Chapt Approaches to teaching foreign language: Approaches’ to teaching foreign languages in the 20* century went hand in hand with tt cchanges in the face of society, the basic pedagogical concepts of the age and the chara leristic needs of the students. According to the teaching methods devised, we can dist guish several successive (generations of) approaches the grammar-translation method (GTM); the audio-lingual approaches (ALA) the communicative approach (CLT); the post-communicative turn (PCT), Each was contested and rejected by the generation that followed - which, in its tur proved (0 possess almost as many flaws as the previous one, However, each method h ts obvious strengths and, if their techniques and procedures are used judiciously and combination, they can prove very successful The following section aims to provide a brief survey of the evolution and changes foreign language teaching methodology along the 20° century, 2.1, The grammar-translation method (GTM) ‘The grammar-transiarion method - also known as “the. classical method” - is one oft coldest methods used by teachers all over the world. Its principles and techniques + similar to those used for teaching “dead” languages, such as Latin or Greek. And, j like those languages, the approach is doomed to fal, unless the teacher knows how t0¢ it to hisiher advantage or is wise enough to combine it with other methods. AAs the name suggests, the grammar-translation method relies on acquisition of I guage by learning vocabulary and grammar rules, with translation employed as the m ‘operational technique “Le. “te theoretical positions and belies about he ature of language, the natut oF LngUage ei and the aplication ofboth pedagogical stings” (Heber) Linguists often use the tem grammar to encompass phonology. vocabulary, and grammar prope.tg Bcasily understand what a traditional grammar-translation class was like, imagine a i full of boys dressed in dark uniforms, sitting rigidly at their desks (fearing they 's anger) ~ you must have seen such scenes in some older movies. The very/stert pher - sitting or standing in front of the class ~ tells “Mister X” to read and traistate Latin text or to recite some conjugation or quotation that he had had co learn by The young man stands up and complies. Criticism, irony and physical punishment frequent ; praise was rare, Creanga’s humorous description of his pains at memo- conjugations and definitions also illustrates the typical grammar-translation way of dead language is generally learned for highly intellectual reasons, such as,reading izrature in the original or analyzing its linguistic system (perhaps for a comparative With another language, such as Latin-Romanian), That is probably the reason why ‘maditional grammar-translation method viewed language learning as an inteltectual Pormance, an activity focused on analysis, critical survey and quantitative acquisition nformation ‘ALupical grammar-translation textbook consisted of long texts (1-3 pages long), ny eacenps from literary masterpieces, or accounts concerning the national identity he target language culture (c.g, famous historical events, or accounts on outstanding. orca or lierary figures) ‘uraitional grammar-translation lesson generally goes along the following steps HF teacher's model reading of the text its torn, JM SwHeas" reading (2 paragraph or (wo for each student), with the teacher carefully shod has (MME covecting every mispronunciation ; ly and in NPY scription, on the blackboard and in the students’ notebooks, of the new words, in ‘be form of long bilingual lists; the students had to memorize the entire lst: vanges in fctive presentation of grammar: the rule was explained, then illustrated with feamples; practice followed; Eatslation ofthe text into she students’ mother tongue, with insistence on the linguis- Hand stylistic subtletigy of the text; ‘mading comprehension questions: teacher's questions, to check on and/or facilitate understanding of the text by the students; “retelling the story” ; the students had to memorize the informational content of the B81, a5 well as long passages (quotations) from it; the teacher carefully corrected the students’ mistakes; “anslation into the target language ; the text to be translated could be a summary of the original text, or some other text containing the newly acquired vocabulary and ‘gammar paern(s); j lterary analysis ofthe text (i.e, a survey of the plot and message, character portrayal, 1 of lan- HM] alysis of the writer’s style, etc.) to highlight the exceptional literary achievements the main MEL of the writer: + bomework: a written summary of the text a literary essay, translation, ete. (ee also “Subjective testing” in Chapter 3 of the present work). an distin- 2e of the, ques are snd, just Ww to use learning, The approach has obvious strong points, even in its traditional form - it teaches vocabu- Proper, JiiMhuy and grammar thoroughly : it provides the students with large amounts of informationGay Approaches to teaching farsigr languages | 28 Toeasily understand what traditional grammar-transation class was ike, imagine a ‘teacher's anger) ~ you must have seen such scenes in some older movies. The very stern | fexter~ sitting or standing in front ofthe chass ~ tells “Mister X" to real and transtte sane Latin text of (0 recite some conjugation oF quotation that he had had to learn by tear. The young man stands up and complies. Criticism, irony and physical punishment ese frequent; praise was rare. Creanga's humorous description of his pains at memo ting conjugations and definitions also illustrates the typical srammar-trnsltion way of easing ‘A dead language is generally learned for highly intellectual reasons. such as reading islteraue inthe original or analyzing its linguistic system (perhaps for « comparative arrey with another language, such s Latin-Romanian). That is probably the reason why the tational grammar-translaion method viewed language learning as un intellcuat peformance. an activity focused on analysis, critical survey and quantitarve acquisition a information A ypical grammar-translation fexzbook consisted of long texts 1-3 pages long), rinly excerpts from literary masterpieces, or accounts concerning the national identity fie target language culture (e.g. famous historical events. or accounts wn outstanding Aisorial or literary figures) “A traditional grammar-transiation lesson generally goes along the following steps + teacher's model reading of the text: studens’ reading (a paragraph or two for each student), with he teacher carefully a Jages 1 with the e charac- an distin« its turn, sthod has | comecting every mispronunciation lyand in | inscription, on the blackboard and in the students’ notebooks, of the new words, in the form of long bilingual lists; the students had t0 memorize the entire list ranges in] + deductive presentation of grammar: the rule was explained, then illustrated with examples; practice followed ; | { transtation ofthe text into the students” mother tongue, with insistence on the linguis tic and stylistic subtletigs of the text; reading comprehension questions : teacher's questions, to check on and‘or facilitate understanding of the text by the students; “re-telling the story” ; the students had to memorize the informational content of the ext as well as long passages (quotations) from it; the teacher carefully corrected the reof the J | “sudents’ mistakes ques are Fr translation into the target language ; the text to be translated could be summary of snd, just FF | the original text, or some other text containing the newly acquired vocabulary and wrouse F | grammar pattern(s) ; + lierary analysis of the text (i.e, @ survey of the plot and message, character portrayal, 1 of Tan H | analysis of the writer's style, etc.) to highlight the exceptional literary achievements chemain fF | ofthe writer jf bomework : a written summary of the text, a literary essay, translation. ete. (see also | “Subjective testing” in Chapter 3 of the present work) learning : The approach has obvious strong points, even in its eraditional form - it waches vocab: Proper. J Jayand grammar thoroughly = it provides the students with large amounts of information |Reena ee 30: Sproaches vo teaching and testing foreign lang Pertainng to literature (our elders could quote endlessly from literature), world culture and civilization ; it develops the students’ analytical and critical spirit, ete. However, it also lias serious shortcomings, which brought about much criticism from learners and teachers alike: ‘The grammuar-translation method was the generally accepted method for teachin foreign languages up until the 1950s, But much before that time, people begin to realize that their knowledge of the foreign language was not operational and failed them when ey needed it most. As the above wetivities show, the traditional grammar-transtation method mainly fo cused on reading and writing skills, and considered listening and speaking of secondary imporance. But spoken language (rapid, elliptical, idiomatic) is quite different from writte language (with its long and intricate constructs). Consequently, learners could cope yuite well with the written word, but failed shamefully in face-to-face interaction Furthermore, Shakespeare's, or Dickens's language, does not correspond to present-day English, so that the language acquired in the grammar-translation classes wats paintully outdated. Therefore. it often happened that people who had learned English tor several ‘years and were confident in their linguistic abilities found that in a real-world s they could not understand a word of what was being said; nor could they “find their words” to say what they had in mind, Charles Ewart Eckersley's well-liked Essential English for Foreign Students (irs Publisived in 1941) contains (wo funny lessons describing two English learners’ tirst day in London, Frieda, @ young woman from Switzerland, gets lost in Hyde Park and, al- though she can ask for directions in English, she does not understand a word of what people are saying in reply: she is eventually saved by a French-speaking policeman, Hob. the always hungry young man from the non-definite Ruritania, has a trustrating experience in the restaurant because he cannot make the waiter understand what he wants wo eat The examples above show clearly «wo shortcomings of the grammar translation method Frieda lacks listening skills: she may understand written messages, but does not compre: hend native spoken discourse." Hob, on the other hand, lacks speaking (especially pro- hhuncistion) skills and cannot get his message through (o his listener. There are several reasons for the grammar-translation students” inability to cope with actual communication, among which the most important are ‘© the highly “intellectwalized” approach of grammar-translation teachers : their main focus fell on the text ~ on analyzing and learning its linguistic and informational subtleties -. ignoring the real aim of language learning: i.e, use in the real world * disregard for basic, “essential” vocabulary, so necessary for daily communicative situations * abvence of classroom interactions and, hence, of communicative skills hhad no opportunity to dialogue and negotiate meaning, the way people do in ordinary communicative exchanges. learners TL We must Keep in mind the fact that im those day few people ud acces a the radio and there wa television, so that foreign language learners had few opportunites to iste to actual spoken lang wReRiss SRE @rae tk efale the education « only a slight 130 | Approaches to teaching and testing foraign languages: pertaining (o literature (out elders could quote endlessly from literature), world culture and civilization; it devplops the students" analytical and critical spirit, etc. However, it also has serious shortcomings, which brought about much criticism from learners and teachers alike, The grammar-translation method was the generally accepted method for teaching foreign languages up until the 1950s, But much before that time, people began to realize that their knowledge of the foreign language was not operational and failed them when they needed it most. AAs the above activities show, the traditional grammar-translation method mainly fo: cused on reading and writing skills, and considered listening and speaking of secondary importance: But spoken Janguage (rapid, elliptical, idiomatic) is quite different from written language (with its long and intricate constructs). Consequently, learners could cope quite well with the written word, but failed shamefully in face-to-face interaction. Furthermore, Shakespeare's, or Dickens's language, docs not correspond to present-day English, so that the language acquired in the grammar-translation classes was painfully outdated. Therefore, it often happened that people who had learned English for several years and were confident in their linguistic abilities found that in a real-world situation. they could not understand a word of what was being said; nor could they “find their words” to say what they had in mind, Charles Ewart Eckersley’s well-liked Essential English for Foreign Students (first published in 1941) contains two funny lessons describing two English learners” first day in London. Frieda, a young woman from Switzerland, gets lost in Hyde Park and, al though she can ask for directions in English, she does not understand a word of what people are saying in reply ; she is eventually saved by a French-speaking policeman, Hob, the always hungry young man from the non-definite Ruritania, has a frustrating experience in the restaurant because he cannot make the waiter understand what he wants to eat ‘The examples above show clearly two shortcomings of the grammar-translation method. Frieda lacks listening skills : she may understand written messages, but does not compre-| hend native spoken discourse.' Hob, on the other hand, lacks speaking (especially pro] nunciation) skills and cannot get his message through to his listener. ‘There are several reasons for the grammar-translation students’ inability to cope with actual communication, among which the most important are * the highly “intellectualized” approach of grammar-translation teachers : their maial focus fell on the text - on analyzing and learning its linguistic and informational subtleties -, ignoring the real aim of language learning : i.e. use in the real world; * disregard for basic, “essential” vocabulary, so necessary for daily communicative situations ; * absence of classroom interactions and, hence, of communicative skills : the learner had no opportunity to dialogue and negotiate meaning, the way people do in ordinan| communicative exchanges. 1 We must keep in mind the fac hatin those days few people had access to the radio and there was el television, so that foreign language learners had few opportunities to listen to actual spoken languat, in their home counties, ry mepmb ao ci mdb s wine oo yous ‘the education + only a slight ¢“hpproaches thteaching feraign languages 1 94 teaching Iess-than-perfect linguistic performances of grammar-translation students in the real ‘made educators realize that their method was not efficient and that significant were required to make language teaching operational. Teachers understood that, had to equip their students with a different kind of knowledge of the foreign lan- ‘one that should serve them as a useful tool in the real world. In an increasingly ized world, people of all nations meet people of all nations - for politcal, eco- cultural or touristic reasons. On such occasions, knowledge of a common lan becomes the main instrument for interaction, That is why, the language teachers of the second quarter of the 20° century set out to ainly fo- condary ‘nt from rs could, sen-day Jop a pew type of approach to teaching foreign languages, devised in complete neva vainfully and rejection ofthe previous generation's methods. The new approach had several | teaching models, all of them sharing a common denominator: their basic audio- Higgual character. The methods aimed to endow language learners with a kind of compe: ilar to that of the native speaker of the language. Inanswer to their observations concerning the grammar-translation learners’ inability ‘tocope with actual communicative situations, supporters of the audio-lingual approaches ‘Spsused on developing oral skills, and considered reading and writing of secondary im- situation nd their, us (first first day and, al- JMB gatutee. The new developments in the field of technology provided them with great of what J agpantin their work: with the help ofthe record player and the tape recorder, teachers iceman, JM auld bring the voice ofthe native speaker into the classroom, The invention of television sstrating sented a further step forward in their endeavors.”¢ Jos ? as re wants JB The new educators also reacted against the strict ave, the coercive style ad pun snemeasures of the former generation of teachers, favoring a student-triendly and en- method. JB) quraging atmosphere, The new attitude of audio-lingual teachers also relied on the recent compre: ff} developments in the field of pedagogy, according to which the child is « human being Aly pro- IF vita full - even if only developing - personality, who must be respected, listened to Téncouraged to develop according to his/her own personality and individual pace Consequently, the audio-lingual teacher has @ new image: s/he is no longer stern and _sttcal, but friendly and supportive ; s/he no longer sits/stands in front of the class, but “Bines among the students and participates in their activities. Furthermore, in order 10 ope with sr main atonal [| ecurage the students in their avempts to speak the language, the seacher isles ei world: al the friendly smite never leaves hisyher face and praise is always close at hand, for hicaive [| “Beleast ofthe sudens” successes Infact, this innovative, fee and friendly approach to teaching was not entirely new. learners Several times along history, educators had shown that teaching need. not be Sct, sedinary [| gercive and punitive, that education can be achieved ina studen-ftiendy way. As fay bk as anil, Aristotle insisted on teaching his stadents by talking While walking in he turden the Perpatetis). Simianly, in the 18° century, Jean-Jacques Rousseau urged to saxo | slewe youngsters in a “back-to-iature” kindof way in his famous Emile, he deseribes ‘GIRRRE | te education ofa young boy by leting him discover the world and himself freely, wath only a slight guidance by the tutor. Some 19" century educators also considered thatature), world culture, wever, it ners and 2.2. The audio-lingual approaches (ALA) The less-than-perfect Linguistic performances of grammar-translation students in the reall world made educators realize that their method was nor efficient and that significant éhanges were required 10 make language teaching operational, Teachers understood that they had to equip their students with a different kind of knowledge of the foreign lan- ‘one that should serve them as a useful tool in the real world. In an increasingly lobalized world, people of all nations meet people of all nations = for political, eco. ‘omic, cultural or touristic reasons. On such occasions, knowledge of « common lan teaching o realize m when’ sinly fo- condary nt from +s could fF guage becomes the main instrument for interaction sraction, That is why, the language teachers of the second quarter of the 20° century set vut 1 sent-day J develop a new type of approach to teaching foreign languages, devised in complete n >ainfully JF ton and rejection of the previous generation's methods. The new approwh had several several ff attual teaching models, all of them sharing a common denominator: their basic audio- situation ff -ingual character. The methods aimed to endow language learners with a kind of compe: rnd their fF dgace similar to that of the native speaker of the language Inanswer to their observations concerning the grammiar-translation learners’ inability uts (first fF tocope with actual communicative situations, supporters of the audi-lingual approaches first day JP) foesed on developing oral skills, and considered reading and writing ot secondary im- and, al- fF Qortnce. The new developments in the field of technology provided chem with great of what fF ‘apport in their work: with the help of the record player and the tape recorder, teachers astrating ve wants Could bring the voice of the native speaker into the classtoom. The inventiun of television rppresented a further step forward in their endeavors, “The new educators also reacted against the strict autude, the coercive style and puni Jive measures of the former generation of teachers, favoring a student-triendly and en- method. | qguraging atmosphere. The new attitude of audio-lingual teachers also relied on the recent compre- | developments in the field of pedagogy, according to which the child is « human being ‘ly pro: | witha full - even if only developing ~ personality, who must be respected, listened to iid encouraged (0 develop according to his/her own personality and indis iduat pace. ope with Consequently, the audio-lingual teacher has a new image : s/he is no longer stern and critical, but friendly and supportive ; s/he no longer sits/stands in front of the class, but ir main | Tpoves among the students and participates in their activities, Furthermore, in order to national | encourage the students in their attempts to speak the language, the teacher is less eriti- world; | sal: the friendly smile never leaves his/her face and praise is always elose at hand, for nicative | “he least of the students" successes. In fact, this innovative, free and friendly approach to teaching was nt entirely new. learners Several times along history, educators had shown that teaching need not be strict ordinary _evercive and punitive, that education can be achieved in a student-friendly way. As far back as antiquity, Aristotle insisted on teaching his students by talking while walking in the garden (the Peripatetics). Similarly, in the 18* century, Jean-Jacques Rousseau urged t0 educate youngsters in a “back-to-nature” kind of way : in his famous Emile, he describes tte education of a young boy by letting him discover the world and himself freely, with only a slight guidance by the nuior, Some 19" century educators also considered that Fanguageasses: all instructions had to be given in the target language, and meanings were with the help of visuals, realia (real objects) parakanguage and demonstration Perhaps the first great theoretician of an audio-lingual method i the 20" century was Maximilian Delphinius Berlitz who, in the preface to his Berlit: Method for Teaching Modern Languages’, put forth the 1wo main principles for his dire*t method of weachin foreign languages lirect association of perception and thought with the foreign speceh and sound 2, constant and exclusive use of the foreign languag [iy atin these aims, Berlitz proposes three basic means. i.e. 1 teaching of the concrete by object lessons HI teaching of the abstract by association of ideas m1 of grammar by examples and ocular demonstration, Berlitz provides several reasons for his insistence that mother tongue should be ab doned * no word in one language ean be an exact equivalent of one in another lang © the person who tearns a foreign language by means of cranslation cannot become] accustomed to sink ia it therefore his speech will always be artificial and bookish «4 mere translation of his mother tongue thoughts : # every language has its own peculiarities, ts idfomatic expressions and terms. which cannot possibly be rendered by translation; furthermore, similar expressions in ferent languages often carry different ideas/meanings + “Every language must be learned out of itself”: the person who learns a foreiga by means of translation cannot grasp its spirit. In terms of sequencing the material. Berlitz suggests that learning should go from con Crete (object lessons) to abstract, because concrete things can be perveived directly, so there is no difficulty in explaining their meaning (c.g. the teacher merely points to an object of shows its picture the colour of a ball can be easily perceived : et). This way, the expres sions in the foreign language are taught in direct association with perception and “the studerg forms the habit of using the foreign tongue spontaneously and easily. as he does the move tongue, and not in the roundabout way of ranslation”, Abstract things, on the other haw, should be pur off for some later stage in learning, “when the student's inclination 10 think i his mother tongue has almost disappeared and his ear has been formed to such a dew he may be guided in a large measure by intuition”, (Berlitz, 1937 3-6) Although the direct method was highly popular all over Europe for sume time. th system could not provide a solution for public education, with its karge groups of students ree th 71 puis in 1917 and tev vdowslytitluctial all ver Europe tor many decadesAgoroaches to teaching fe quay a3 aly when it comes to IP Thearival of World War Il and the need of people to learn the language «idly brought another innovation to foreign language teaching: the introductis of intensive ie their J “language courses focused on developing oral skills, sage by ‘The audio-lingual method that emerged adopted from the direct meth! st least three ‘allowed basic ideas aes wet 1. the ban imposed on the learner's mother tongue; exclusive usage of the target lan on. _gutge for teaching purposes ury was JF 2. the contextual presentation of vocabulary and grammar eaching [f 3. the importance given to habit formation: ceaching The audio-lingual approach is also indebted to the two main principles of the age 1, the structural view of the period, according to which things can be br atoms”, their basic elements ; 2. the behaviorist concept, according to which language is a form of behavior. en down inte ‘The main supporter of the audio-lingual method was J. Skinner, who considered that {arvign language learning is a process of habit formation through the acquisition of specific language skills. Consequently, he suggested that the complex language skill should be broken down into a series of language habies, and that form of language patterns and structures. Considering that a well-drilled pattern turns be aban- F quomatically into a linguistic habit (i.e. an instinctual fact that comes automatically to the tongue without conscientious thinking), Skinner suggested that the patterns should be we bt in a series of small steps (stimulus-response-reinforcement), $0 ast avoid error become fy, and ensure formation of good habits Consistent with the opinion that students should not be coerced and made t0 do a lot of he Language be introduced in te vokish = Work, an audio-lingual class aims at teaching litle, but well, The typical text isthe sizuational s which } ddlogue, generally preceded by a short descriptive passage. The initial passage introduc Nini, | tesiuation, basic vocabulary and grammatical structures (e.g. phrasal verbs. the Genitiv tions, et), while the situational dialogue presents 2 typical conversation for the given Py jee e.g. Going Shopping, In the Street, At the Dentist’s, English Meals, etc. The texts re short enough to be memorized, providing useful models for various real-life situations By providing a large number of such situational dialogues, audio-linguists believed that they “could equip their students with proper tools to cope with all kind of real-woeld siraations Forms and songs were favored for the same reason, and jokes and anecdotes were extensivel ed for their ability to lighten the atmosphere and motivate learning. Audio material (8 _2p65) and visuals (e.g. icons, arrows, pictures) were used extensively, to break tke monotony ‘ihe densely printed page and make classes more interesting, Audio-linguists insisted that both vocabulary and grammar should be aught in con- object oF ¢ mother let. They considered that words and patterns are understood and rememhered more sand. Ey i thy appear with linguists and non-lnguste envionment rhe ew em inroduced among previously learned ones, ae easly understood anx! remembered thanks tree that fp their connections with the surrounding elements. Audio- linguists also suggested rremorization of such structures leads to the formation of good linguistic habits ime, the Learning vocabulary in context is extremely important because bilingual lists can students. ge rise wo all kind of mistakes. For example, the translation to spill vam the student tothe fact that in English there is another word that ean he translated i de same way (to pour = a varsa), yet the (wo words are not interchange ble He. wher