RESEARCH

1. Discuss the elements/parts of a thesis. (20 pts.)

Usually a thesis or dissertation consists of two main parts. The first part is the
preliminaries, and the other is the body of the thesis.

The preliminaries of a research paper are (1) Title page, (2) Approval sheet, (3)
Acknowledgement, (4) Table of Contents, (5) List of Tables, (6) List of Figures, and (7)
Abstract.

Title Page. The title page is the first page of a research paper, thesis and dissertation,
but page number is not indicated. The title page presents the title; kind of research
work, research paper, thesis or dissertation; the faculty to be submitted; name of the
school; the submission statement; the degree granted; full name of the researcher;
month and year in which the degree is to be granted. The title should be brief,
descriptive, and comprehensive and it appears in the title page is typewritten in all
capital letters in an inverted pyramid style.

Approval sheet. The approval sheet immediately follows the title page. It generally
contains a statement of acceptance of the research report. The approval sheet should
contain the signatures of the following: the research adviser, members of the panel, and
dean of the college.

Acknowledgement. This is another preliminary section of a research paper in which

the researcher express his gratitude to the different persons who assisted, facilitated,
oriented, and guided him to make his research work a reality. The researcher should
recognize and appreciate the assistance, guidance, and selfless effort and wise counsel
of his adviser and reader.

Table of Contents: The table of contents lists the preliminary parts, th e chapter title
along with the subdivisions of the body of the report, and the supplementary materials
in the appendix. The preliminary parts are listed first, after these are the chapters.

List of Tables. The list of table should follow the table of contents. Tables should be
listed separately from the chapter and section headings. All captions should appear
exactly the same in the listing.

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List of Figures: Titles of pictures, graphs, charts and other illustrative materials are all
included in the List of Figures. Figures appearing in the appendix should be included in
the List of Figures.

Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the research.generally, it gives a concise

summary of the problem, the research methodology used, the findings and conclusions.
The abstract allows readers to survey the contents of the research report quickly. The
abstract includes: 1. A brief description of the background and purpose of the study; 2.
A statement of the theoretical and conceptual framework and hypothesis(es); 3. A
specification of the subjects or samples (ethnic group, age, sex, number), the research
design, the instruments, and the data-gathering procedure; 4. The main results and
conclusions. The abstract must be completed in one-paragraph form, single-spaced, and
in 120 words or less. The following writing guidelines should be used for abstracts: 1.
Do not repeat the title of the thesis in first few lines of the abstract to statements of what
was done and the results found; 2. State whatever has to be said in as few words as
possible; don't be redundant.

Usually, the body of the thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter 1 deals on the
problem and its background; chapter 2, review of related literature; chapter 3,
methodology of the study; chapter 4 presentation, analysis and interpretation of data;
and chapter 5, summary, conclusions, and recommendations.

Chapter 1. The Problem and Its Background

Introduction: The text ordinarily begins with an introduction. This is a brief statement
of the origin of the problem. It is an account describing the circumstances which
suggested the research. Systematic and orderly presentation of background information
related to the problem, unresolved issues and social concerns may be included.

Significance of the Study: This part should state the importance of the problem
investigated, its poll in current /contemporary development and the significance of the
results. It should include a statement on the potential contribution of the research to and
policy implications for and other possible used. It should present an orderly
identification or probable uses of research and should state specific ways on how the
findings can be used.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework: In this part the researcher should formulate a

tentative theoretical scheme for the research problem. The theoretical framework
outlines the research theory to be verified in the study. And in the theoretical
framework the researcher needs to have a clear presentation of the theory which
explains why the study exists. The conceptual framework specifies the key variables of

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the study and shows their interrelationships. An appropriate development of conceptual
frame with reference to the problems of the study is needed. This is usually represented
in a diagram.

Statement of the Problem: problems include major and specific concerns. In this part
the research should have a clear identification of the problem statement. Succinct,
unambiguous statement of specific problems related to the major problem. While
working on this part, the researcher should note: the problem should be stated precisely,
accurately, and clearly; the major problem can be sated either in the declarative or
interrogative form; the specific problems are stated either in interrogative form or in the
form of objectiveness; the problem may be defined in terms of data that can be
obtained.

Hypothesis of the Study: Hypotheses are tentative statements about the given
population. They serve as tentative answers to one or more research problems, and are
subjected to statistical test. A clear-cut statement of hypotheses/ assumptions would be
very important. The hypotheses are stated in testable form/ the level of significance
usually at p<.01 or p<.05 level is set before testing. Both the research and null
hypotheses(Ho) are stated. Qualitative research may not test hypotheses.

Definition of Terms: Clear definitions should be stated for all important variables,
especially if these are to be measured by means of specific instruments or a
combination of devices. Use of operational definitions of key variables. This section
does not appear in qualitative research.

Scope and Delimitation: This section would be sufficient delimitation of the problem
area in terms of content, time, place and subjects of the investigation. Limits of the
study need to be properly defined. The scope is expected to indicate a reasonable area
of study which is large enough to be significant but narrow to permit careful treatment.
The scope of the problem should be stated specifically.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature and Studies.

The purpose of this chapter is to tell what research has or has not been done on the
problem, it explains or clarifies the theoretical rationale of the problem. It provides
general picture of the research topic. The literature and studies related to the problem
should be systematically presented. And there should be adequate presentations with
reference to problem, research design, and significant findings. The review clarifies the
interrelationship of the literature reviewed. Points out weaknesses and strengths of each
study. Only research literature which are related in purpose, method, or findings to the
current study should be included in the review.

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Chapter 3: Methodology of the Study
Method and Techniques: In this section the researcher has to present a concise
description of the research method and justification for its choice. Followed by that
should be a sufficient description of operational or field procedures followed in the
collection of data (when, where, and how data are to be obtained).

Population and Sample of the Study: This section describes the population and
sample profiles, sample size and sampling procedure. When working on this section,
use appropriate sampling design and sample size.

Instruments of the Study: This section should be appropriate choice and description
of the instruments. Detailed procedures on how the instrument was constructed should
be stated. A description of the data-gathering tools and their development: adoption,
construction, validation and administration of instruments is included. Instruments
include test, questionnaires, interview guidelines. Adequate information pertaining to
validity and reliability of the instrument is needed.

Data Processing and Statistical Treatment: The procedures followed in conducting

the study should be explained in complete detail. Techniques, devices, and procedures
followed are explained in this part. The researcher should give especial attention to the
appropriateness of statistical treatment and data processing.

Chapter 4: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

This chapter summarizes and presents the results of data analysis. The results are
presented in a straight-forward and unbiased way. The presentation are geared to the
research hypotheses, if any. In this chapter the researcher is required to (1) briefly
introduce the topic; (2) present the data; (3) analyze and interpret the results.
Presentation of the results should follow the order and sequence of the problems raised
in chapter 1. The researcher is required to scholarly analyze and interpret the results by
providing scientific and unbiased insights concerning the results of the study. It is also
suggested to integrate the contents of chapter 2 in the analysis & interpretation of the
results.

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

This last chapter of the report contains an overview of the research. In theses and
dissertations, it gives a brief restatement of the problem, the procedures, and findings. It
is not supposed to contain any new information. Rather it briefly recapitulates the entire

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content of the paper. The summary should also include the research design, the
population and sample and the statistical techniques used. The summary of findings or
results of the study is presented in the order of the problems raised in chapter 1. The
conclusions are based on the findings of the study. The recommendations are based on
the derived conclusions. The purpose of chapter 5 is to summarize the entire research
project. It would include discussions on what the research is all about, the problem and
the hypothesis and a brief summary. Broad generalizations not adequately supported by
data are to be avoided. Conclusions should be drawn only from the populaiton and
circumstances for which the evidence has been collected. Opinionated satements and
suggestions not supported by evidence should be avoided. Practical implications that
can be drawn from the study are to be included.

Bibliography
When doing research and writing a report, it is always necessary to name the source(S)
of your information. This list of sources is called bibliography. A bibliography should
be listed alphabetically. The second line of an entry should be indented for five
spaces(one standard tab). Skip a line after each entry. The aim of writing a bibliography
is to show where you obtained information and acknowledge your sources and to allow
your readers to find this information if they need to. In writing a bibliography the
following information should be included: author(surname first, followed by first name
of initials); title of publication (underlined, or using italics); publishing company; place
of publication (usually a town or city); and year of publication. If it is a bibliography of
the book, these information should be arranged in the following way:

Author's last name, first name. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher, copyright
year. For example:
Fogle, Bruce. Training Your Dog. New York: DK Publishing, 2001.

If your source of information is coming from an Internet, the information should be

arranged like:
Author's last name, first name. "Title of item." [Online] Available
http://address/filename, date of document or download.

For example:
DiStefano, Vince. "Guidelines for Better Writing." [Online] Available
http://www.usa.net/~vinced/home/better-writing.html, October 5,2002.

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2. Discuss the research process. (20 pts.)

The following are the steps of doing a research:

Step 1: Analysis of Socio-Educational Issues/Problems, thus to identify and

develop a good topic.
Before starting a study, a basic assumption is needed to start a study. Then state your
topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in the influence of teacher's
behavior on students' academic performance, you might pose the question, " Does
teacher's behavior influences students' academic performance?". From the question you
posed to yourself, identify the main concepts or key words in your question. A good
topic should meet the following criteria: interest; workable; theoretical value( potential
contribution of the study to the state of the art); practical value (who are the individuals
or organizations that can take benefit from the research and how); and critical
mass(how the topic be interesting and important to other people).

Step 2: Identifying developing research questions, problems, hypothesis.

In this step the basic essential is research conceptualization and development, which
refers to "how" to develop the idea for the research project. This involves: Formulating
good research problem and formulating a good testable hypothesis. In step 1 a topic is
already identified, then the next thing need to be done is to develop a research problem.
Since research is a time-consuming, detail-oriented process in which there are often
tasks that generally not emotionally fulfilling or intellectually stimulating but still need
to be performed, in developing a research problem the researcher needs to ask
himself/herself the following questions: is it interesting to you ? Is it feasible? What's
the potentialities of the study in contribution to add new knowledge? And what's the
practical use of the study? After the research has an idea about what is his research
problem, he/she needs to formulate a research title. The research title must be
qualitative and it is a comprehensive interpretation of your basic assumption, which
should be formed before starting the research. And a good title should be long enough
to be descriptive, and short enough to be caught in, usually within 14 content words.
While making a tile please keep in mind that you should make it more understandable,
then the major problem can be gotten easily. What after the research title are the
developing of major problem and specific problems. When formulating, at least one
research problem is needed. The researcher must be able to distinguish the major
problem and specific problems. The major problem is a broad sense, it is the main topic
of your research, and it can be stated in both statement form and question form. After

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the major problem is identified, chop it into 3-4 specific problems, which can also be
stated in statement and question form.
Key points in formulating research problems are: specific; measurable( quantified and
permits measurement- all variables cab be measured). To judge whether a research
problem is measurable, the research can ask a question as "Is there any questionnaire or
available test to quantify his/her research problem?"; And conjecture （ it is a
assumption; correlation between the main variables). In the process of formulating
research problems, the researcher still need to know the difference between research
problem and research questions. Research problem is the problem meets all the three
key points mentioned above. Research question some times called developmental
questions. It serves to a developmental purpose in a study. Specific problems can be
both research problem and research questions. Research question has only one variable
being talked about, however the research problems involves more than one variables
and has to meet the foregoing criteria. (example see the notebook)

Step 3: Reviewing related literature.

Importance of review of related literature are: it serves as a source of research problems
which can be deduced from existing studies; it ensures that important variables relevant
to the study are not overlooked; it establishes the need/significance/justification in
conducting the present study; it provides a historical background perspective about the
study; it serves as a basis for the development of the theoretical conceptual framework;
it avoids the necessary duplication of selecting a research which had been done before;
it helps to give more focus, direction and clarity to the study; and it helps to familiarizes
the reader with previous studies done related to the present topic.

Step 4: Developing theoretical &conceptual framework

What is the theoretical framework? 1. The theoretical framework outlines the theory
that one wishes to espouse to verify in his/her study. If there is a theory that can be
used, then use it as your theoretical framework and verify whether it is true or not. If
there is no available theory, postulate one. In another word, make your own
assumption. 2. The theoretical framework is the basic theory which explains why the
study exists. That is to say your theoretical framework must explain why your study
exist, why you use it. 3.the theoretical framework is the basic structure upon which
concepts are built. 4. The Theoretical Framework is the research study’s frame of
reference that provides the very foundation for which the study is being conducted.
What is the conceptual framework? 1. A conceptual framework is the set of terms and
relationships within which the problem is formulated. 2. The Conceptual Framework
relates or translates the basic theory / postulate into more specific concepts. 3. The
Conceptual Framework is usually depicted by a diagram or schematic framework called
paradigm. The paradigm is the operational framework of the research study which

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illustrates the interrelationships among variables. (for more information, see question
2).

Step 5: Formulation of hypothesis.

A research hypothesis almost equals to a statement of prediction, and it is the statement
created by a researcher when he/she speculate upon the outcome of his/her research. In
the aforementioned part research problems and questions has been formulated in a
research. But they are too broad as statement and are not testable by any reasonable
scientific means. They are merely tentative question arising from literature reviews and
intuition, thus they are unscientific. The research hypothesis is a paring down of the
problem into something testable. In formulating hypothesis only make hypothesis for
research problem. Hypothesis must includes a research hypothesis which is the basic
premise. It is what the research bears in mind and it predicts the relationships between
the variables. Apart from that, a null hypothesis must be also included, it usually states
that there is no difference, no relationship and no effect among the variables.

Step 6: Develop the research design

There are mainly two kinds of research design one is qualitative research, another is
quantitative research. In quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship
between one thing (an independent variable) and another(a dependent variable) in a
population. Whereas, qualitative research is all about exploring issues, understanding
phenomena and answering question. During this stage the research has to decide a
research that suitable for his/her research. After that the population and sample of the
study also needed to be decided.

Step 7: Prepare/Validate the instrument and Data collection

Instrument is a description of the data-gathering tools and their development. It
includes tests, questionnaires, interview, guidelines. In this step the research has to have
a good preparation of his/her instrument. Then have his/her instrument validated by at
least professors in the study area.

Data collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. After
the instrument is validated, the researcher can starts the data collection with the
prepared instrument.

Step 8: Analyse and interpret the data

Once you have collected data for your research, you need to sort it out and make sense
of what it means, and that is data analysis and interpretation. In analysing and
interpreting data there are some points that the research should keep in mind: 1. During

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 this step the research should briefly introduce the topic, carefully present the data, then
thoroughly analyze and interpret the results; 2. Presentation of the results should follow
the order and sequence of the problems raise in chapter1; 3. The research should
analyze an interpret the results scholarly by providing scientific & unbiased insights
concerning the results of the study; 4. It is also advisable for the research to integrate
the contents of chapter 2 in the analysis & interpretation of the results.

Step 9: Write a research report

After all the aforementioned 8 steps are done, the research can start the last step, that is
writing a research report, which. is a summary, conclusion and recommendation of
his/her research. While writing a research report, the research should aware that the
report should also include the research design, the population and sample and the
statistical techniques used. The summary of findings or results of the study is presented
in the order of the problems raised in chapter 1. The conclusions are based on the
findings of the study. The recommendations are based on the derived conclusions. And
the purpose of this step is to summarize the entire research project. It would include
discussion on what the research is all about, the problem and the hypothesis and a brief
introduction of data collection, interpretation process.

3. Current practices in various organizations (education, business, health, government,

etc.) recognized the important role of research in promoting management efficiency and
effectiveness. Describe at least 3 practices in your area of concentration (major field)
which demonstrate the application of research principles. (15 pts)

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4. Describe/explain the following key terms/concepts in the research process? (15 pts.)
4.1 Research Questions / Research Problem
4.2 Research Hypothesis / Null Hypothesis
4.3 Theoretical Framework / Conceptual Framework
4.4 Independent Variable / Dependent Variable

4.1 Research problem is a question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty

that is proposed for solution or discussion. It is the problem lacking of understanding in
the literature or the things we don't know or that need further clarification. It can be
stated in both statement form and question form. A good research problem should be
Specific. The problem should be specifically stated; Measurable. It is easy to measure
by using research instruments (i.e., questionnaire, test, ect.) in collecting data; and
conjecture. It is a assumption; correlation between the main variables However
research question is stated as questions that might help to depict the solution to the
research problem. Generally many research questions will be answered to get a better
insight into the solution to the research problem.

Differences between research problem and research question.

1. Research problem is the problem meets the above characteristics.
2. Research question some times called developmental question which serves to a
developmental purpose in the study.
3. Specific problems can be both research problem and research questions.
4. Research question has only one variable being talked about.

For example:
Major problem: The influence of the leadership behaviors of school
administrators on teachers' performance. (This is a research problem)

Specific problems (chop major problem into 3-4 specific problem).

1. What is the profile of school administrators in terms of educational
preparation, training, age, etc? ( Research question)
2. How may the leader ship behavior of school administrators be described in
terms of task and relationship dimensions? (Research question)
3. What is the level performance of the faculty in terms of teaching competency,
professional development,activities, ect? (Research question)
4. Do the leadership behavior of school administrator exert significant influence
on the performance of the faculty. (Research problem).

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Among the specific problems being presented above, number 1, 2, and 3 are research
questions. Because in each of them there is only one variable being talked about. And
they serve the purpose of question 4. However, specific problem no.4 is the research
problem since there are two variables being mentioned and it meets the above criterias.
4.2 A research hypothesis almost equals to a statement of prediction, and it is the
statement created by a researcher when he/she speculate upon the outcome of his/her
research. Research problems and questions are too broad as statement and are not
testable by any reasonable scientific means. They are merely tentative question arising
from literature reviews and intuition, thus they are unscientific. The research hypothesis
is a paring down of the problem into something testable. There are two types of
hypothesis, namely, null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis (also known as research
hypothesis) .

The null hypothesis is a denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a

difference of an effect. It is always stated in a negative form. In contrast, the alternative
hypothesis (aka. research hypothesis) is the opposite extreme of the null hypothesis
because this is always stated in a positive form. Alternative hypothesis is an affirmation
of the existence of an observed phenomenon. And it predicts the relationships between
variables thus it is the basic premise of a research.
4.3 The theoretical framework outlines the research theory to be verified in the study.
The conceptual framework specifies the key variables of the study and shows their
interrelationships. The following part is going to differentiate them in aspects of
definitions, purposes and ways of developing the two frameworks.

Theoretical framework:
What is theoretical framework?
The theoretical framework of a study is a structure that can hold or support a theory of a
research work. It presents the basic theory which explain why the problem under study
exists. Thus, the theoretical framework is a theory that serves as a basis for conducting
research. It is outlines the theory that one wishes to espouse to verify in the study. It is
basis structure upon which concepts are built. And it is the research study's frame of
reference that provides the very foundation for which the study is being conducted.

What's the purpose of formulating a theoretical framework?

Developing a theoretical framework is to help the researcher see clearly the variables of
the study; it can provide the researcher with a general framework for data analysis; and
it is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental
methods.

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How to formulate a theoretical framework?
To formulate a theoretical framework: 1) the research has to know whether there is a
theory that can be use. If there is, then use it as his theoretical framework and verify
whether it is true or not. If there is no available theory, postulate one; 2). After a theory
is being identified or postulated, specifies the theory used as basis for the study; 3).
Mentions the proponent ; 4). Cites the main points emphasized in the theory; 5).
Support the researcher's exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts. 6).
Illustrates the theoretical framework by means of a diagram; and 7). Reiterates
theoretical proposition in the study.

Conceptual framework:
What is conceptual framework?
After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher has to develop the
conceptual framework of the study. In order to answer what is conceptual framework,
it's better to know what is concept first. A concept is an image or symbolic
representation of an abstract idea. While the theoretical frame work is the theory on
which the study is based, the conceptual framework is the operationalization of the
theory. To be specific, a conceptual framework is the set of terms and relationships
within which the problem is formulated. It relates or translates the basic
theory/postulate into more specific concepts. And it is usually depicted by a diagram or
schematic framework called paradigm. The paradigm is the operational framework of
the research study which illustrates the interrelationships among variables. In other
words, conceptual framework is the researcher's own position on the problem and gives
direction to the study. It may be an adaption of a model used in a previous study with
modifications to suit the inquiry. Aside from showing the direction of the study,
through the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able to show the relationships
of the different constructs that he wants to investigate.

How to formulate a conceptual framework?

To formulate a conceptual frame work, the researcher has to: 1). Cite his conceptual
framework or paradigm; 2). Identify his variables; 3). Point out the dependent and
independent variables; 4). Show the direction of the study.

4.4 Independent variable. This is variable influencing other variables, thereby

determining the values of these affected variables and it is variable that the researcher
manipulates. For instance, an investigator wants to determine the influence of study
motivation on the academic achievement of the students. He takes a group of students
with higher motivation and observes their academic achievement. Likewise, he takes

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 another group of students with lower motivation and also observes their achievement.
The motivation of students is the independent variable because it is the manipulated
value which can influence the academic achievement of the students.

Dependent variable. They are variables whose values are influenced by the value of
other values and the are potentially influenced by the independent variable, because it is
influenced by, and thus to some extent depends on the independent variable. Also
considering the above example, students' academic achievement is the dependent
variable, because it depends on the other variable (independent) which is the
motivation.

5. Discuss in-depth the following basic types of research: (15 pts.)

5.1 Historical 5.3 Experimental
5.2 Descriptive 5.4 Action
5.1 Historical research.Historical research is popularly called "what was" research. It
deals with issues happened in the distant past. Historical research is the process of
systematically examing past events to give an account of what was happened in the
past. It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a description of past
events. It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events. The historical method is
employed by researchers who are interested in reporting events and/or conditions that
occurred in the past. An attempt is made to establish facts in order to arrive at
conclusions concerning past events or predict future events.

Goals: The goals of historical methods are to reconstruct the past objectively and
accurately; to answer questions; to identify the relationship that the past has to the
present; to record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, agencies or
institutions; and to assist in understanding in the culture in which we live.

Process of conducting a historical research:

1. Identification of the research topic and formulation of historical problem.
There are three types of historical questions. They are: question of evolution, which
intends to establish the trend; question of resemblance which tries to institute a
comparison: and question of value which seeks to find causes and reasons. When
formulation the historical problem, the researcher can use any one of them or use the
combination of them.
2. Data collection (involves identifying, locating and collecting information pertaining
to the research topic.

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The researcher should notice that there are two sources of data in historical research one
is primary source, another is secondary source.

Primary source: Primary source is a source that has a direct involvement with the
event being investigated like a diary, relics, remains, artifacts, original map, original
documents or an interview with a person who experienced them.

Secondary source: Secondary source is a source that was created from a primary
source such as books, written about the event, encyclopedias, newspapers, periodicals
and review of research and other references. Secondary source are considered less
useful than primary source.

3. Evaluation of materials
There are two main types of evaluation. They are external criticism and internal
criticism.

External criticism: It refers to the process of determining the validity, trust worthiness,
or authenticity of the source. Sometimes this is difficult to do, but other times it can
easily be done by handwriting analysis or determining the age of the paper on which
something was written.

Internal criticism: This refers to the process of determining the reliability or accuracy
of the information contained in the source collected. After the source is authenticated, it
asks if the source is accurate, was the writer or creator competent, honest, and
unbiased? How long after the event happened until it was reported? Dose the witness
agree with other witnesses? This is done by positive or negative criticism.
4. Data synthesis
5. Historical report
While the researcher is at this stage, there are three basic ways of presenting a historical
report and the researcher can choose among them a proper one to present his/her report
based on the need of his/her research. The researcher can present it chronologically or
thematically which means the researcher group materials according to topic or themes
or eclectically 折衷地 of the both two ways mentioned above.
5.2 Descriptive research. Descriptive research also known as statistical research which
focuses at the present condition with the purpose of finding new truth and describes
data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive
research answers the question who, what, where, when and how... It is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of the phenomena, to identify issues or
problems, to give an assessment of phenomena in the light of certain standards/norms

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and to identify factors associated with the problem. The methods involved range from
the survey which describes the status, the interrelationship study which investigates the
relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine
changes over time.

Goals: The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics
about what is being studied and to describe systematically a situation or area of interest
factually and accurately. The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies,
averages, and other statistical calculations. Descriptive research is mainly done when a
researcher wants to gain a better understanding of a topic.

Process of conducting a descriptive research:

1. Statement of the problem.
2. Identification of information needed to solve the problem.
3. Selection or development of instruments for gathering the information.
4. Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure.
5. Design of procedure for information collection.
6. Collection of information.
7. Analysis of information.
8. Generalization and/or predication.

As aforementioned descriptive methods include survey study, interrelationship study

and developmental study, now lets have a look at these three types of studies separately.

Survey study: Survey studies assess the characteristics of whole populations of people
or situations. It includes the following types:
1. School survey - used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics
of a school system.
2. Job analysis - used to gather information to be used in structuring a training program
for a particular job.
3. Documentary analysis - a special type of survey dealing with documenting present
situations.
4. Public opinion survey - a special type of survey used to enhance the decision making
process by government officials.
5. Community survey - used to gather data concerned with internal or external
characteristics of a community.

Steps of doing descriptive survey:

1. Formulate the survey problem
2. Review literature/studies

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3. Identify subjects/develop instruments
4. Data collection
5. Analyse/interpret collected data
6. Write the survey report.

Interrelationship study: Interrelationship study traces relationships among the facts

obtained to gain a deeper insight into the situation. It includes the following types:
1. Case study - probes in depth into an individual situation or personality with the intent
of diagnosing a particular condition and recommending corrective measures
2. Causal comparative study - compares the likeness and difference among phenomena
to determine if certain factors or circumstances tend to accompany certain events,
conditions, or processes.
3. Correlation study - determine the extent of the relationship between two or more
variables. The main purposes of this type of study are to identify related variables, to
identify predictive relationships and to examine possible existence of causation.

Developmental study: Developmental study is concerned with the existing status and
interrelationships of phenomena and changes that take place as a function of time. In
includes the following types:
1. Growth study - may be either longitudinal or cross-sectional. The longitudinal
technique is the most satisfactory for studying human development. The cross-sectional
technique is more commonly used because it is less expensive.
2. Trend study - used to make predictions from social trends, economic conditions,
technological advances, ect. To future status.
3. Model or system development - creative development of a model or system based on
a thorough determination of the present situation or system and the goals sought.
5.3 Experimental research:Experimental research is an attempt by the researcher to
maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. It uses
manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or
more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable. In
doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.While doing
an experimental research there are usually an experimental group and a controlled
group. Experimental research is through the comparison of the EG(experimental group)
and CG(controlled group) to deduce a claim, then applying the claim to the two groups
to test the validity of the claim.

In doing an experimental research there is an important term that can not be ignored,
that is experimental design. Experimental design is a blue print of the procedure that
enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about

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relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the conceptual
framework within which the experiment is conducted.

Goals: The goals of experimental research are to establish causal relationships between
variables through investigating possible cause-and-effect relationships by exposing one
or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing the
results to one or more control groups not receiving the treatment; to control for threats
to internal (interpretability) and external (generalizability) validity; and to enable the
researcher to explain some kind of causation and predict phenomena.

Process of conducting an experimental research:

1. Identify and define the problem
2. Formulate hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
3. Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and
relations of the consequences. In constructing an experimental design one can follow
the following steps:
a. Select sample of subjects.
b. Group or pair subjects.
c. Identify and control non-experimental factors
d. Select or construct, and validate instruments to measure outcomes.
e. Conduct pilot study
f. Determine place,time, and duration of the experiment.
4. Conduct the experiment.
5. Compile raw data and reduce to usable form
6. Apply an appropriate test of significance
7. Generalization/predication/conclusion.

Essentials of experimental research:

1. Manipulation of an independent variable
2. Experimental control is made to hold all other variables except the dependent
variables. It attempts to predict events that will occur in the experimental setting by
neutralizing the effects of other factors.
3. Observation - effect is observed of the manipulation of the independent variable on
the dependent variable.
5.4 Action research. Action Research is a reflective investigation of a personal
interest, problem or challenge. It is a process in which participants examine their own
educational practice, systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research.
(Watts,H,1985).It is conducted by people who want to do something to improve their
own situation. It is concerned with changing situations, not just interpreting them.

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Action is what distinguishes action research from the traditional research, which
implies that the practitioner will be acting as the collector of data, the analyst, and the
interpreter of results. A cycle of critical reflection and action is the heart of action
research. This form of research then is an iterative, cyclical process of reflecting on
practice, taking an action, reflecting, and taking further action. It is most often
conducted by teachers and principals in schools and classrooms using less controlled
procedures to understand the effects of some educational intervention. Changes are
made during the study with the purpose of obtaining knowledge that can be applied
directly to the local classroom situation and to give the participating teachers inservice
training. Since it is a reflective investigation, it must involve a reflective process. There
is an action research cycle, that is :
plan action reflect observe revised plan action observe reflect plan

Goals: The goals of action research is to improve professional practice through

continual learning and progressive problem solving; to have a deep understanding of
practice and develop a well specified theory of action; and to make an improvement in
the community in which your practice is embedded through participatory research.

Process of conducting an action research:

1. Identify and formulate the problem. If we are not clear and specific about what the
problem is, we can not develop and plan to solve the problem even we might not know
when the problem is solved. So identifying the problem must be starting point of a good
action research. When formulating the problems the following steps can be followed:
• Define the problem by isolating the real problem from other confounding variables
that affect the problem.
• Select the strategies that would be more appropriate to solve the problem.
• Narrow down the problem to a few questions to be answered.
2. Review the related literature. Literature review is to help us to become familiar with
other research done on the area of focus; to utilize the findings of others to help develop
the plan; and to apply research findings through the lens of others' experience.
3. Collect the data. Using a variety of data collection strategies to gather information
that will contribute to the findings.
4. Organize, analyze and interpret the data. As the data is collected, it is also
continually organized and analyzed. This step involves looking systematically at all the
data collected to see what trends or patterns emerge and what conclusions can be
drawn, and what meaning these results, insights and new understanding have for your
practice.
5. Report the results. Write a report to summarize the findings of the research so that
others may learn.

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 6. Take action and apply findings. This is the ACTION part of action research. From
the stage of the reporting the results conclusion has been drawn from the data analysis.
In this stage the research should translate these conclusions into actions or behaviors
and plan how to implement the actions or behaviors. Then do it.

6. The research methodology encompasses the following consideration: (15 pts.)

a) Data recognition c) Data analysis
b) Data collection d) Research framework

Explain carefully what these four considerations entail?

7. What preparations would you make as a researcher, if you intend to conduct an

experimental research? (15 pts.)

If I intend to conduct an experimental research, the first preparation I should make is to

have a clear idea of experimental research, thus further preparation works can be done.
Experimental research is an attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all
factors that may affect the result of an experiment. It uses manipulation and controlled
testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are
manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable. In doing this, the
researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.While doing an
experimental research there are usually an experimental group and a controlled group.
Experimental research is through the comparison of the EG(experimental group) and
CG(controlled group) to deduce a claim, then applying the claim to the two groups to
test the validity of the claim.

After having a clear mind about what is an experimental research, another important
preparation needed to make is to identify and define the research problem, which is the
basis of any kind of research. Since the research problem is being defined, it is
necessary to know what research has or has not been done on the problem; what are the
theories related to my research problem; and to make sure that important variables
related to the study would not be overlooked, then an intensive literary review will be
quite necessary. When the research problem is clear and an intensive literary review is
done, the next preparation is to formulate research hypothesis. As stated above
experimental research is through the comparison of the EG and CG to deduce a claim,
then applying the claim to the two groups to test the validity of the claim, therefore
when the hypothesis is formulated, it is essential to deduce their consequences which
would be applied to the EG and CG to test its validity.

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 After all those pre-preparation has been done, another important preparation comes,
that is experimental design. Experimental design is a blue print of the procedure that
enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about
relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the conceptual
framework within which the experiment is conducted. In order to have a good
experimental design, specifically the following preparations can be followed: a) to
decide the sample of subjects and the sample size; b) group the sample subjects into
experimental group and controlled group; c) identify what are the non-experimental
factors and control those non-experimental factors; d) prepare an valid instrument to
measure the outcomes; e) have a planing of how to conduct pilot study; and f)
determine place, time, and duration of the experiment. For example I wish to conduct a
study on the growth rate of milkfish cultured in the fishpond using fish meal and bread
meal as supplemental feeds. My research problem will be the relationship in the weight
and length of milkfish cultured in the fishpond using fish meal and bread meal as
supplemental feeds. After I get this research problem and an intensive literary review
has been done. My further preparation for the research is to select the sample of
subjects and group them into two experimental groups. I will plan to have two
compartments in the fishpond as experimental groups, one is the milkfish fed with fish
meal, another is milkfish fed with bread meal. The feeds are independent variables and
the growth rate is the dependent variable. Since all those are clear, to do the
experimental research the next preparation is to identify what factors are non-
experimental factors, in this example the ecological factors such as PH, oxygen content
of water, ect., would be the non-experimental factors. As a preparation ways to control
those non-experimental factors must be constructed. Since my research is about the
relationship between the feeds and the growth rate of the milkfish, to test the
significance of the relationship an valid instrument to measure the weight and length of
the milkfish fed with different feeds must be prepared. When all these preparations are
done, another preparation will be determining the place, time and duration of my
experiment, that is where, and when and how long am going to do this experiment.

When an experimental design is carefully prepared, I still need to prepare and think
about the way of collecting data and how to process data, together with the statistical
treatment that is going to be used in my research. If all the preparations mentioned
above are done, then I can conduct my experimental research.

8. We often mention in our research class that the correct identification of a research
problem is the alpha and omega of the research process. Explain why? (15 pts.)

To explain why we often mention in our research class that the correct identification of
research problem is the alpha and omega of the research process, we have to bear in

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mind some basic terms and their relationships in research first. These are research
problem, hypothesis and variables. The research problem is the heart of the research
process, without which no research process can take place. However while we are
formulating the problem the variables must be take into consideration, and a hypothesis
should accompany the research problem. That is to say only when the research problem
is clearly defined, it is possible to identify the variables and to translate the research
problem into a research hypothesis that states a relationship between two or more
variables in one (or more) population(s). Then the research can be a good one that
shows a clear linkage of the research problem, research hypothesis and existing
variables and the following works can be done based on the research problem
identified.

Why we say the correct identification of a research problem is because the a correct
identification of a research problem is the first step and the most important requirement
in the research problem. It serves as the foundation of a research study, thus if well
formulated, a good study can be expected to follow. According to the Kerlinger: in
order for one to solve a problem, one must know what the problem is. The large part of
the problem is knowing what one is trying to do. A research problem and the way you
formulate it determines almost every step that follows in the research study.
Identification and formulation of the problem is like the input into the study and the
output is the quality of the contents of the research report. Since the identification of a
research problem is the alpha, which means a beginning, of a research process, an
important point to keep in mind when defining or formulating a research problem is that
it should be specific rather than general. When a problem or question is specific and
focused, it becomes a more answerable question than if it remained general and
unfocused. A well formulated problem is already a half-solved problem. A research
problem is expressed as a general question about the relationship between two or more
variables. The correct identification of a problem introduces the necessity of defining
clearly all concepts used and of determining the variables and their relationships.

From above discussion, it is quite clearly why we regard the correct identification of a
research problem as the alpha of a research problem. Because without it nothing can be
followed. Now let's move to the question why we call the correct identification of a
research problem as the omega of a research problem. According to Kumar (2005)
research identification is like the identification of a destination before undertaking
jouney. As in the absence of a destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest or
indeed and route in the absence of a clear research problem, a clear economical plan
thus is impossible. Further more while we are doing a research, our ultimate goal is to
solve the research problem being identified at the very beginning of the research
process. In conclusion, a research problem is like the foundation of a building. The

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 type, design and process of building is dependent upon the foundation of a building.
That is why we mention in our research class the the correct identification of a research
problem is the alpha and omega of the research process.

9. How will you assess the impact of the subject - Methods of Research, to you as a
professional? (15 pts.)

To assess the impact of the subject Methods of Research is to assess the importance of
research to us, because this subject is to teach as us how to do a good research. Without
knowing the impact or importance of research to us as a professional, it is impossible
for us to be truly understand the subject, thereby a good research is difficult to be
achieved. Through the subject, my knowledge about research can be greatly improved.
Therefore I can use what I learnt from this subject to realize the following:

1. Improviing the quality of life. Research has led us to search for ways in improving
our life. It has led us to focus on improving processes and means by which we must
love. The quality of life has improved, through research because we are dreamers, are
ambitious and industrious in achieving our dreams. Take my case as in instance, as a
professional teacher in order to improve my quality of life, I would like to know what's
the impact of educational qualifications on socio-economic status. Therefore in order to
get an answer I might do a research on the educational qualifications and socio-
economic status. If the findings shows that the higher the educational qualifications the
I can achieve, the higher also will be the socio-economic status of me, and vice versa.
Then I will know that educational qualifications has significant implications with my
socio-economic standing. Thus, in order to improve my socio-economic status, I will
try harder to achieve higher educational qualifications.

2. Improving instructions. Research has no beginning and no end. It is a never ending

task. Educators, policy makers, and educational researchers continue to conduct
research to improve instruction. Studies on the different strategies and approaches in
the various subject areas and year levels have been conducted to determine which
strategy or approach is best and most effective in teaching. Through research,
instruction can be improved as well as the teacher's competence. For example, as an
English teacher how to improve the students' oral ability is of great importance in
English teaching in China. In order to determine what kind of teaching strategy will be
effective, say online Vs in class room teaching, a research can be done to find the
answer. Then my way of instruction can be improved.

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3. Improving student's achievement. The students' achievement could be improved
through research, if I study and understand the students' characteristics , problems and
needs on the basis of which I fit my methods accordingly.

4. Developing a systematic thinking. One characteristic of good research is systematic,

in preparing a good research a set of procedural specifications from data collection up
to the statement of valid conclusions must be followed, each important term is defined,
variables are identified, procedures are described in detail, results are objectively
recorded and conclusions are presented with scholarly cautioned and restraint. All these
mentioned require a very strict systematic thinking. Thus it definitely help me to
develop a systematic thinking and to do things in a systematic way, which surely would
be a very good help in my study, work and life.

5. Developing a logical thinking. Another important characteristic of a good research is

logic, which without doubt will be help a researcher in developing logical thinking.
During the process of doing a research,one must come across many informations and
data. In the procedure of presenting those informations and data, one has to arrange
them in a very logical way, thereby one's logical ability can be gradually coming into
being.

6. Improving language ability. While doing a research, there will be assembly of data
from various sources, then it is a practice of the language ability of the researcher to
present them in the form of writing. This will help one to improve one's writing skills
thereby improving one's vocabulary. To do a good research, an intensive literary review
is quite necessary which will of on doubt help the researcher to get faster and efficient
in reading and picking up the matter more quickly.

7. Developing objectivity. Everybody is opinionated, even scientists. They often will

also adhere to their own theories. Research is a tool by which they can test their own,
and each others theories. The purpose of research is really an ongoing process of
correcting and refining hypotheses, which should lead to the acceptance of certain
scientific truths.

What's more, research help us gather information on subject or phenomena that we lack
or have little knowledge about. It develops and evaluate concepts, practices and
theories. Through research doing, we can obtain knowledge for practical purpose like
solving problems on population explosion.

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10. How would you go about preparing for a descriptive research? What procedures
would you follow? (15 pts.)

Descriptive research also known as statistical research which focuses at the present
condition with the purpose of finding new truth and describes data and characteristics
about the population or phenomenon being studied. It answers the question who, what,
where, when and how... It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of
the phenomena, to identify issues or problems, to give an assessment of phenomena in
the light of certain standards and to identify factors associated with the problem. The
methods involved range from survey study which describes the status, the
interrelationship study which investigates the relationship between variables, to
developmental studies which seek to determine changes over time.

If I am going to do a descriptive research, the first consideration will be determining

among the three methods, namely, survey study, interrelationship study and
developmental study, which one will suit my research. As stated above if my research is
going to describe the status, the survey study will be used; if my research aims to
investigate the relationship between variables, the interrelationship study will be the
choice; and if my research wants to determine changes over time, the developmental
study will do. After the proper method being identified the following procedures will be
followed to do my research.

1. Identifying and developing a good topic, which is a basic and beginning procedure of
almost all types of research. And it is a basic assumption that is needed to start the
study.

2. Identifying and developing research problems, questions, and hypothesis. After the
topic is already identified, the next thing needed to be done is to develop a research
problem, which is regarded as the alpha and omega of a research. And it is the basis and
goal of a research. Thus it is important to define the research problem and state it in a
proper way. Thereafter, translated the research problems into testable hypothesis.

3. Reviewing related literature. Literature review servers as a source of research

problems which can be deduced from existing studies; it ensures that important
variables relevant to the study are not overlooked; it establishes the
need/significance/justification in conducting the present study; it provides a historical
background perspective about the study; it serves as a basis for the development of
research framework; and it helps to familiarizes the reader with previous studies related

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to present topic. Without literature review, one can not have a clear picture about the
research going to be done. So after the research problem and hypothesis being
formulated, it's time to have an intensive literature review.

4. Developing theoretical and conceptual framework. When the above steps are done,
the researcher need to figure out his theoretical and conceptual framework to support
his study.

5. Identification of information needed to solve the problem. Through the literature

review, a large number of information will be obtained. When the theoretical and
conceptual framework are formulated, the researcher has to identify carefully among
the vast information he got, which are useful and necessary in solving the problem, and
which are of little use in the research.

6. Preparing and validating the instrument for gathering the information. Instrument is
a description of the data-gathering tools and their development. The common
instruments includes test, questionnaires, interview, guidelines. In this step the research
has to choose which method to use to collect data and to have a good preparation of
instrument. When the instrument in well prepared have it validate.

7. Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure. When

the instrument is ready and its validity is tested. The next step is to fix the target
population. The researcher has to explain how and where the subjects are taken. When
the population is determined, the next consideration will be the sample size and
sampling design together with a carefully planned sampling procedure.

8. Design of procedure for information/data collection. In this step the researcher has to
come out a detailed procedure about how to collect the information.

9. Collection of information/data. With a carefully planned information collection

procedure, the research can collect the information now.

10. Analysis and interpret the data. Once the data have been collected, the research
need to sort it out and make sense of what it means, and that is data analysis and
interpretation.

11. Generalization, predication and write a research report. After all the
aforementioned steps are done, the research can start the last step, that is to generalize
and/or predict the results of the data analysis, and then put it into a research report,
which is a summary, conclusion and recommendation of the research.

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