-x) kg of liquid, where x is the dryness

fraction, then

V=(1-x)Vf + Vx = xVg

U=(1-x)Uf + xUg

H= hf + xhg

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 THE PERFECT GAS

At temperatures considerably in excess of the critical temperature of a fluid and at very low

pressures, the vapour of the fluid tends to obey the law

PV
R
T

No gas in practice obeys this law rigidly, but most gases tend towards it.

An imaginary ideal gas which obeys the law is called the PERFECT GAS and the equation is

called THE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION OF STATE. The constant R is called the GAS

CONSTANT. Its units are kJ/kgk. Each perfect gas has a different constant. For a given mass m

occupying a volume v m3, the equation becomes

PV=mRT, and also m=Mn

Where M=relative molecular weight and n=no. of moles

PV
Thus PV=nMRT or MR 
nT

AVAGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS

It states that “the volume of 1 mole of any gas is the same as the volume of 1 mole of any other

gas, when the gases are at the same temperature and pressuer.

Volume per mole = constant at any temperature and pressure

PV
 Constant for all gases
nT

This constant is given the symbol Ro and is known as the UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT.

Experiments have shown that the volume of 1 mole of any perfect gas at 1 bar and 00C is

approximately 22.71m3.

1x102 x 22.71
R0   8.314 kJ/molek
1x 273

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 SPECIFIC HEATS

The specific heat capacity of a solid is usually defined as “the heat required to raise unit mass

through one degree temperature rise”

For small quantities dQ = mcd

However, for a gas, this specific heats are define as:

o Specific heat at constant pressure Cp

o Specific heat at constant volume Cv

Thus dQ = m Cp dT and dQ = m CvdT , for a reversible non flow constant pressure and constant

volume processes respectvively.

For a perfect gas the values of Cp and Cv are constant at all pressures and temperatures.

Integrating

Q = m CpT and Q = m CvT

JOULES LAW

State that “the internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of temperature only”.

Thus, U = f(T) and dU = CvdT

Integrating, U2 – U1 = Cv(T2-T1) per unit mass

Note

From joules law U=f(T) and from the non flow energy equation dQ = dU + dW but dW=0 ; thus

dQ = dU.

Also at constant volume heating dQ = CvdT, thus dQ=dU= CvdT

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SPECIFIC HEATS

From the NFEE

Q = (U2-U1) + W = Cv(T2-T1) + W

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For a constant pressure process, W = P(V2-V1)

Thus Q = Cv(T2-T1) + P(V2-V1) but PV = RT

Hence Q = Cv(T2-T1) + R(T2-T1)

Since it’s a constant pressure process, then Q = Cp(T2-T1)

Equating Cp(T2-T1) = Cv(T2-T1) + R(T2-T1)

Cp= Cv+ R

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY FOR A PERFECT GAS

From h=U +PV=CvT + RT = T (Cv+ R ) =CpT

Thus h2-h1=Cp(T2-T1) , this applies irrespective of whether the process is a constant pressure

process or not .

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 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS “ISOCHORIC PROCESS”

The working fluid is contained in a RIGID VESSEL hence the boundaries are immovable and no

work transfer takes place. From the NFEE

Q = (U2-U1) + W

=U2-U1 since W=0

ie all the heat supplied at constant volume goes into increasing the internal energy. This applies to

both vapour and perfect gas.

For perfect gas we can proceed further by applying the joules law; U = CvT

Q = Cv(T2-T1) ONLY FOR PERFECT GASES

EXAMPLES Q3.1,3.2

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CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESSES “ISOBARIC”

The boundary moves against an external resistance and hence work transfer occurs as heat is

added.

dW = pdV , but W = p(V2-V1)

Thus, Q = (U2-U1) + W

= (U2-U1) + p(V2-V1)

= (U2+pV2) - (U1+pV1)

= h2-h1

For a perfect gas, we can show that h = CpT

Thus, Q = Cp(T2-T1)

EXAMPLES 3.1, Q3.3, Q3.4

CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS “ISOTHERMAL”

For a vapour

Q = (U2-U1) + W

The change (U2-U1) can be evaluated from the value obtained in steam tables but there is no

convenient way of evaluating the work transfer; other than by plotting the process on a pv

diagram and using Simpson or trapezium laws

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For a perfect gas pv = C

Q = (U2-U1) + W,

v2
From dW = pdV , then W  p1v1 In
v1

v2
Thus, Q = (U2-U1) + p1v1 In
v1

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Applying the joules law

v2
Q = Cv(T2-T1) + p1v1 In but T1=T2
v1

v2 v p
Therefore Q = p1v1 In =mRT In 2 =mRT In 1
v1 v1 p2

EX 3.3 Q3.5, Q3.6, Q3.7

REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC NON FLOW PROCESS

An adiabatic process is one in which “NO HEAT IS TRANSFERRED TO OR FROM THE

WORKING FLUID”

From the NFEE,

Q = (U2-U1) + W, but Q=0

Then W =U1-U2

For a vapour, the work transfer can be obtained by reading from the steam tables.

However, for a perfect gas, joules law can be applied;

W =U1-U2 = Cv(T2-T1) per unit mass

An adiabatic process for a perfect gas follows the law pv = constant.

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From p1v1 = p2v2 , then it follows that;

 1
 1
V  P  
T2  T1  1   T1  2 
 V2   P1 

A REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS IS CALLED AN ‘ISENTROPIC PROCESS”

W = Cv(T1-T2)

EX 4.4, 4.5 and Q3.8, 3.9,3.10

POLYTROPIC PROCESS

It found that many processes in practice approx. to a reversible law of the form

PVn = Constant; where n is a constant. Both vapour and gases obeys this law closely in many

non flow processes. Such processes are said to be internally reversible.

From dW = pdV and pvn = C;

P1V1  P2V2
W ,but Q = (U2-U1) + W
n 1

P1V1  P2V2
Then Q = (U2-U1) +
n 1

  n R(T1  T2 )
It can be shown that Q   W poly , whereW poly 
  1  n 1

HYPERBOLIC PROCESS

This is a particular case of the polytropic process PVn= Constant, being the case when n=1. Thus

the law for the hyperbolic process is PV = Constant.

dV V V
W  C  CIn 2  PVIn 2
v V1 V1

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 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

For heat transfer to take place there must be a heat source at a high temperature and a heat sink at

a lower temperature for heat rejection. The second law is best illustrated by the heat engine.

A heat engine is a system which when it undergoes a complete cycle, net work is developed

from net heat supplied.

SOURCE

Q1
HEAT
ENGINE
NET WORK

Q2

SINK

From the First law,

Q = W

Q1+ -Q2 = W , note Q1  Q2

Thermal efficiency

This is the ratio of the net work to the heat supplied

Wnet Q1  Q2
 th  
Q1 Q1

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 ENTROPY

dQrev
ds 
T
dQrev
s 2  s1  
T
Tds  dQrev comparewithpdv  dWrev

From the first law, we saw that given a process on a pv diagram, the area under the process

represents the work transfer. Similarly, we say that given the Ts diagram, the area under any

process on the diagram represents the heat transfer.

TS DIAGRAM FOR A VAPOUR

Values of entropy have been tabulated for vapour, where the zero has been chosen arbitrarily, eg

for steam the zero for entropy is 0.010C.

Note

Constant volume lines are concave down in the wet region and slope up more steeply than the

pressure lines in the superheat region.

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CHANGE OF ENTROPY FOR A PERFECT GAS

Starting from the NFEE

dQ = dU + dW

=CvdT +pdv , but pv = RT which implies p = RT/v

dQ C v dT RTdv C v dT Rdv
ds     
T T vT T v
C v dT Rdv
 ds   T   v
T v
s 2  s1  C v In 2  RIn 2
T1 v1
T2 p
s 2  s1  C p In  RIn 1
T1 p2
p2 v
s 2  s1  C v In  C p In 2
p1 v1

p1v1 p 2 v 2
The above is after using the equation 
T1 T2

For a polytropic process, and from

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 n 1
n 1
p  n v 
T2  T1  2   T1  1 
 p1   v2 
1
 p n
v 2  v1  1 
 p2 

It can be shown that

   n  v2
s 2  s1  R  In
   1  v1

REVERSIBLE PROCESSES ON THE TS DIAGRAM

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

FOR A PERFECT GAS

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From dW = pdv and pv = C Q=T(S2-S1 )

V2
W  P1V1 In Obtained from above eqs, T in Kelvin
V1

From Q = (U2-U1) + W

By joules law dU = CvdT, then U2-U1=Cv(T2-T1) but the temperature is constant; therefore Q=W

FOR A VAPOUR

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W= area under process. Evaluated using the Simpsons, trapezoidal laws etc

Q= T(S2-S1), the values of entropy got from the steam tables

W= Q-(U2-U1), the values of internal energy from tables

EX 5.10, 5.11 and Q5.6 ,5.7,5.7,5.10

CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS

FOR A PERFECT GAS

W= P(V2-V1) Q = (U2-U1) + W

=R (T2-T1) =Cv(T2-T1) + R(T2-T1)

=(Cv+R)(T2-T1)

=Cp(T2-T1)

S2-S1 obtained from the equations above

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FOR A VAPOUR

W= P(V2-V1) Q = (U2-U1) + W

Values of V2,V1, U2,U1 got from the steam tables

Change of entropy S2-S1 obtained from the steam tables.ExamplesQ5.1, Q5.2

CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS

FOR A PERFECT GAS

W=0 Q = (U2-U1) + W

= (U2-U1)

= Cv(T2-T1)

S2-S1 obtained from the equations above.

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FOR A VAPOUR

W=0 Q = (U2-U1) + W

= (U2-U1)

U2,U1,S2,S1 values from the steam tables

POLYTROPIC PROCESS

FOR A PERFECT GAS

P1V1  P2V2 Q
  n  W
W 
n 1   1 polty
R (T1  T2 ) v2
W  S  C v   n In
n 1 v1

For change in entropy any of the equations above can be used.

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FOR A VAPOUR

P1V1  P2V2
W 
n 1
1 Q = (U2-U1) + W
P n
V2  V1  1 
 P2 

NOTE

o Locate state point 2 ie whether wet or superheated

o Change in entropy, get values of S2,S1 from the tables.

o Q5.12

ISENTROPIC PROCESS

This is a reversible adiabatic process, Q=0

For a perfect gas

P1V1  P2V2
W 
 1
R(T1  T2 )
W 
 1

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For a vapour

P1V1  P2V2
W
n 1

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 THE HEAT ENGINE CYCLES

A heat engine is a system operating in a complete cycle and developing network from a supply

of heat. The most efficient cycle has been found to be the one in which all the heat is supplied at

one fixed temperature and all the heat rejected is at lower fixed temperature. The cycle will

therefore appear as shown on the TS diagram

This cycle is known as the CARNOT CYCLE.

PROCESSES:

o 1-2 Isentropic expansion from T1 toT2

o 2-3 Isothermal heat rejection

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 o 3-4 Isentropic compression

o 4-1 Isothermal heat supply

network

Thermal efficiency heat sup plied

Q1  T1 S1  S 4 
Q2  T2 S 2  S 3  SINCE S2=S1 AND S3=S4
T2 S 2  S1  T
 th  1   1 2
T1 S1  S 4  T1

The cycle is independent of the working fluid.

In heat engine cycles the fuel is not burnt directly. An example is illustrated below

The oil supplying the heat is not in direct contact with the working fluid ie steam.

Another example is the closed gas turbine unit.

THE CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE (CLOSED GAS TURBINE CYCLE)

PROCESSES:

o 1-2 Isentropic compression

o 2-3 reversible constant pressure heat supply

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 o 3-4 Isentropic expansion

o 4-1 reversible constant pressure heat rejection

Q2 T  T1
 th  1   1 4 sin ceC pa  C pg
Q1 T3  T2
Q1  C pg T3  T2 
Q2  C pa T4  T1 

This cycle was at one time used as the ideal basis for the hot air reciprocating engine and it was

known as the JOULE OR BRAYTON CYCLE.

THE OTTO CYCLE

This is the ideal air standard cycle for the petrol engine, gas engine and the high speed oil engine.

The cycle is shown on the PV diagram as shown:

PROCESSES:

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 Q2 T  T4
 th  1   1 3
Q1 T2  T1
Q1  C v T2  T1 
Q2  C v T3  T4 

 1
1 
Also  th  1    where rv = compression ratio
 rv 

For purposes of comparison with the actual engine;

Let the ratio V4/V1 be the same as the compression ratio of the actual engine.

In the actual engine,

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 sweptvolum e  clearancevolume
rv 
clearancevolume

WORK RATIO

This is the ratio of the net work to the gross work output of the system.

Gross work = Work of expansion

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (M.E.P)

This is the height of a rectangle which has the same length as the cycle on a PV diagram.

Wnet  PM (V1  V2 )
Wnet V1
PM  but rV 
V1  V2 V2
rV Wnet
PM 
V1 rV  1

Net work Wnet =Q1 –Q2

= work 3-4 – work 1-2

Gross work = work of expansion 3-4

THE DIESEL CYCLE

The ideal air standard diesel cycle is shown below. In this cycle, compressed air and oil is

blasted into the cylinder.

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PROCESSES:

o 1-2 Isentropic compression

o 2-3 reversible constant pressure heat supply

o 3-4 Isentropic expansion

o 4-1 reversible constant volume heat rejection

Q2 (T  T )C
 th  1   1 4 1 V
Q1 (T3  T2 )C P
T4  T1 
 th  1 
 T3  T2 
Q1  C p T3  T2 
Q2  C v T4  T1 

THE DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

Also known as the mixed cycle and is used as the ideal air standard cycle for the modern oil

engine.

PROCESSES:

o 1-2 Isentropic compression

o 2-3 reversible constant volume heat supply

o 3-4 reversible constant pressure heat supply

o 4-1 Isentropic expansion

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o 5-1 reversible constant volume heat rejection

Q2
 th  1 
Q1
Q1  C v T3  T2   C p T4  T3 
Q2  C v T5  T1 

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