Thales Eco-Friendly Flight Operations - Rev.3.6 Final

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TOWARDS ECO-FRIENDLY OPERATIONS

ACTING NOW TO REDUCE THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF AVIATION
Abstract — Day-to-day flight operations are perhaps the least easily understood field of air transport.
Yet, it is one of the most relevant levers for short-term actions intending to reduce the climate impact
of air transport, since it can affect all in-service aircraft without requiring major technological
breakthroughs. But reducing the climate impact of aviation requires understanding it: From this
standpoint, climate science has made significant progress, allowing both to model and quantify the
impact of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, but also to better understand the effects of condensation
trails and their induced cirrus clouds, and to a lesser extent, those of nitrogen oxides.
Leveraging on these results, research in the field of flight optimization shows that implementation of
eco-friendly flight operations offers the potential to reduce the climate impact of aviation by more
than 10% when considering only CO2 effects, and over 20% when compounding all effects.
In order to achieve tangible gains as quickly as possible and take advantage of current air traffic
conditions that are favorable to experimentation, reliance on local ecosystems willing to commit to
the ecological transition of their operations is crucial.
To make this transition a success, we make three main proposals:

 First, set up and disseminate a single source of truth, reliable, neutral, objective, shared and
transparent, enabling each party to assess the climate impact of its operations on each segment
of each flight.
 Second, develop operational and technological frameworks that enable continuous reduction
of the environmental impact of these operations by facilitating collaboration between pilots,
airlines and air navigation services, starting through digital tools. To act quickly, deployment
could be limited initially in space and/or time, and later extended to increase in scope.
 Third, for each local ecosystem, put in place as quickly as possible measures making such
operations economically viable for each party, for example by facilitating communications to
passengers and investors of the ecological performance of stakeholders’ operations, or promote
eco-friendly behavior through economic incentives.
This document is not to be reproduced, modified, adapted, published, translated in any material form in whole or in part nor disclosed to any third party without the prior written permission of Thales.
© THALES 2021 – All rights reserved.
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Table of contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 3
ECO-FRIENDLY FLIGHT OPERATIONS: ACT NOW, EVERYWHERE, AND AT LOW COST ..................................................................................3
WHAT ARE FLIGHT OPERATIONS? ................................................................................................................................................................3
EVALUATE, EXPLORE, EXPERIMENT, DEPLOY… ............................................................................................................................................3
Section 1 Assessing the climate impact of air transport .............................................................. 4

1.1 EVALUATING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF A HUMAN ACTIVITY.............................................................................................................4
1.2 UNDERSTANDING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF AIR TRANSPORT ...........................................................................................................4
1.3 ASSESSING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF AIR TRANSPORT ......................................................................................................................6
Section 2 Assessing the potential climate impact reduction of eco-friendly operations ............ 7
2.1 CO2 EFFECTS: A REDUCTION POTENTIAL ABOUT 10% .......................................................................................................................7
2.2 NON-CO2 EFFECTS: A NOVEL AND COMPLEX RESEARCH AREA ........................................................................................................ 11
2.3 EVALUATING THE COMBINED POTENTIAL OF A CLIMATE-PERFECT FLIGHT..................................................................................... 12
Section 3 Challenges to overcome .............................................................................................. 14

3.1 A STRUCTURAL CHALLENGE: THE COMPLEXITY OF THE AIR TRANSPORT ECOSYSTEM ................................................................... 14
3.2 A TRANSFORMATIONAL CHALLENGE: THE ECOLOGICAL TRANSITION ............................................................................................. 15
3.3 CONJECTURAL CHALLENGE: THE UNCERTAINTY GENERATED BY THE COVID-19 CRISIS................................................................... 16
Section 4 Strategies for a swift deployment ............................................................................... 17

4.1 PROPOSAL 1: SET UP AND DISSEMINATE A SINGLE SOURCE OF TRUTH .......................................................................................... 17
4.2 PROPOSAL 2: IMPLEMENTING OPERATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS ON GROUND AND ON BOARD ALLOWING
THE CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT OF OPERATIONS’ IMPACT ........................................................................................................ 20
4.3 PROPOSAL 3: MAKE ECO-FRIENDLY OPERATIONS ECONOMICALLY VIABLE .................................................................................... 23
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 26
THREE KEY PROPOSALS .............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
AN INCREMENTAL APPROACH TO INITIATE THE TRANSITION IMMEDIATELY ............................................................................................ 26
Appendices................................................................................................................................... 27
A.1 BETTER UNDERSTANDING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF AVIATION ...................................................................................................... 27
A.2 ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................................................................... 29
A.3 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
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Introduction
No one can deny the major role of aviation in the development of WHAT ARE FLIGHT OPERATIONS?
modern societies: it has brought people together and has contributed
significantly to global economic growth.
Flight operations are probably the area of air transport that is the least
However, like many human activities, air transport has an ecological easily understood by the general audience. This document focuses more
footprint and more specifically a significant climate impact. The specifically on the subset of these flight operations having an impact on
International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) estimates the share aircraft emissions, that is to say:
of air transport at 2.4% of 2018 global CO2 emissions (Graver, Zhang, &
Rutherford, 2018).  Strategic and pre-tactical flight planning activities:
o Strategic flight planning carried out by airlines (flight
To reduce its environmental impact, the air transport community is thus scheduling) and consolidated/adjusted by Air Navigation Service
actively working in four complementary directions: Providers (ANSPs), the result being a validated flight plan filed
1. Develop low-carbon footprint aircraft: hydrogen, electric, for each aircraft.
hybrid… o Flight preparation, including the determination of the quantity
2. Introduce sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) compatible with of fuel carried and more generally flight related operational
existing aircraft: sustainable biofuels, synthetic fuels... planning (catering, supplies…).
3. Renew aging fleets with newer, more efficient in-production  Tactical flight execution activities:
aircraft. o Taxiing (for departure and arrival), carried out in collaboration
4. … and finally optimize flight operations of in-service aircraft in between air traffic control and the crew, possibly with the help
order to reduce their environment footprint. of a pushback tug.
o The actual flight and its integration into air traffic, carried out in
collaboration between the crew, air traffic control and the
ECO-FRIENDLY FLIGHT OPERATIONS: ACT NOW, airline, based on the filed flight plan and taking into account the
EVERYWHERE, AND AT LOW COST conditions of the day: weather, load factor...
While the first two approaches are obviously the most promising since
A few definitions
they enable truly low-carbon air transport, they must overcome several
significant challenges: In the context of Air Traffic Flow Management,
considering a D-day flight, the strategic phase includes
 On one hand, development of low-carbon aircraft requires major
dispatching and flight planning activities carried out
technological and logistical breakthroughs and experts do not
between one year and D-7, the pre-tactical phase takes
anticipate mass production to start before the end of the next
place between D-7 and D-1 and finally the tactical phase
decade.
takes place on D-day.
 On the other hand, deployment of SAF will necessarily be gradual:
1
initially limited to SAF based on the sustainable
exploitation/recycling of biomass, their use will grow with the
development of synthetic fuel. However, large-scale deployment of
low carbon synthetic fuel is not foreseen before 2035 at the earliest. EVALUATE, EXPLORE, EXPERIMENT, DEPLOY…
The positive impact of fleet renewal on air transport environmental
2
footprint no longer needs to be demonstrated . However the cost of This document thus aims at describing more precisely the challenges of
such renewal for airlines is very high – A320neo list price is $110M – in a the ecological transition of flight operations:
time when airlines’ investment capabilities are seriously hampered by  We will first summarize the methods for assessing the climate
the COVID crisis. impact of aviation that has been developed by the scientific
Therefore, the fourth approach seems to be the most accessible in the community and that are now widely recognized. We will also show
short term while being cumulative with the three first ones: optimizing how the understanding of this impact itself is improving (‎Section 1).
the day-to-day flight operation of in-service aircraft to reduce their  Using these methods and state-of-the-art flight optimization
ecological impact. Throughout the following of this document, we will research, we will try to assess the order of magnitude of the
refer to such operations as ecofriendly operations. potential for eco-friendly flight operations to reduce the climate
impact of air transport (‎Section 2).
 We will then identify the challenges that air transport will have to
face to deploy these eco-friendly operations (‎Section 3).
 Finally, we will introduce three proposals allowing to engage all air
transport stakeholders in order to achieve these reductions as
quickly as possible (‎Section 4).
1
(EEA, EASA & EuroControl, 2020) estimates that, if the whole European biofuel
production was dedicated to SAF, it would only account for 4% of kerosene
consumption in Europe in 2019. It also states that the average use of SAF in Europe
should not exceed 1% in the short term because of their high price.
2
The latest generation A320neo is at least 15% more efficient than a classic A320
according to (Hensey & Magdalina, 2018). This number is probably underestimated
as it doesn’t take into account replaced aircraft’s airframe and engine aging.
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Section 1
Assessing the climate impact of air transport
Much of the recent debate on aviation's ecological footprint focuses on 1.2 UNDERSTANDING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF
its actual contribution to global warming. To address this question, we
will first introduce how the climate impact of a human activity can be
AIR TRANSPORT
3
assessed, then address the specifics of air transport impact (and the
associated uncertainties), and finally provide some elements to evaluate Science describes the climate impact of flight operations as the result
it. from kerosene combustion by the aircraft engines. The best-known
chemical byproduct of this combustion is CO2, but other effects and
byproducts directly or indirectly contribute to climate warming. These
Annex ‎A.1 on page 27 provides further details on the so-called non-CO2 effects include the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX),
different units of measurement of the ecological footprint water vapor or droplets (H2O), sulfur oxides (SOX), and soot.
and the climate models involved.
1.1 EVALUATING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF A

HUMAN ACTIVITY
One can model Earth and its atmosphere as an energy system heated by
the absorbed solar irradiance and cooled by the energy radiated back to
space. Human activity increases the amount of greenhouse gases (GHG)
present in the atmosphere, modifying the Earth’s radiation balance and
causing climate temperatures to rise.
To allow comparison between climate impact of physicochemical
phenomena having different intensities and lifetimes, scientists have
developed the notions of Effective Radiative Forcing (ERF) and Global
Warming Potential (GWP):
 Effective Radiative Forcing (ERF) is a key metric for evaluating
climate impacts of a GHG. To make it simple, the ERF of a human
activity quantifies the impact of the effect on global warming in W
-2
m – warming being positive and cooling being negative.
 The integration of this impact over time determines an energy
accumulation and allows to compare effects with very different
lifetimes and intensities. It can thus be compared to the amount of
CO2 that would have generated an equivalent warming over the
same period. Figure 1: Environmental impact of aircraft turbofan engine emissions
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) associated to given GHG (Brasseur, et al., 2016)
emission corresponds thus to the amount of CO2 which would have
generated a warming effect equivalent to the GHG emission over a
given period. GWP is a key metric of various climate agreements; it The above figure describes the impacts of kerosene combustion by
is expressed in grams of CO2-equivalent and abbreviated gCO2-eq. aircraft engines. It shows the three levels of this process:
The most commonly used GWP100 corresponds to a time horizon of  Engine fuel combustion and direct emissions (top).
100 years.  Induced atmospheric processes and byproducts (middle).
 Resulting cascading climate impacts (bottom).
1.2.1 CO2 IMPACT, A WELL-UNDERSTOOD

LONG-LASTING PHENOMENON
Today science understands the climate effect of CO2 quite well, and
carbon life cycle models now provide accurate and reliable forecasts.
While present in the atmosphere, CO2 is a greenhouse gas causing
climate temperatures to rise. Progressive absorption by natural
reservoirs – so-called carbon sinks – such as oceans and forests takes
many decades or even centuries. This long life cycle gives CO2 emissions
a strongly cumulative global warming effect.
3
The environmental impact of a product generally spans over its life cycle: design,
raw materials, manufacturing, operations, recycling and dismantling. However, in The contribution of aviation to CO2 emissions is also well known and is a
the case of air transport, flight operations are overwhelmingly predominant. Indeed direct result of engine fuel combustion. The mass of CO2 instantly
(Tyler, 2013) shows that the share of design and production activities in the GHG produced can thus be directly derived from the instant amount of fuel
emissions of a transport aircraft over its lifetime is ranging from 1.6% (long-haul) to burn – a commonly accepted ratio is 3.16 kilogram of CO2 emitted per
3.5% (short to medium-haul). kilogram of kerosene burned (Graver, Zhang, & Rutherford, 2018).
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1.2.2 THE BRIEF BUT POWERFUL CONTRAILS 1.2.3 THE MIXED EFFECTS OF NITROGEN OXIDES
Compared to CO2, condensation trails – contrails – and their induced Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are a byproduct of kerosene combustion. Their
artificial cirrus clouds have a far shorter lifetime – typically hours – but production depends on the fuel burn, the temperature and pressure
their impact is far more intense: their overall global warming potential is inside the combustion chamber. Science also understands the
thus comparable to CO2. interaction between NOX and the atmosphere quite well.
Contrails form at high altitude at aircraft engine exhaust or wing tips, First, NOX are the precursors of ozone (O3), a well-documented
and are composed primarily of water in the form of ice crystals. greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. The production of
Impurities in the burnt fuel exhausts provide some of the seed particles O3 increases:
for their formation (Minnis, Ayers, Palinkonda, & Phan, 2004). Contrails  With altitude, given that NOX has a longer lifespan at high altitude
can dissipate in minutes through ice sublimation, or persist for dozens of (Fröming, et al., 2012).
hours in cold and humid areas as cirrus clouds, spreading over wide
areas (see figure below).  Close to the equator, where more intense solar radiation favors the
transformation of NOx into O3 (Shine, Bernsten, Flugestvedt, &
Sausen, 2005).
 In anticyclonic ridges or jet streams (Fröming, et al., 2020).
Second, NOx interacts with methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas,
reducing its concentration in the atmosphere thus leading to climate
cooling. Science has a lesser understanding of this phenomenon,
although it also seems to vary with altitude (Fröming, et al., 2012).
While the climate effects of CO2 and contrails unambiguously increase
global warming, those of NOX are mostly warming when the effect on O3
predominates (high altitude, equator, anticyclonic ridges or jet streams)
and mostly cooling when the effect on CH4 predominates (low altitudes).
Although this makes the climate impact modeling more complex,
(Fröming, et al., 2020), state-of-the-art studies (Lee, et al., 2020)
consider the overall effect as warming.
A warmer effect in the northern hemisphere

Figure 2: Mean nocturnal radiative forcing of artificial cirrus clouds
(Faber, et al., 2008) gives a complementary perspective:
induced by contrails (results from data collected by the MODIS
since the lifespan of the O3 effect is short (a few weeks), its
instrument onboard the NASA Aqua satellite)
warming effect is mostly local. On the contrary, its cooling
effect following the reduction of methane lasts much
longer (decades), and is much more global.
These account for the bulk of the climate effect of contrails (Haywood,
et al., 2009) (Kärcher, 2018) (Lee, et al., 2020), slowing the natural This leads to a combined significant warming in high
4 traffic density areas (e.g. northern hemisphere), and lower
radiative cooling of the earth mostly during the night .
warming or even cooling in low traffic density areas (e.g.
Their precise modeling and interactions with nearby clouds remain open southern hemisphere).
research topics. Indeed, their size is small relative to the mesh size of
climate simulation models. For these reasons, uncertainty as to the
overall climate impact of contrails remains high.
The impact of synthetic fuels on contrail formation

The abundance of contrails generated inflight depends on
the quantity of soot and water emissions. According to
(Beyersdorf, et al., 2014), synthetic fuels produce 86% less
soot than traditional fuels. It is thus fair to assume that
SAF usage will result in a significant decrease of contrails.
However, considering the expected use of SAF will
probably remain low in the short term, it seems
reasonable to expect a low reduction of contrails through
SAF over such timeframe.
4
During the day this effect is mostly offset by their reflecting of incoming sunlight.
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1.2.4 CO2 AND NON-CO2 EFFECTS: DIFFERENT 1.3 ASSESSING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF AIR
DYNAMICS, SIMILAR ORDER OF MAGNITUDE TRANSPORT
Table 1 provides assessment of the GWP of the CO2 and non-CO2 effects
of aviation based on the reference work performed by (Lee, et al., 2020). While it would be very difficult to estimate the ERF and GWP100 of each
These effects appear equivalent in magnitude, in spite of very different car trip or building on a global scale, such an assessment is technically
intensity and durations. feasible in the short term for each commercial flight, based on data
emitted by the aircraft or collected onboard and on models from climate
Indeed, several government agencies, such as ADEME in France, research (see section ‎4.1 on page 17 for details on such assessment).
recommend that CO2 and non-CO2 effects shall be considered as
approximately equivalent (ADEME, 2020). Table 3 describes the data required to compute such impact on any
trajectory segment – that is to say over any given area – based on the
reference models of the three main effects we have just described.
GWP20 GWP50 GWP100
NOx
NOx Effect Required data
NOx CO2
CO2 Contrails CO2 Fuel consumption for the considered flight segment: CO2
Contrails & cirrus results from a commonly accepted ratio of 3.16 kg of CO2
Contrails CO2
& cirrus emitted per kilogram of kerosene burned (Graver, Zhang, &
& cirrus
Rutherford, 2018).
Weather conditions in the area of the flight segment

Effect GWP20 GWP50 GWP100
Contrails and (humidity, temperature and pressure).
CO2 (Gt CO2) 1034 1034 1034 induced Knowledge of engine thrust level along the flight segment can
Contrails and cirrus (Gt CO2-eq) 2399 1129 652 cirrus improve this assessment (the reference models assume the
same default thrust level for all aircraft types).
Net effect of NOx (Gt CO2-eq) 887 293 163
Engine thrust level, weather conditions and composition of the
Others (Gt CO2-eq) -188 -88 -51 Net effects
atmosphere in the flight segment area (solar radiation, winds
of NOX and pressure).
Total Gt CO2-eq 4128 2366 1797
CO2-eq to CO2 ratio 4.0 2.3 1.7
Table 3: State of the art of the data needed to calculate the ERF or
Table 1: Comparative impacts of CO2 and non-CO2 effects of aviation GWP100 of an individual flight over a defined area.
on GWP20, GWP50 and GWP100 according to (Lee, et al., 2020), in
gigatons (Gt) par year.
The warming factors grouped under the “others” category correspond to lesser
Obviously, far from constituting immutable references, these models are
effects: sulphur oxides, water vapor and soot. constantly evolving as research progresses. These evolutions mainly
concern:
 Emission measurement/emission models: increasing accuracy of
These results illustrate the complexity of climate impact assessment and
emission models and measurements, increasingly direct emission
associated policies: short-lived contrails and their induced cirrus clouds
measurements.
have a much stronger effect on GWP20 than on GWP100, while CO2 effects
are much longer lasting: when CO2 emission and contrail avoidance  Measure of the atmospheric conditions around the plane: increasing
require contradictory measures, shall regulators privilege short term accuracy of atmosphere models, increasingly direct atmospheric
climate impact (and thus contrail) or long term CO2 impact? condition measurements.
 Physicochemical models of the atmosphere: increasing accuracy of
Table 2 summarizes the confidence level associated with the
the models associated with emissions’ lifecycle and their
understanding of these three phenomena: it shows that, even if the
interactions with their environment.
confidence level on the effects of contrails/induced cirrus on the one
hand and NOx on the other hand are of different natures, they remain  Modeling of climatic events: increasing accuracy of climate models
low. associated to the physicochemical interactions in the atmosphere.
Contributor Confidence level

5
It is therefore possible to evaluate the climate
CO2 effects CO2 High impact of any flight segment with a reasonable
accuracy using existing operational data and models.
NOx Low
non-CO2 effects This accuracy will increase as research on models
Contrails and induced cirrus Low progresses and collected data accuracy increases.
Table 2: Level of confidence in the climate effect models of the main
contributors of aviation, according to (Lee, et al., 2020)
5
According to the IPCC, the confidence level is a combination of the quantity and
quality of evidence (theoretical information, observations, models ...) on the one
hand and the degree of agreement (convergence of opinions) on the other hand.
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Section 2
Assessing the potential climate impact
reduction of eco-friendly operations
While the previous section of this document allowed us to lay the CO2-PERFECT FLIGHT, IGNORING WEATHER
foundations for an assessment of the climate footprint of aviation and to
understand its mechanisms, the aim of this section is to quantify the While the idea of a CO2-perfect flight is conceptually appealing, its real
reduction potential made possible by eco-friendly operations, both in efficiency in terms of emission reduction is complex to evaluate. For
terms of CO2 and non-CO2 effects. example, since this trajectory ignores all conventional flight constraints
except the safe flight envelope, it is difficult to implement under normal
operating and traffic conditions. Science therefore focuses on
Flight optimization, an area of research simulations, corroborated in some cases by experiments with necessarily
Flight optimization research is often based on limited representativeness.
mathematical models and simulations – sometimes Practically, the characteristics of this CO2-perfect trajectory in the
corroborated by local experiments – rather than actual vertical and horizontal planes are actually quite different. In the vertical
measurements. plane (figure 3), it is essentially based on an optimal use of engines and
Consequently, the results reported in this section intend on flight dynamics optimization. Based on results largely taken from
only to provide orders of magnitude to support the (Dalmau & Prats, 2015), it can be characterized as follows:
remainder of the document.  A continuous climb, progressively changing thrust level to adjust
flight path angle according to aircraft performance and external
conditions,
2.1 CO2 EFFECTS: A REDUCTION POTENTIAL  A cruise phase with a thrust level that ensures optimum fuel
ABOUT 10% efficiency at all times (see figure 4 below) also known as Maximum
Range Cruise. Such thrust configuration induces therefore a shallow
To understand the reduction potential of eco-friendly operations in continuous climb until top of descent as aircraft weight decreases as
terms of CO2 emissions, a simple method consists of characterizing a flight progresses,
6
CO2-perfect flight and measuring the difference between this flight and  A descent with idle thrust.
an actual flight. This gives us a maximum theoretical gain, ignoring any
constraints other than the departure and arrival airports and time of
7 Altitude
departure .
Since the reduction of CO2 emissions depends directly on the reduction
of fuel burn, we can benefit from the numerous works carried out with
the aim of optimizing the operational (economic) efficiency of air
transport.
We will split this section in two parts:
 We will first identify the different flight optimization strategies
Distance
aiming at reducing CO2 effects.
 We will then assess their reduction potential. Figure 3: CO2-perfect vertical trajectory, according to (Dalmau & Prats,
2015)
2.1.1 CO2 REDUCTION LEVERS
The main means for flight optimization are:
68 MRC
 Flight trajectory optimization: we will first determine a CO2-perfect
Fuel Mileage (NM/1 000kg)
trajectory ignoring weather conditions, and then assess the weather 67

impacts (wind in particular).
66
 Ground operations optimizations.
65
64
63
62
0,76 0,78 0,8 0,82 0,84 0,86
Cruise Mach Number
6
In this document, the term “-perfect” – for instance “CO2-perfect trajectory” –
refers to an item – for instance a trajectory – that is associated to the smallest
possible environmental impact. Figure 4: Maximum Range Cruise (MRC), optimal thrust level in terms
7
Among the constraints ignored by the CO2-perfect flight are air traffic of aircraft efficiency (Robertson, Root, & Adams, 2007)
interactions, potential nuisances in airport vicinity, flight duration and delays,
economic efficiency…
7 / 30
Obviously, the relative importance of each flight phase varies with its Weather can interact with the aircraft trajectory in two ways:
total flight length: for example, cruise phase may be very short for a  As a disruptor to the execution of the CO2-perfect trajectory: local
short-haul flight. This CO2-perfect trajectory actually also varies with weather events can significantly affect flight efficiency. In flight, a
each flight, depending on variables such as aircraft and engine type, hazardous weather area may require a detour, and head winds can
aircraft take-off weight but also aging of the airframe and engines. significantly increase fuel burn. During idle descent, wind gradients
In the horizontal plane (figure 5), theoretical optimization is mostly or icing may require the inefficient use of engines or speed brakes.
geometric and consists of minimizing the overall flight distance. The CO2- During departure or arrival, low visibility may reduce the frequency
perfect horizontal trajectory is thus composed of: of take-offs or landings, or even require flight cancellations or
diversions.
 A turn after take-off towards destination,
 As a means for optimization: taking benefits of better winds and
 A direct flight towards the arrival following the great circle route ,
8
temperature gradients is a simple way to increase ground speed,
 A final turn during the approach to align the aircraft with the therefore reducing flight time and fuel burn.
destination runway.
Several works, such as (Palopo, Windhorst, Suharwardy, & Hak-Tae,
2010), (Ng, Sridhar, & Grabbe, 2014) and (Currie, Marcos, & Turnbull,
2016), show that three-dimensional optimization (often called
windsurfing) – constantly searching for the most favorable trajectory in
the volume of air around the aircraft – can have a very significant effect
on the duration of flights and therefore on their fuel burn.
While it may involve significant adjustments to the lateral trajectory,
sometimes deviating by several hundred kilometers from the
CO2-perfect trajectory shown in figure 5, such windsurfing involves
mostly small adjustments of flight levels – typically a few hundred
Figure 5: CO2-perfect theoretical horizontal trajectory meters.
BEYOND FLIGHT: FUEL LOAD, TAXI, AND ONBOARD

IMPACT OF WEATHER ON THE CO2-PERFECT FLIGHT ENERGY USAGE
Winds are very important for flight optimization: a mere 5kt wind Apart from the flight itself, there are two global flight optimization
translates to around 1% fuel burn impact for an average commercial contributors:
flight.  The reduction of emissions on ground (departure and arrival) that
could involve single-engine taxiing, towing using an electric vehicle
Indeed, while the aircraft is moving relative to the ground, it is actually
part or all of the way, and when parking the aircraft, use of airport
moving inside an air mass, itself moving relative to the ground. The
ground power rather than an onboard auxiliary power unit (APU).
aircraft ground speed is thus the sum of its air speed and the wind
 Optimization of fuel load : it is common for an aircraft to carry
9
speed, this wind speed varying with the altitude. As shown on figure 6,
-1
wind speed can reach very significant values – 25m.s compared a significantly more fuel than is required by regulatory safety
-1
typical aircraft speed of 250m.s – at the usual flight levels of constraints, a practice that increases CO2 emissions: the
commercial airplanes – typically 10 000m. unnecessary fuel makes the aircraft heavier and increases fuel burn.
An extreme example of such practice is tankering, which involves
carrying excess fuel to a destination where fuel is more expensive,
Altitude (m)
often aiming at reducing or eliminating the need to purchase fuel

10
there .
Can reducing onboard consumption be a viable option?

Aircraft engines are not only a source of propulsive
energy; they also provide bleed air and power onboard
electrical systems: air conditioning, de-icing, avionics,
cabin and so on… On the Airbus A320/A330 family, the
consumption of onboard systems represents only 3 to
10% of the energy produced by the engines (Giraud,
Wind velocity (m.s-1) 2014). Therefore, even if they have merit, strategies for
Figure 6: Typical wind speeds over the Netherlands as a function of optimizing onboard consumption offer only limited
altitude (Mearns, 2016). potential for reducing aviation climate impact.
9
Fuel load has two distinct components:
 A mandatory component corresponding to the kerosene necessary to carry out
the flight given known forecast weather conditions, and regulatory reserves in
case of random events such as unforeseen bad weather, arrival delays, and in
flight diversion.
 A discretionary component under the responsibility of the pilot-in-command or
the airline: this is the one at stake in this section.
8 10
A great circle route – also known as orthodromy – is the shortest path between According to (Eurocontrol Aviation Intelligence Unit, 2019), this practice does not
two points at the surface of a sphere. seem economically viable beyond a flight distance of 1,100 km
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2.1.2 EVALUATING THE CO2 REDUCTION POTENTIAL between 2.2% (300NM flight) and 4.7% (600NM flight). However,
including this data meaningfully would require overcoming the
To evaluate the potential induced by these different optimizations for difficulty of quantifying this practice.
reducing the CO2 emissions of aviation, we deliberately consider two
opposite situations: The following table summarizes the reduction potential of these
optimizations and deduce from these values an overall reduction
 Short-haul flights where we can consider the impact of weather
11 potential for a short-haul flight.
negligible on average .
 Long-haul flights where the impact of weather is significant
compared to operations, climb and descent optimizations. Means Potential Comment
We will then extrapolate from those two situations an assessment of the CO2-perfect Lower end value obtained by the three
reduction potential for all flight distances. 11%
trajectory approaches described in this section.
Taxi 0.5% Single engine taxi (lower hypothesis).
THE SHORT-HAUL SITUATION
Fuel load Above landmasses and therefore
1% without significant diversion stakes.
As previously mentioned, determining the reduction potential of a optimization
CO2-perfect flight is complex since there are no exhaustive experimental Elimination of Data excluded from overall total (no
results on which we could rely. To consolidate an approximation of this 2.2% statistics on frequency of occurrence).
tankering
reduction potential, we can use three different approaches:
Total potential 12.5% Excluding tankering.
 First, we can rely directly on the work of (Prats, Dalmau, & Barrado,
2019), the most comprehensive in this area. They estimate a Confidence level Average to high
potential reduction of around 14%, by fully modeling theoretically
CO2-perfect aircraft trajectories and comparing them to real Table 4: Estimated potential for reducing the CO2 emissions of short-
12
traffic . haul flights.
 Second, the work of (Nutt, 2012), proceeds the same way with a
more typical flight – climb and descent without intermediate level
off, and optimum thrust cruise – and then advantageously THE LONG-HAUL SITUATION
consolidates theoretical results through an actual flight. The
The distinction between short and long haul flights arises mainly from
observed result is a potential 10% reduction in fuel burn. The works
the overwhelming predominance of cruise phase for the latter.
of (Dalmau & Prats, 2015) yield an expected additional potential
reduction of around 3% by using continuous climb and cruise, The first characteristic of a long-haul flight is thus to dilute several
leading to a total of around 13%. aspects of a CO2-perfect flight: optimizations of ground operations,
 Last, performance evaluations by (Eurocontrol Performance Review climb and descent have indeed a lower relative weight. Furthermore,
Commission, 2019) estimate at 6% the inefficiencies of air traffic the potential for lateral trajectory optimizations is often limited:
control in Europe. Considered sources of inefficiency are:  Large deviations relative to great circle route are generally due to
o Lateral flight inefficiency, that is to say the increase in actual safety considerations and thus cannot be optimized away (e.g.
flight distance compared to a great circle route, avoidance of conflict zones, see figure 7).
o Vertical flight inefficiency through climb and descent without
intermediate level off (Continuous Climb/Descent Operations).
The main potential gains ignored here are
o First better optimization of engine thrust though relaxation of
flight scheduling
o Second allowing continuous climb and cruise profiles.
(Prats, Dalmau, & Barrado, 2019) estimates their potential for
additional between 4% and 8%, for an overall reduction potential
ranging from 10% to 14%.
Ground operations may yield further reduction potential:
 The works of (Deonandan & Balakrishnan, 2010) and (Open Airlines,
2018) on taxiing show a potential ranging from 0.5 to 2% through Figure 7: The significant deviation relative to great circle flight
single engine taxiing, and from 1.2% to 4% by using an electric due to avoidance of Syria for safety reasons (FlightRadar24,
towing device. 2020).
 The works of (Ryerson, Hansen, Hao, & Seelhorst, 2015) on fuel load
show a potential of 1% through more eco-friendly fuel loading for  Flights over remote areas (oceans, poles, uninhabited areas) are
short and medium haul flights. usually already optimized (see figure 9).
 Last, (Eurocontrol Aviation Intelligence Unit, 2019) estimates the
ecological impact of tankering as an over-consumption of kerosene
11
Indeed, the short duration of cruise phase makes it difficult to take advantage of
cruise winds.
12
Assessment carried out over two representative traffic days: one summer day,
one winter day, in the FABEC zone consisting of Germany, Belgium, France,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland, and representing 55% of air traffic Figure 8: Flight trajectories are usually very close to the great
(Ministère de la Transition Ecologique, 2017). circle route over the Atlantic (FlightRadar24, 2020).
9 / 30
To assess the “dilution” of the CO2-perfect flight reduction potential,

long haul could be approximated by considering them as a short-haul 20%
flight with an additional cruise segment that cannot be laterally
optimized. Using this method and based on the works of (Robertson,
Root, & Adams, 2007) and (Dalmau & Prats, 2015), the estimated 15%
reduction potential on a typical long-haul flight (7600NM) is around 5%.
10%
The second characteristic of long-haul flights is the obvious benefit of
windsurfing, the benefit of which has been addressed through different
approaches: 5%
 (Ng, Sridhar, & Grabbe, 2014) shows that vertical windsurfing –
based only on the modification of flight levels – has a reduction
potential ranging from 3% to 10%. 0%
500 2000 3500 5000 6500 8000 9500
 (Palopo, Windhorst, Suharwardy, & Hak-Tae, 2010) shows that
lateral windsurfing – based only on modifications of the lateral
trajectory – can reach a modest 0.5%. Figure 9: Estimated potential for reducing CO2 emissions as a function of
flight distance in percentage.
 Finally, combining lateral and vertical optimizations (Currie, Marcos,  Purple curve: eco-friendly flight operations,
& Turnbull, 2016) shows reduction potential ranging from 6% to  Blue curve: CO2-perfect theoretical trajectory and ground operations,
10%.  Green curve: optimal wind and temperature management.
The table below summarizes the overall CO2 reduction potential of a

long-haul flight, using both theoretical and weather optimizations.
Figure 10 shows the statistical distribution of flights as a function of
flight distance. Comparing it to the preceding figure, unsurprisingly the
Means Potential Comment maximum potential arises for transcontinental flights in controlled
airspaces – such as flights from Portugal to Norway or from Boston to
CO2-perfect flight Limited potential for lateral New Orleans – where the potential of optimal wind management
flight optimizations; diluted
and ground 5% strategies adds up with that of a more direct flight.
effect of climb/descent and
operations ground optimizations.
Lower hypothesis of works by 7 000 000 12 000 000
Weather 6% (Currie, Marcos, & Turnbull,
2016) 6 000 000 10 000 000
Number of flight hours

Total potential 11% 5 000 000
Number of flights
8 000 000
4 000 000
Confidence level Average to high 6 000 000
3 000 000
Table 5: Estimated potential for reducing the CO2 emissions of long-haul 4 000 000
2 000 000
flights. 2 000 000
1 000 000
0 0
[1000-1500]
[2000-2500]
[3000-3500]
[4000-4500]
[5000-5500]
[6000-6500]
[7000-7500]
[8000-8500]
[9000-9500]
[0-500]
EXTRAPOLATING THE REDUCTION POTENTIAL AS A

FUNCTION OF FLIGHT DISTANCE
As we have just seen, short- and long-haul flights are opposite operating Figure 10: Distribution of the number of commercial flights as a function of
scenarios in terms of the respective weights of their two means of flight distance: blue bars are short-haul flights, green medium-haul, and
optimization: theoretical and weather. It is however possible to combine purple long-haul, and of flight hours: red curve (Atmosfair, 2011)
their respective reduction potential estimates according to the statistical
distribution of flights.
Research estimates that the potential
Figure 9 thus shows the estimated potential for reducing CO2 emissions
through eco-friendly operations as a function of flight distance.
for reducing CO2 emissions through eco-friendly flight
operations is ranging from 10% to 15%.
10 / 30
2.2 NON-CO2 EFFECTS: A NOVEL AND 2.2.2 NITROGEN OXIDES, THE COMPLEXITY OF
COMPLEX RESEARCH AREA ANTAGONISTIC EFFECTS
NOX effects are more complex to assess. As stated in section ‎1.2.3 on
The two most notable non-CO2 climate effects are contrails with their page 5, NOX emissions are approximately proportional to fuel burn, but
artificial cirrus clouds, and Nitrogen oxides. NOX generates antagonistic effects that can result in warming or cooling
depending on flight level, area of emission, and weather conditions.
2.2.1 CONTRAILS AND INDUCED CIRRUS: A VERY While there is a great deal of research on each of the basic effects of
SIGNIFICANT POTENTIAL NOX, little of it allows understanding their interrelationships and
inferring action strategies:
As seen in section ‎1.2.2 on page 5, the effects of contrails and especially
their induced artificial cirrus clouds are very significant and better  (Fröming, et al., 2012) presents an assessment of the impact of
understood. (Kärcher, 2018) shows that these artificial cirrus appear as cruising altitude: an average 2,000-foot increase is shown to
the aircraft passes through areas particularly conducive to their increase NOX-induced radiative forcing by 29%. Conversely, a 6,000-
formation – cold and humid air. Their intense greenhouse effect lasts for foot reduction is shown to reduce this radiative forcing by 125%,
a few hours and is essentially nocturnal. Research therefore focuses on giving an overall cooling effect by reducing CH4 in the atmosphere.
two types of solutions to reduce their impact:  However, (Lee, et al., 2020) questions NOX optimization models
 Their impact being nocturnal (Stuber, Forster, Rädel, & Shine, 2006) suggesting that the NOX-induced GWP100 reduction does not
proposes to modify aircraft take-off schedules to decrease the compensate for the increase in CO2 emissions. They suggest
quantity of artificial cirrus created in the evening. However, this focusing on CO2 reductions instead, since this implies lower fuel
type of measure has a very high operational impact, and since burn, and corresponding lower NOX emissions.
induced cirrus clouds can reach a lifespan of several hours, their
Given the uncertainties and the current state of science, a conservative
benefit is debatable.
“no regret” approach leads us to consider that a CO2-perfect flight is also
 An alternative solution consists of aircraft avoiding areas conducive a NOX-perfect flight.
to contrail formation by adapting their vertical and horizontal
trajectories. This approach appears to be very effective since several
studies (Sridhar, Ng, & Chen, 2011) (Grewe, et al., 2017) (Teoh, Study Potential Comment
Schumann, Majumdar, & Stettler, 2020) show a significant effect on
the creation of contrails (see table below). (Fröming, et al., 125% Reduce cruise altitude by
(net contributor to 6,000 feet, at the expense of
2012) increased CO2 emissions.
climate cooling)
Study Potential Comment Based on the previously
(Lee, et al., 2020) 11% - 12.5% identified CO2 gains.
For US domestic flights, with Conservative choice given the
(Sridhar, Chen, & Ng, Adopted value 11% - 12.5%
53% an increase in overall fuel imprecision of the models.
2010) burn of 2%.
Confidence level Low to average
For US domestic flights, with
(Sridhar, Ng, & Chen,
70% an increase in overall fuel
2011) burn of 2%.
Table 7: Reducing GWP100 induced by NOx
For transatlantic flights, with
(Grewe, et al., 2017) 45% an increase in overall fuel
burn of 2%.
For transatlantic flights, with
(Yin, Grewe, Fröming, Even if science has a lesser understanding of non-CO2
40% an increase in overall fuel
& Yamashita, 2018) burn of 2%. effects, optimization of operations seems to be a very
(Teoh, Schumann, promising way to reduce their impact, especially when
In Japan, by modifying 1.7%
Majumdar, & 59% of flights. dealing with contrails and their induced cirrus.
Stettler, 2020)
Adopted value is the lowest
Adopted value 40% given the standard deviation
of the studies.
Confidence level Average to high
Table 6: Reducing the effects of contrails and their induced cirrus

through trajectory optimization.
11 / 30
2.3 EVALUATING THE COMBINED POTENTIAL  As previous sections show, the trade-offs between CO2-induced and
OF A CLIMATE-PERFECT FLIGHT NOX-induced GWP100 reductions can be more complex to achieve.
However, as proposed by (Lee, et al., 2020), we can consider CO2
optimization reduces NOX by an equivalent magnitude.
Based on the conclusions of the previous sections, figure 11 summarizes
the potential for reducing the various climate impacts of aviation Based on these hypotheses, figure 12 depicts tentative estimates of the
through eco-friendly operations. potential for eco-friendly operations to reduce overall climate change
effects (CO2 and non-CO2) with respect to the considered time scales
(GWP20 to GWP100).
0 1000 2000 3000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
GWP20
CO2 GWP50
GWP20
-11% to 23%
-12.5% GWP100
GWP50
22%
GWP20
GWP100
Contrails GWP50 19%
-40%
GWP100
Figure 12: Reduction potential to the climate effects of air transport

(both CO2 and non-CO2) through eco-friendly flight operations. Horizontal
scale is in CO2-eq gigatons per year.
GWP20
Light color shows GWP reduction potentials; dark color represents the resulting
NOx reduced GWP. The total of both corresponds to current state of affairs.
GWP50
-11% to
-12.5% GWP100
2.3.2 COMBINED OPTIMIZATIONS: THE CLIMATE
COST FUNCTIONS
Current Potential The most promising approach to combined optimization is the Climate
Cost Functions (CCFs) developed by the DLR (Grewe, et al., 2014),
Figure 11: GWP reduction potential of each effect: CO2, contrails, NOX, (Grewe, et al., 2014), (Matthes, et al., 2017) and (Matthes, et al., 2020).
for three timeframes: 20, 50 and 100 years, in CO2-eq gigatons. The CCFs aim at characterizing the climate impact of a specific emission
Calculations after one year of emissions. Blue bars show consequences of current at a given point on the globe for a given set of weather conditions. They
emission levels, purple show potential consequences of the full deployment of allow the development of multi-criteria optimizations on all the
climate-perfect flight. The potential of NOx is indicative only, since this field of dimensions of the climatic impact of a flight: CO2, NOX, contrails and
research is still in its infancy. induced cirrus clouds... Figure 13 (next page) shows examples of such
optimized horizontal and vertical profiles.
2.3.1 COMBINING SEPARATE OPTIMIZATIONS The result of these optimizations seems to confirm the conclusions of
the previous sub-section, suggesting a potential reduction of around
The different approaches to the climate-perfect flight give sometimes- 25% at the expense of a 5% increase in fuel burn (Grewe, et al., 2014)
contradictory results because several of these effects are coupled. For (Matthes, et al., 2017). More recently, (Matthes, et al., 2020) shows
example, a CO2-perfect flight can be suboptimal from a contrail more significant reductions for three sample flights, however estimated
standpoint if it passes through an area conducive to their creation. The over a shorter timeframe of 20 years: 30% to 50% reduction at the
same flight may generate more O3 because it requires flying at higher expense of a 5% increase in fuel burn.
altitude to avoid these contrails while burning less fuel and thus
reducing both CO2 and NOX emissions!
Science shows that the potential of eco-friendly operations
However, while these results are not directly cumulative, and if short-to-
medium-haul flights and long-haul flights differ significantly, several
to reduce the climate impact of air transport induced by its
articles provide clues for combining these effects: CO2 and non-CO2 effects is ranging from 20% to 25%, with
 The studies previously cited show that avoiding contrails and their a high degree of uncertainty concerning NOX effects.
induced cirrus increases CO2 emissions by approximately 2% due to
the increased fuel burn. Given their correlation, it seems reasonable
to expect a similar effect with NOX.
12 / 30
Figure 13: Example of optimization of three different flights using Climate Cost Functions in the horizontal plane (top) and in the vertical plane (bottom). In the
horizontal plane, the blue trajectory corresponds to the great circle; the black trajectory corresponds to the optimal flight (Matthes, et al., 2020).
The sample flights are Lulea-Gran Canaria, Helsinki-Gran Canaria and Baku-Luxembourg. The red areas have a positive CCF (warming); the blue areas have a negative CCF (cooling). The
lateral trajectory optimizes fuel burn; the vertical trajectory optimizes the climate impact at the expense of a 0.5% increase in fuel burn.
13 / 30
Section 3
Challenges to overcome
Ensuring the ecological transition of flight operations requires
overcoming three major challenges: Aircraft Operational
Inefficiency
 A structural challenge: how to implement the ecological transition in
an ecosystem as complex and regulated as air transport?
 A transformational challenge: how to make environment a core
tenet of flight operations?
 A conjectural challenge: what is the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on
such a transition?
Average
Inefficiency
3.1 A STRUCTURAL CHALLENGE:

THE COMPLEXITY OF THE AIR TRANSPORT Traffic
ECOSYSTEM Density
Figure 14: Aircraft operational inefficiency (blue curve) increases with

The complexity of the air transport ecosystem is mainly due to its
traffic density. The average inefficiency (red dotted line) corresponds
historical breakdown between airlines, ANSPs and airports on the one
somehow to the ecological footprint reduction potential identified in the
hand, and to a very specific regulatory framework on the other.
previous section.
3.1.1 AIRLINES, ANSPS AND AIRPORTS

As mentioned above, a first level of complexity in air transport is due to
the historical presence of three types of parties with very different
3.1.2 A VERY SPECIFIC REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
dynamics: Beyond this first level of complexity, the regulatory framework for air
 Airlines, each seeking to optimize their own operations according to transport is also complex (Gonenç & Nicoletti, 2001) as they are adopted
their specific economic criteria, at different levels:
 ANSPs that must meet the demands of different airlines, adapt to  Multilateral, at a global scale through ICAO: aircrew certificates in
the growth in air traffic, while ensuring the highest levels of safety. aviation, aircraft airworthiness certificates, Carbon Offsetting and
Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA)…
 Airports that have an economic model driven by air and passenger
traffic, and seek to make the best use of their available resources:  Bilateral, between countries: access to specific routes, right to
the takeoff and landing slots. determine capacity and set prices, authorization of charter flights,
fuel tax rules…
 Regional, more specifically at the level of regional air markets
Individual performance vs. capacity (Europe, Australia/New Zealand …): strategy for air traffic control,
local rules such as European Emission Trading System (ETS) on
The following scenario highlights this complexity by European domestic flights…
showing how each stakeholder dynamic interferes with
 National: operator approval, local taxes and fees, prohibited
the others:
overflight zones…
1. In order to increase its economic performance, each
airline wants an adequate number of slots at its
departure and destination airports.
An ecosystem undergoing significant transformation
2. The most attractive airports have usually the higher
traffic density. In addition to airlines, route competition affects local
ecosystems including ANSPs, airports and even
3. When traffic density is high, flights associated with
governments. This competition has increased with the
these slots interfere with each other.
emergence of Low-Cost Carriers (LCC), and the growth of
4. These interferences reduce aircraft operational Middle Eastern airlines, which benefit from a very
efficiency and generate airline dissatisfaction and favorable geography between Europe and Asia.
thus alter airline economic performance.
Beyond the rise of these new players, the ecosystems are
Figure 14 gives a notional view on how such inefficiency themselves stressed by the increasing role of leasers, the
grows with the traffic density. privatization of ANSPs, the distribution of responsibilities
between national and supranational parties (particularly
at the European level), to name a few.
Governments themselves have a role in this area as air traffic is also an

indirect source of revenues for a country through international tourism:
some may thus be encouraged to enable increased air traffic in order to
increase these revenues.
14 / 30
3.1.3 … BUT EFFECTIVE MEANS OF ACTION 3.2 A TRANSFORMATIONAL CHALLENGE: THE

Despite this complexity, air transport has successfully come together ECOLOGICAL TRANSITION
around the improvement of shared performance indicators, either at the
level of these regional ecosystems or at worldwide scale: flight safety, air In any market economy, economic player’s actions are intended to
system capacity (in terms of passengers carried and therefore traffic) or induce an economic benefit, whether it is direct – increased income,
flight operation efficiency for instance. decreased expenses... – or indirect – brand image, customer satisfaction,
stock market valuation... Air transport is no exception: its ecological
One of the highlights of this collective strength is the progress in flight transition may thus sometimes conflict with economic viability.
safety, as illustrated by the following figure. The number of air transport
accidents has dramatically decreased despite the relentless growth in air As discussed in section ‎1.2.1 on page 4, the reduction of CO2 emissions is
traffic, by implementing a culture of continuous improvement shared by a direct result of reduced kerosene burn. Reducing CO2 emissions also
all parties, and supported by major international and national improves flight efficiency and profitability, therefore air transport has
organizations such as ICAO, EASA, FAA, local supervisory authorities… until now been mostly supportive of eco-friendly operations. However,
there are several cases where ecology and economy conflict. For
example:
 Reducing contrails and induced cirrus can increase fuel burn.
 Banning tankering increases fuel procurement costs.
 Banning flight detour to avoid high overflight fees area results in
higher cost for airlines.
 Decreasing flight speed to save fuel may reduce aircraft and crew
rotations per day, and thus airline operational efficiency. This
extended flight duration may itself result in increased maintenance
and pilot costs, both being associated to the number of hours
13
flown . In some cases, it may even require the use of an augmented
crew when flight duration exceeds crew flight time limitations.
 Delaying a flight until traffic and weather conditions allow optimal
Figure 15: Number of accidents per million flying hours over the period
environmental efficiency likely causes passengers dissatisfaction,
1977-2017 (Flight Safety Foundation, 2020)
disrupts connecting flights, and can lead to financial penalties.
To enable the large-scale deployment of

The aviation industry has already proven its ability to join eco-friendly operations, making them viable to
forces in order to dramatically improve its performance: all involved parties is crucial, either through a
safety, punctuality, capacity, efficiency… It is the same type direct or an indirect economic benefit
of collective improvement approach that can enable the
ecological transition of its operations
13
This is typically one of the reasons why most airlines do not use Maximum Range
Cruise, as the cost induced by the additional flight duration – labor costs and
engine maintenance costs – would not be offset by the reduced fuel burn.
15 / 30
3.3 CONJECTURAL CHALLENGE: THE 3.3.2 A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY FOR EXPERIMENTS

UNCERTAINTY GENERATED BY THE COVID- Yet the COVID-19 crisis creates a unique opportunity: it is common to
19 CRISIS say that “air traffic never stops”, making every transformation long and
hard to implement.
The decline in air traffic caused by the COVID-19 crisis is unprecedented With a commercial traffic decrease of more than 50% over a period of
in the history of commercial aviation (see figure 16). Moreover, unlike several months (figure 17), air traffic system assets (airports, ANSP) are
previous crises, the return to normal seems likely to take several years significantly underused: for the first time, large-scale experiments and
(ICAO Air Transport Bureau, 2020). changes are feasible.
The COVID-19 crisis, drastically reducing concerns over

congestion and capacity, offers a unique framework for
experimentation and transformation.
Figure 16: Evolution of passenger air traffic in millions of RPK per month
between 2013 and 2020, according to IATA monthly report.
The purple curve shows actual data, the red one the seasonally adjusted
averages.
Figure 17: Moving average of the number of commercial flights over
the December 2019 – October 2020 period (blue curve) relative to the
ICAO estimates the revenue losses of commercial air transport at $256 previous December 2018 – October 2019 period (yellow curve),
billion over the period from January to August 2020. This primarily according to Flight Radar 24.
affects airlines, airports and ANSPs, whose revenues arise directly from
traffic volume. In this financial context, as they struggle to survive,
stakeholders will find it difficult to invest in fleet and equipment
renewal.
3.3.1 HIGHER DIFFICULTY TO IMPLEMENT NEW

ECOLOGICAL TAXES ON AVIATION
Among the measures aimed at promoting the ecological transition of air
transport parties, a widely studied means is to increase taxation,
particularly to take non-CO2 effects into account, as proposed in a recent
EASA study (EASA, 2020). For instance, among the measures envisaged is
the extension of the ETS to non-CO2 effects, and more specifically to
NOX.
The purpose of this paper is not to discuss the actual relevance of these
measures. However, the necessary consensus they require in the
complex aviation ecosystem seems difficult to achieve due to the COVID
crisis, as these taxes may be a fatal blow to many airlines. The timeframe
envisaged by EASA for such measures – more than five years – reflects
this state of affairs.
The COVID-19 crisis makes it difficult

to implement new environment-related
taxation in the short term.
16 / 30
Section 4
Strategies for a swift deployment
Implementing eco-friendly operations is urgent, both because of the In order to achieve such a strategy, we propose the simultaneous
cumulative nature of global warming – requiring time for any action to implementation of three proposals:
have an actual observable impact on the climate– and because of the  Proposal 1: Design, experiment, and widely distribute, a single
evolving context of air transport: source of truth for the assessment of the climate footprint of each
 Traffic conditions more conducive to experimentation, segment of each flight, reliable, widely recognized by the
 More passengers becoming aware of their climate footprint and community, and under the responsibility of an independent, trusted
that of the airlines they travel with, third party.
 Wider awareness of institutions and citizens, which may lead to  Proposal 2: Within each local ecosystem, experiment and deploy, on
favorable regulatory and structural conditions for eco-friendly ground and onboard, operational and technical solutions allowing
operations. planning and execution of eco-friendly operations, and the
continuous reduction of their climate impacts.
To work within the complexity of air transport, we propose a strategy  Proposal 3: With all stakeholders of these local ecosystems,
based on three principles: establish mechanisms to make eco-friendly operations viable quickly
 At least initially, do not rely on large systemic actions: while and in a coordinated manner.
effective in the long term, they generally take a very long time to
implement.
 Prioritize implementations within local ecosystems by parties 4.1 PROPOSAL 1:
committed to a continuous reduction process of their ecological SET UP AND DISSEMINATE A SINGLE
footprint (see figure 18). SOURCE OF TRUTH
 Within these local initiatives, consider from the start the ability to
scale up. To make eco-friendly operations a reality, several types of stakeholders
will need to act and interact, each within their own framework. In order
to ensure the consistency of their actions, it is crucial to structure them
around a unique, reliable and shared measure. This measure will serve
1. Permanently as a single source of truth in order to allow each of these stakeholders
4. Deploy evaluate
to build KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) dedicated to their own
on a larger scale the ecological
footprint activities.
Evaluation or KPI?
There is often confusion between
evaluation/measurement on one side and indicators (Key
Performance Indicator or KPI) on the other.
3. Experiment 2. Explore To make it simple, an evaluation / measurement is an
on a small-scale to of new areas of actual, undisputed, transparent and fair data
validate the benefits optimization corresponding to an approximation of the reality, without
any intent or bias. It could be built upon a direct
measurement (e.g. temperature through a thermometer)
Figure 18: Cycle of continuous improvement of climate impact within a or through indirect assessment (e.g. GWP based on
local ecosystem. models and simulation). Discussions on the relevance of
an evaluation / a measurement are usually ruled by
science and are usually related to its precision and
As these local initiatives will meet success, it will then become possible validity.
to scale up the most promising ones in order to increase their impact; up On the contrary, a KPI is derived from such
to a point they could become systemic. assessment/measurement in order to monitor progress or
deviation. A KPI is thus associated with the action plan of
a specific party or group of parties, and thus with an
intent. Therefore, discussions between stakeholders on a
Successful and swift deployment of eco-friendly KPI are far more complex as validating a KPI means
operations requires implementation in local ecosystems validating the associated intent.
and incremental actions designed so that
they can scale up.
Within this section, we will thus address the different aspects of this
single source of truth:
 How to design it so that it could be accepted and disseminated
within the air transport community?
 What are the existing tools for footprint assessment and what are
their limitations?
 What challenges does its implementation need to overcome?
17 / 30
4.1.1 A UNIQUE SOURCE OF TRUTH SERVING ALL Finally, regarding transparency, the party in charge of the assessment
must be independent, must guarantee the relevance of the calculation
STAKEHOLDERS
methods and estimate associated uncertainties. It could therefore either
The paramount goal of a single source of truth is thus to build a be in charge of:
consensus, within each local ecosystem, on an assessment method. This  Producing the single source of truth,
consensus needs to go beyond the traditional air transport parties and
include, for example, governmental and non-governmental climate  And/or certifying/approving the quality of the single source if it is
organizations. produced by a third party.
Once this consensus is reached, this single source of truth shall be put This is why international organizations such as ICAO, EASA/FAA or
under the responsibility of an independent and legitimate body, national authorities seem natural candidates. Doing so, they would play
allowing thus the various parties in the local ecosystem to derive the same role in reducing the climate impact of aviation as the role they
actionable KPIs. played in improving the safety and efficiency of air transport.
BUILDING A CONSENSUS To be widely disseminated, the evaluation process

Creating this single source of truth is a complex task, given the wide must be able to make forecasts in addition to a posteriori
scope of its user base: regulators, states, airlines, airports, ANSPs, NGOs assessments. It must be applicable to all and transparent
and even passengers, to name a few. Each user is interested in a and therefore be produced or approved by
different dimension:
an independent entity.
 Granularity: flight or set of flights, passenger travel, part of flight
over a geographical area, part of flight within a control zone, set of
flights during a timeframe...
 The elementary unit of this single source appears to be the 4.1.2 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING TOOLS AS A
climate impact of any flight on any segment of its trajectory. SINGLE SOURCE OF TRUTH
 Considered climate effects: CO2 only, or including all, or some, of
Today, there are two main families of CO2 emission assessment tools:
non-CO2 effects.
CO2 calculators on one side, and CO2 emission reports on the other side.
 The most recognized metrics for their characterization are
individual effective radiative forcing (ERF) and GWP100 of each CO2 CALCULATORS
climate effects, knowing that the confidence level of some of
14
these measures will be very low . CO2 calculators usually estimate emissions from departure to arrival per
passenger. Sovereign entities have developed several: ICAO Carbon
Emission Calculator, Eurocontrol Small Emitters Tool, TARMAAC
calculator by DGAC… Private or non-governmental entities have also
The most relevant single source of truth to serve all integrated such features as part of ticket comparators or trip planners
ecosystem parties is the effective radiative forcing and such as Google Flight.
GWP100 of any aircraft on any segment of its trajectory These calculators determine CO2 emissions as the product of two values:
for each climate effect.  CO2 emissions per passenger per kilometer (or flight time)
depending on aircraft and sometime engine type.
 The great circle distance between departure and arrival airports.
FROM AN EVALUATION TO A SINGLE SOURCE OF TRUTH: However, these CO2 calculators have limitations when it comes to
THE CHALLENGE OF DISSEMINATION assessing the climate efficiency of operations:
The successful dissemination of this single source of truth relies on three  They do not consider the actual flight: trajectory flown, weather and
key properties: usefulness, impartiality, and transparency. traffic conditions, thrust and flight level… and therefore cannot
measure flight operation improvements.
To be useful, it must allow to predict the impact of future flights or
operational concepts, in addition to evaluating flights already  They cannot itemize emissions per geographical area: country,
completed. This forecasting capacity is essential: control zone… as required by parties such as governments and
ANSPs.
 For airlines and ANSPs, to plan and execute eco-friendly flight
operations.  Non-CO2 effects, when included, are flat rates that are not very
relevant to assess the effect of contrails and induced cirrus clouds,
 For the scientific and industrial community, in order to test and for example.
refine climate models and new optimizations, thus maximizing the
speed of fulfilling the reduction potential of eco-friendly flight
operations.
ETS AND CORSIA EMISSION REPORTS
Impartiality requires from the outset an estimate of all flights departing, In order to comply with ETS and CORSIA regulations, airlines have to
traversing or arriving in a given ecosystem, without exception: report their emissions based on actual aircraft fuel burn. However, these
reports also come with limitations:
 The assessment must be fair and apply to everyone.
 It must assess the global effects of local flight operations.  Reports categorized by airline and departure/arrival pair are
available to regulatory entities but not to the general audience as
those data are considered as confidential.
 Emission reports are available only for intra-community flights for
ETS and volunteer countries for CORSIA.
 These reports do not integrate non-CO2 effects.
14
Obviously, the fact that an effect is assessed/measured does not mean it has to
be integrated within the stakeholder KPI.
18 / 30
 While they are a very precise a posteriori measure, they cannot be In order to support fast implementation, the following three-step
used to simulate the impact of a new optimization on an upcoming approach is thus recommended:
flight.  As a first step, experiment and deploy a non-collaborative solution
 Finally, as CO2 calculators, they cannot itemize emissions by based on available actual data, possibly benchmarked with
geographical area. ETS/CORSIA reports or even with real flight data provided by
airlines. This replacement for the CO2 calculators makes it possible
to objectify the ecological efficiency of a flight or a flight segment.
 Second, to progressively make the assessment system more
If not relevant as single source of truth, CORSIA and ETS collaborative and therefore more accurate by integrating actual
emission reports (and to a lesser extent CO2 calculators) data provided:
could be used to benchmark the single source of truth. o By volunteer airlines: for example takeoff weight and actual fuel
flow, precise ratio of SAF per flight, individual aircraft
condition…
o By volunteer aircraft or engine manufacturers: aircraft
4.1.3 CREATING A SINGLE SOURCE OF TRUTH performance models, engine emissions models...
The development of a reliable single source of truth to evaluate the  Last, transition from estimates to actual measurements with data
climate footprint of flight operations needs to overcome two difficulties: from specific sensors onboard the aircraft – “green box” – or
collecting the data necessary for the evaluation on the one hand; and elsewhere: satellites, ground radars…
defining models to convert this data into climate effects on the other.
DATA COLLECTION: COLLABORATIVE OR NOT? Non-collaborative data from observation satellites
As discussed in section ‎1.3 on page 6, climate models require estimates Observation from space is a good source of data for non-
of engine emissions on each segment of the trajectory and collaborative systems. It is quite possible to observe the
corresponding environmental conditions. The data collection strategy formation of contrails from space, as shown in the image
depends very much on the nature of the chosen evaluation system: below captured by NASA's SeaWiFS satellite over the
Atlantic in 2002.
 In a collaborative evaluation system, all parties agree to share their
data anonymously. These can flow from existing aircraft systems –
onboard sensors, flight data recorders… – or new ones, such as a
“green box”.
The “green box”

In the same way that the Safety Management System
uses flight data from the Quick Access Recorder, one
could imagine deploying a “green box” and new sensors
onboard any aircraft. This “green box” would not only
collect existing onboard data – e.g. thrust level and fuel
flow – but also aircraft emissions and atmospheric
15
conditions through new dedicated sensors .
 A non-collaborative evaluation system uses whatever data is

16
available without need for collaboration . Missing data – typically
thrust – are extrapolated using available data such as weather
conditions, aircraft trajectory, standardized aircraft modeling such FROM COLLECTING DATA TO ASSESSING CLIMATE IMPACT:
as OpenAP (Sun, Hoekstra, & Ellerbroek, 2020) and possibly using THE NEED FOR MODEL TUNING
default values for missing parameters. Examples of such an
Regarding climatic phenomena, there are already a large number of
approach are described in (Alligier, Gianazza, & Durand, 2015),
commonly used models: aircraft emission models, physicochemical
(Lopez-Leones, et al., 2017) and (Dalmau, Prats, Ramonjoan, &
models of emission-atmosphere interactions, and finally climate models
Soley, 2020).
associated to these interactions.
Collaborative systems are obviously more accurate, but are generally
However, while CO2 climate effect models are now mature, those for
slower to implement since stakeholders need to participate either
non-CO2 effects have limitations and uncertainties that must be taken
voluntarily or by obligation. Non-collaborative systems are less accurate,
into account when determining the climate impact of any segment of a
but are immediately deployable globally.
trajectory:
 Regarding the physicochemical interaction models, uncertainties lie
in the interactions between several phenomena resulting from the
same emission – O3 and CH4 effect induced by NOX or interactions
between contrails generated by several aircraft – or the interaction
between these phenomena and meteorological phenomena, such as
interactions between contrails and natural clouds.
15
IAGOS (In-service Aircraft for a Global Observing System) is an early example of  Regarding climate models, their resolution will need local
this type of approach: the IAGOS consortium deploys specific sensors onboard a few improvements to make them directly applicable to any flight
aircraft from partner airlines (around twenty planes) and provides the data to segment (this is the case, for example, for models for the formation
researchers to further high altitude climate science.
of artificial cirrus associated with contrails).
16
For example, aircraft and engine type, trajectory from ADS-B data broadcast by
each aircraft, inflight weather conditions…
19 / 30
Validating models
4.2 PROPOSAL 2:
As discussed in ‎section 1, there are many climate models,
IMPLEMENTING OPERATIONAL AND
especially for non-CO2 effects. In addition to a reliable TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS ON GROUND AND
single source of truth, the selection and validation of ON BOARD ALLOWING THE CONTINUOUS
climate models (and their evolutions) requires a IMPROVEMENT OF OPERATIONS’ IMPACT
dedicated scientific committee.
As seen in section ‎2.1 on page 7, research has already largely addressed
the field of eco-friendly operations, with the partial deployment of CO2
effects reduction. The issue is therefore not only the design but also the
Swift deployment of a single source of truth for non- gradual deployment of these operations in a considered local
collaborative assessment is therefore perfectly possible. ecosystem, taking into account the many challenges detailed in
‎section 3 :
This assessment could be limited to CO2 effects initially
and could then evolve over time to include non-CO2  A flight generally crosses several portions of airspace whose
structure is governed by a set of agreements and responsibilities.
effects.
 The objectives of stakeholders – airline and ANSP for instance – may
diverge on a given flight.
 Competition with other performance indicators, such as capacity (of
an Air-Traffic Service Unit or ATSU) or economic efficiency (of a
flight) shall be handled.
However, despite this complexity, the aviation ecosystem has been able
to put in place strategies that allow deep – and sometime very fast –
transformation (see section ‎3.1 on page 14). We propose to draw
inspiration from these strategies for the implementation of eco-friendly
flight operations:
 In terms of implementation (section ‎4.2.1),
 In terms of operational concepts (section ‎4.2.2),
 In terms of technical solutions (section ‎4.2.3),
 … and finally in terms of continuous improvement process (section
4.2.4).
4.2.1 AN IMPLEMENTATION BASED ON GRADUAL

DEPLOYMENT
The implementation of eco-friendly operations requires the deployment
of new operational concepts, possibly new technical enablers and new
processes. In order to enable their swift implementation, we propose to
apply the gradual deployment strategies successfully implemented
between ANSPs and airlines for the continuous improvement of air
traffic management. The deployment of these strategies could thus be
initially:
 Limited to selected portions of airspace, as implemented for free
Aircraft 17
route airspace deployment, for instance in less complex and less
Operational Eco-friendly operations dense areas.
Inefficiency application domain
 Limited in time, such as Continuous Descent Operations: at night,
during certain periods of the year…
3
These initial operational deployments can then be extended
geographically (to national-, continental- and worldwide-level) and time
Average 2 1 according to their success.
Inefficiency
Let us call eco-friendly operation application domain the limited – in
space / time – domain in which eco-friendly operations are deployed.
Traffic Figure 19 describes the two moves to implement in order to improve the
Density average climate efficiency of operations (arrow 1 of figure 19).
 Efficiency improvements within the eco-friendly operations
Figure 19: Increase of the average climate efficiency (arrow 1) through application domain (arrow 2 on figure 19): within the eco-friendly
continuous improvement in eco-friendly operations within the eco- operations application domain, implementation of a continuous
friendly operations application domain (arrow 2), and then extension of improvement of eco-friendly operations as defined on figure 18
this application domain in space and time (arrow 3). page 17 (evaluate/explore/experiment/deploy).
The blue curves show the climate efficiency of flight operations as a function of
traffic density. The dotted red lines show their average climate efficiency. The green
area shows their application domain extension.
17
Free route airspace are volumes in which users can freely plan a trajectory
between entry and exit points. Its deployment in Europe proceeds gradually from
one ATSU to the next.
20 / 30
 Extension of the eco-friendly operation domain (arrow 3 of figure 19) 4.2.2 AN OPERATIONAL CONCEPT LEVERAGING
in space and time. GROUND/FLIGHT COLLABORATIVE DECISION-
The reduced air traffic due to the COVID-19 crisis creates particularly MAKING
favorable conditions for such a deployment. However, on the one hand
the return to a normal traffic and, on the other hand, the extension of While flight planning and standardization are key to the air traffic
the eco-friendly operation domain to denser traffic area will require the management paradigm, executing flights as climate-perfect as possible
design of new operational processes to maintain satisfactory climate (as described in ‎section 2) requires much greater collaboration between
performance while ensuring capacity and safety. pilots and controllers before but more importantly during the flight.
FROM STRATEGIC PLANNING TO COLLABORATIVE AND

AGILE EXECUTION
Example: the Green Flag concept (1/4)
Getting as close as possible from a climate-perfect flight requires
In the domain of robotics, new functions are released in a
continuous adaptation of its trajectory to inflight weather conditions, in
specific domain including space, time, and weather
the four dimensions:
conditions. This is called Operating Design Domain. In the
same way, eco-friendly operations could be implemented  Within the time plane: the climate-perfect flight requires optimum
in a given area for a given time period. use of engine thrust, removing ability to adjust cruise speed to make
up for hazards – such as headwinds – and leading to uncertainty
In the Green Flag concept, when specific conditions are concerning the timeliness of its trajectory and separation with other
met – typically traffic conditions – an area can be aircraft.
declared Green Flag by the Air Traffic Control (ATC). When
 Within the vertical plane: the climate-perfect flight requires
in Green Flag, eco-friendly operations are implemented by
frequent changes in cruise flight level to take advantage of favorable
default in this area as a priority only second to safety.
winds and temperatures, and to avoid non-CO2 effects such as
Such implementation relies typically on improved
contrail formation.
collaboration between pilots and controller and/or also
between controllers. The position of the top of descent allowing an idle thrust descent
may also vary depending on wind foreseen during this descent.
 Within the horizontal plane: the climate-perfect flight may require
significant adjustments to the filled flight plan in order to take
Deployment of eco-friendly flight operations may be advantage of the most favorable winds but also to avoid the non-
CO2 effects.
initially limited in space and time, with an application
domain expanding over time Moreover, the time and vertical dimensions of this climate-perfect flight
should be adjusted to take into account the specific performance of
each individual aircraft and engine type – this performance varying with
aging – but also the specific configuration of each flight, such as onboard
weight and balance.
Whether they occur just before or during the flight, these adjustments
make planning more complex, if not impossible, and require agile
collaboration between pilots, controllers and airlines, and even airports.
Eco-friendly flight operations are complex to

plan preflight and require a far more significant and agile
collaboration between pilots, controllers, airlines and
airports during their execution.
Finally, beyond collaboration challenges, the climate-perfect flight’s

continuous climb cruise involves crossing many altitude blocks, which
could require controllers to adapt their ways of working. Likewise,
climate change optimizations of the lateral trajectory may conflict with
18
airline strategies for minimizing overflight fees .
COLLABORATION, A COMMON PRACTICE IN AIR

TRANSPORT
Setting-up frameworks to improve air transport efficiency through
collaboration between players is old news. Such collaboration
framework has indeed been successfully implemented in several areas:
18
For economic reasons, some airlines fly around areas with high overflight fees,
significantly increasing the flight distance and therefore its ecological impact.
21 / 30
 On the one hand, collaborative Decision Making (CDM) has been

deployed at airport level to better manage aircraft turn around on
ground through the involvement of airports, caterers, ANSPs,
airlines. It has also been implemented at network level to manage
the Single European Sky between ANSPs, Eurocontrol’s Network
Manager and airlines.
 On the other hand, a form of inflight collaboration already exists at
airline level between crews and airlines’ operational control centers.
Figure 21: Example of an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB): specific processes

support the approbation of the software running on this tablet.
These different digital tools could then be connected, taking benefit of

the growing deployment of onboard connectivity. As such, they can
serve as the basis for new collaborative optimizations between crews
and controllers – or even between controllers themselves – in order to
execute eco-friendly operations.
Figure 20 : An Operation Control Center (OCC) – American Airlines’ OCC As the scope of eco-friendly operations expands to areas and periods of
here – provides live support to crews during their flights in order to deal higher traffic, it may become necessary to connect and integrate these
with disruptions such as bad weather, delays… features into more critical systems – for example the onboard flight
management system and/or ground-based ATM systems – in order to
allow greater automation and reduce the workload of pilots and
controllers.
Eco-friendly flight operations may thus involve the creation of a
Climate/Environmental-related collaboration allowing pilots,
controllers and airlines to collaborate during flight execution, reducing Example: the Green Flag concept (3/4)
together the climate impact of flights in areas where and when eco- In the Green Flag example, this collaborative optimization
friendly operations are deployed. enabled by the connection of digital tools could be
activated when an area is declared in Green Flag by the
Example: the Green Flag concept (2/4) ATC.
In the Green Flag example, this new type of

climate/environmental-related collaboration could be
activated when an area is declared in Green Flag by the
ATC.
Fast deployment of the type of collaborative
optimization required to achieve eco-friendly operations
could be made possible by the connection of crew- and
controllers-dedicated digital tools.
Collaboration between pilots, controllers
and airlines could lead to the emergence of a
Climate/Environment-collaboration in places with
deployed eco-friendly operation application domains.
4.2.3 A TECHNICAL SOLUTION BASED ON DIGITAL

TECHNOLOGIES
Within the framework of continuous efficiency improvement, airlines
and ANSPs have set up specific processes and tools (often digital),
outside the scope of critical systems and approved by specific processes.
Such processes and tools could be extended within the framework of
eco-friendly flight operations. For instance:
 In the cockpit: Electronic Flight Bags (EFB) could host new
applications to assist the pilot with the execution of these eco-
friendly flight operations.
 In control centers: the digital applications that are being gradually
deployed in order to support ATC could be extended to new
functions dedicated to eco-friendly operations.
22 / 30
4.2.4 A CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROCESS 4.3 PROPOSAL 3:

INSPIRED BY FLIGHT SAFETY MAKE ECO-FRIENDLY OPERATIONS
To maintain the highest standards in terms of flight safety, airlines and ECONOMICALLY VIABLE
ANSPs have implemented a continuous improvement process through a
Safety Management System (SMS). Tensions between economic interests and environmental goals, detailed
in section ‎3.2 on page 15, shows that air transport players need to be
supported to make eco-friendly operations economically viable. This
The Safety Management System support would probably involve players beyond the air transport
According to ICAO, SMS “is defined as a systematic ecosystem: governments, investors and even citizens. However, the
approach to managing safety, including the necessary large organizations that federate this ecosystem – IATA, ICAO… – also
organizational structures, accountabilities, policies and have a role to play because, as seen in section ‎3.1, they can be powerful
19
procedures”. It relies on safety performance objectives, drivers for change .
rather than compliance with regulations.
Initiating the ecological transition of flight operations within each local
Like a quality management system, it constantly monitors ecosystem requires thus to promote eco-friendly behavior among all
compliance with target performance, detects and stakeholders: airlines, ANSPs, airports, passengers, controllers, pilots,
analyzes deviations, and requires adjustments that may regulators… This section focuses on three of them: airlines, ANSPs and
affect procedures, skills, organizations, or even individuals – passengers, controllers and pilots. For each of them, we
equipment. will try to identify meaningful levers for such engagement.
This SMS could be extended to include ecological objectives and thus

become an ESMS (Environment and Safety Management System), or Dissociating ANSPs and airline ecological performance
become a source of inspiration for the integration of flight operations While eco-friendly operations are a common goal shared
into an EMS (Environmental Management System), such as the one by ANSPs and airlines, it might be useful to dissociate the
recommended by the ISO 14001 standard and by the European Eco- contribution of each of them to monitor improvement
Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). separately. This is still a research question.
Example: the Green Flag concept (4/4)

In the Green Flag example, the EMS of the airline could 4.3.1 PROMOTING ECO-FRIENDLY AIRLINE
for instance monitor its climate efficiency when Green
Flags are activated. On the ANSP side, the EMS could for OPERATIONS
instance monitor the time spent in Green Flag and the Promotion of airlines’ eco-friendly operations could be driven by three
ANSP climate efficiency when Green Flag is activated. types of stakeholders: customers, investors, and regulators.
…THROUGH CUSTOMERS
Deployment of eco-friendly operations could rely on an If they can make an informed airline choice, the growing population of
passengers or corporations who care for their ecological impact could
Environment Management System inspired by the Safety favor eco-friendly airlines and give them an economic advantage. To
Management System used for flight safety. inform airline customers, (Baumeister & Onkila, 2017) suggests
establishing a label to allow:
 Customers to compare the ecological footprint of several flights,
 Airlines to communicate to the public about the ecological
performance of their operations.
The operation part of such a label could be based on KPIs derived from
the single source of truth. The environmental label under consideration
at EASA is an example.
Specific label or existing label?

An alternative to a specific air transport label would
consist of integrating KPIs characterizing environmental
performance into existing labels, such as the Dow Jones
Sustainability Index (S&P Global, 2020), the Carbon Trust
Standard (Carbon Trust, 2020) or the European EMAS
system.
19
For example, ICAO has implemented a worldwide system of compensation for air
transport CO2 emissions, known as CORSIA (Carbon Offsetting and Reduction
Scheme for International Aviation).
23 / 30
… THROUGH INVESTORS Two examples of constraint-based strategies

More and more investors are sensitive to the ecological dimension of
20 Regulations for condensation trails inspired by noise
their investments, whether they are traditional financial players
regulations:
(Mooney & Temple-West, 2020), or players in the "green" finance
sector. The principle of noise regulations is the following:
aircraft must follow Noise Abatement Procedures;
A specific environmental label or the upgrade of existing labels could otherwise, they must pay fines. The same type of
also influence investors towards airlines with more eco-friendly approach could apply to contrails and artificial cirrus
behavior. clouds, requiring planes to follow avoidance
procedures. Aircraft that do not respect such
… THROUGH REGULATORS procedures would be fined based on their climate
impacts according to the unique source of truth.
Many countries or supranational organizations are studying, and some
are even deploying, measures to promote eco-friendly behavior among Environmental management regulations like safety
air transport players. These generally involve taxes or mandates: management regulations:
 Taxation-based solutions aim at making eco-friendly behavior To ensure flight safety, regulators require stakeholders
viable through economic incentives in the territory under their to implement safety management systems (SMS), and
responsibility. audit these systems for relevance. Regulators could
mandate airlines to deploy environmental
As seen in section ‎3.3.1 on page 16 related to airlines’ economic
management systems (EMS), using the unique source
situation induced to the COVID crisis, tax increases do not seem
of truth to quantify progress.
credible in the short term. However, incentivization of eco-friendly
behavior through the modulation of existing taxes is much more
likely to succeed. Several existing taxes or fees are well suited to this
type of approach, such as overflight and landing fees or eco-taxes
on plane tickets that exist in some countries (for example in France 4.3.2 PROMOTE ECO-FRIENDLY ANSP OPERATIONS
since 2019). ANSPs are public or private entities in charge of regulating air traffic over
Those modulations could be based on KPIs derived from the single a given geographic area. Their economic model is evolving and has
source of truth. gradually shifted from state-funded to airspace user-funded through
airspace fees and even commercial services (Materna, 2019).
The impact of ANSPs’ ecological transition is very different from that of
The fuel tax, an imperfect measure airlines. There is no direct conflict between ecology and economy for
While the idea of a fuel tax seems wise at first glance ANSPs as there is for airlines. Rather, what affects ANSPs is the
(CO2 emissions are proportional to fuel burn), there are implementation of measures to enable these climate-perfect flights,
two limitations: possibly increasing costs and/or reducing income:
 The first is that reducing fuel burn does not always  First, a climate-perfect flight requires more controller interactions
correlate with reducing climate impact, for example with the aircraft, and therefore a higher workload – although tools
when reducing contrails and the cirrus clouds they such as the ones described in section ‎4.2.3 page 22 can mitigate this
induce. impact. It is therefore reasonable to think that a climate-perfect
 The second stems from the spread in fuel prices flight may actually cost more to control.
between countries, leading to competitive biases and  Some measures can also affect a key metric of air traffic control,
nuisance practices such as tankering. that is to say capacity. Indeed, capacity is a cornerstone of their
economic model, since income increases with the number of
airspace users. However, as seen in previous sections, a systematic
deployment of more climate-perfect flights may require reducing
 Constraint-based solutions coerce a stakeholder to comply with traffic density, and therefore ANSPs’ income.
21
obligations – for example in terms of emissions , processes,
equipment… – threatening to limit or even revoke stakeholder’s There are thus two means to promote eco-friendly ANSP behavior:
ability to operate in some airspace areas.  Governance: ANSPs currently commit to meet performance
Air transport enforces this type of practice to ensure flight safety – indicators such as punctuality; a first step would add indicators
for example equipment compliance, internal processes, operator characterizing ecological performance based on the single source of
qualification, and maintenance… – or to ensure proper integration truth.
within the ruled airspace (for example through requirements on  Economic incentives: such incentivization could be given by states
aircraft navigation performance). to offset increased costs and loss of revenue, as a function of ANSP
climate-performance based on the single source of truth.
Strategies must be adapted to the realities of

each local ecosystem; however, the most promising in Short-term measures involve integrating into the
terms of impact involves regulators incentivizing governance of ANSPs KPIs associated with the climate
eco-friendly behavior through tax modulation. impact of the regulated flight operations.
20
For example Black Rock, the largest investment fund in the world, announced it
was making sustainability its new standard for investing (Helmore, 2020).
21
For example, the ICAO CO2 standard defines the minimum ecological
performance required to authorize production of an aircraft (ICAO, 2017).
24 / 30
4.3.3 PROMOTE ECO-FRIENDLY INDIVIDUAL Therefore, “feeding” the flight part of these travel comparators – Google
BEHAVIOR Flight, EasyVoyage, and FlyGrn… – with the single source of truth should
provide a more relevant alternative to flat rate assessments:
The ecological transition is also a matter of individual behavior.
Awareness of the climate impact of decisions made by everyone –  It provides passengers with a much more accurate awareness of
passenger, pilot or controller – is potentially a powerful incentive. true climate impact of the flight part of their trip.
 It gives airlines an opportunity to promote the eco-friendliness of
PASSENGERS their flight operations to passengers.
Passenger awareness of a trip’s climate impact – and thus the ability to
compare various trip options – is a simple means to enable an actual
change of behavior. Replacing the flat rates used in travel comparators with
Besides the labeling of airlines suggested in section ‎4.3.1, new players – the single source of truth is a simple way to entice
Google Flight, EasyVoyage, FlyGrn… – propose passengers climate passengers towards more eco-friendly choices.
impact comparisons for various travel options: means of transport
combinations (land or air), itinerary, operator, all of which have an
impact on CO2 emissions (see box below).
PILOTS AND CONTROLLERS
Pilots and controllers are key stakeholders in ensuring the ecological
From comparing flights to comparing travels transition of flight operations: making them aware of their own impact
The complexity of the transport systems is a good reason could thus be transformational. Several tools could be derived from the
for comparing travels: single source of truth to achieve such result:
 It is irrelevant to compare the climate impact of two For pilots, one can imagine a tool showing the ecological
Paris to London flights, one departing from Orly and performance of their actual flight compared to a climate-perfect
arriving at Heathrow and the other departing from flight, possibly comparing this performance to their historical
Beauvais and arriving at Luton, without taking into performance. Similarly, onboard decision support tools could be
account the land travel component: if it involves a augmented with a continuous assessment of the climate footprint
combustion engine vehicle, the climate impact of of each of their decision.
this part of the trip may be equivalent to the air Annual impact can take the form of a personal assessment,
component. compared with previous years, or even compared with the average
 Likewise, it may be better in terms of climate impact performance achieved within the airline.
to take a direct flight from Marseille to Reunion  Similarly, for controllers, one can imagine a tool showing the
Island with an older aircraft and less optimal climate performance of the controlled flight compared to climate-
operations, than to take a flight with a stopover, for perfect flights. Controllers’ digital decision support tools could also
example Paris, even if it is carried out with recent be augmented with a continuous assessment of the climate
aircraft and more eco-friendly flight operations. This footprint of each of their decision.
is because of the additional emissions induced by the
extra distance, a second take-off ... And what if the As for pilot, annual impact can take the form of a personal
assessment, compared with previous years, or even compared with
optimal solution was a train trip from Marseille to
the average performance achieved within the control center.
Paris, then a flight to Reunion?
These two examples highlight both the importance and
complexity of a travel comparison.
Providing pilots and controllers with tools enabling them

to assess the climate impact of their decisions is a simple
However, these comparators rely on flat rates (see sections ‎4.1.2 and effective means to support their engagement in the
relative to CO2 calculator) and often provide inadequate results due to
lack of data.
ecological transition of flight operations.
25 / 30
Conclusions
Eco-friendly flight operations have a significant theoretical potential for AN INCREMENTAL APPROACH TO INITIATE THE
reducing the ecological footprint of air transport: about 10% when
taking into account only CO2 effects, probably more than 20% when
TRANSITION IMMEDIATELY
including non-CO2 effects. Unlike other approaches identified in the
introduction, they also offer the advantage of allowing swift and large- To initiate the ecological transition of operations as soon as possible, we
scale action. recommend mobilizing local ecosystems including airlines, ANSPs and
regulators wishing to make a collective commitment to reduce their
climate footprint.
THREE KEY PROPOSALS This concern for speed leads to the following recommendations for the
implementation of the three proposals:
To initiate a continuous improvement cycle, we introduce three  Regarding proposal 1: start with the better-known effects, and set
proposals inspired by practices that have been shown to be very up a single source truth for the non-collaborative assessment of
effective by the past to improve flight safety and operational CO2 effects.
performance:
 Regarding proposal 2: in each ecosystem, favor quick and
 Proposal 1: implement and disseminate a single source of truth for incremental ground and onboard digital approaches, independent
evaluating the climate impact of emissions by any aircraft on any of critical systems, drawing inspiration from those deployed in the
segment of its trajectory, controlled by a neutral and independent field of operational performance: EFB and digital controller tools.
party.
 Regarding proposal 3: define conditions for fast implementation
 Proposal 2: implement technical and operational solutions on tailored to the dynamics of each ecosystem. Communicate to
ground and onboard for the continuous improvement to the passengers and investors on the ecological performance of the
climate impact of flight operations relying on the collaboration various parties. Provide measurements of their impact to the
between pilot and controllers. various parties, and incentivize airlines and ANSP to favor eco-
 Proposal 3: implement strategies to make eco-friendly operations friendly behavior.
viable and promote eco-friendly behavior of airlines, ANSPs and
individuals.
Reducing the ecological footprint of air transport

by 10% seems a goal within reach, if the willingness of
key local ecosystems – airlines, ANSPs, regulators – to engage
in the ecological transition of operations is leveraged
to initiate a continuous improvement cycle.
By showing practical results, their example

will pave the way to larger deployment and
thus to greater impact.
26 / 30
Appendices
A.1 BETTER UNDERSTANDING THE CLIMATE Radiative Forcing (RF) and Effective Radiative Forcing (ERF) correspond
to two types of boundary conditions, described in the table below.
IMPACT OF AVIATION
This appendix describes in detail the different elements used to measure RF ERF
the climate impact of an emission and their mutual relationships: Altitude Tropopause TOA
radiative forcing, effective radiative forcing, concentration trajectories,
 Atmosphere
global warming and temperature change potential. It then introduces
temperature
the reference climate models used to calculate the impact of CO2, NOX
Free  Water vapor
and contrails. Stratosphere temperature
variables
 Cloud cover
A.1.1 RADIATIVE FORCING  Surface temperature
Radiative forcing (RF) can be conceptually defined as a change in the  Surface temperature
energy equilibrium of earth system, caused by a perturbation –gas or  Troposphere
-2
aerosol emission. It is a flux expressed in W.m . Fixed temperature Surface temperature
variables (partially)
In a quantitative way, RF is therefore an incident flux difference caused  Water vapor
by a perturbation on Top of Atmosphere (TOA) or at the tropopause.  Cloud cover
Table 8: Boundary conditions corresponding to radiative forcing and

effective radiative forcing.
The ERF/RF ratio is sometimes used to characterize which element is

most disturbed, such as surface temperature.
A.1.2 REPRESENTATIVE CONCENTRATION PATHWAY

In its fifth report, IPCC established four RCP (Representative
Concentration Pathway) trajectory scenarios of radiative forcing to the
2100 horizon (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014).
Each RCP scenario forecast climate changes likely to result from different
assumptions regarding greenhouse gas emission over this century. Their
names correspond to the predicted radiative forcing reached in 2100:
-2
the RCP2.6 scenario corresponds to a radiative forcing of +2.6 W.m , the
-2
RCP4.5 scenario to +4.5 W.m , and so on for RCP6 and RCP8.5 scenarios.
Figure 22: Ozone abundance in the atmosphere as a function of altitude

(Atmosphere Monitoring Service, 2020)
The energy state of the Earth’s climate system results from the
difference between the radiative power flux incoming from the sun and
that reflected or emitted by the earth. Disturbances cause the system to
shift towards a new equilibrium, with measurable changes in
temperature at different altitudes.
The following figure shows different boundary conditions for the return
to equilibrium.
Figure 24: The four RCP scenarios considered by the IPCC

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014)
Each RCP scenario has different effects, as shown in the following table.
The climate community widely deems the RCP8.5 scenario (also called
"business as usual") as unlikely, because of climate actions already
Figure 23: Altitude vs. temperature graphs showing different undertaken. RCP4.5 roughly matches current global warming trends,
boundary conditions for the return to equilibrium while climate agreements aim for RCP2.6 or better.
27 / 30
Scenario Temperature change (°C) Sea level rise (m) RF CALCULATION FOR CO2 AND ASSOCIATED
RCP 2.6 +0,3°C to +1,7°C +0,26m to +0,55m UNCERTAINTY
RCP 4.5 +1,1°C to +2,6°C +0,32m to +0,63m The RF of CO2 is a function of fuel burn, according to the stoichiometric
22
RCP 6.0 +1,4°C to +3,1°C +0,33m to +0,63m coefficients of the combustion reaction . The CO2 dilutes in the
atmosphere and results in a concentration measured in parts per million
RCP 8.5 +2,6°C to +4,8°C +0,45m to +0,82m (ppm). Natural sinks capture the CO2 according to kinetics approximated
by Impulse Response Function (IRF) models. The Beer-Lambert formula
Table 9: Changes in temperature and sea level for each RCP scenario,
thus computes the RF:
according to IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014).
𝐶0 + ∆𝐶
𝑅𝐹 = 𝛼. 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐶0
Where C0 is the reference concentration in 1940 and α is a constant
-2
A.1.3 CALCULATIONS equal to 5.35 W.m (Myrhe, Highwood, Shine, & Stordal, 1998).
Climate change estimate can range over different time horizons, For each year, given the quantity of fuel burn, we can deduce CO2
typically 20 to 100 years. emissions, the resulting CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, and the
IRF, which can predict CO2 concentration over time. We can finally
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) represents the overall energy integrate the latter over the chosen duration.
added to the climate system because of pollution, compared to
-2
reference CO2 emissions. In figure 25, the blue curve represents the When (Lee, et al., 2020) identify an average RF of 34 mW.m , it
radiative forcing of CO2 in time, the green and red curves that of other corresponds to the RF of CO2 accumulated between 1940 et 2018 in the
pollution with shorter but more intense effects. GWP is the integration atmosphere, deduction made of the CO2 captured by natural sinks.
of radiative forcing over the considered period, and gives the equivalent
In addition to fuel burn uncertainties, calculation uncertainties arise in
CO2 (CO2-eq) emissions to various pollutions over a given period.
the atmosphere carbon cycle and carbon capture impulse response
The Global Temperature change Potential (GTP) represents the global models.
average change in surface temperature at a given time in response to a
pulse of given type of emissions compared to CO2. RF CALCULATION FOR NOX AND ASSOCIATED
UNCERTAINTY
In atmospheric chemistry, NOX refers to the sum of NO and NO2. In the
presence of light, two cycles of coupled chemical reactions between NOX
and HOX produce ozone (O3) and consume methane (CH4) and carbon
monoxide (CO) (Isaksen, et al., 2014). These well-known phenomena
lead to positive forcing for ozone and negative forcing for methane.
Models with different biases exist, to account for both short-term and
long-term effects. They lead to a high degree of uncertainty in the
estimates and the when combining the two effects.
RF CALCULATION FOR CONTRAILS, AND ASSOCIATED

UNCERTAINTY
Aviation creates artificial clouds induced by the formation of contrails in
23
an atmosphere supersaturated with ice through nucleation, mainly on
combustion soot particles. There are two disturbances: linear contrails
and artificial cirrus resulting from their fusion.
Calculating the RF of contrails and the artificial cirrus clouds they induce
relies on a global climate model. Required inputs include cloud cover,
volume and length of the trail, the ice/water ratio and the concentration
of ice crystals. A reference model is the ECHAM5-CCMod (Bickel,
Ponater, Bock, Burkhardt, & Reineke, 2020). There are two types of
uncertainties:
 The response of artificial cirrus clouds to solar illumination (flux
Figure 25: Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Global Temperature
transfer model in particular in the presence of ice crystals, cloud
change Potential (GTP) according to (Intergovernmental Panel on
homogeneity, impact of the presence of soot),
Climate Change, 2014)
 Mechanisms of formation of artificial cirrus from contrails
(supersaturation rate, lifetime, interactions with natural clouds).
A.1.4 APPLICATION TO AIR TRANSPORT

Air traffic emissions include emissions of CO2, NOX, water vapor,
contrails cirrus, aerosols and soot. The RF can be calculated from
changes in emission concentration in the atmosphere, or attenuation of
solar radiation, especially when complex phenomena are involved
(interactions, exchanges...). 22
The commonly used ratio is 3.16kg of CO2 emissions per kilogram of kerosene
burned (Graver, Zhang, & Rutherford, 2018).
23
Quenching a saturated solution results in a supersaturated solution.
28 / 30
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TOWARDS ECO-FRIENDLY OPERATIONS

To make this transition a success, we make three main proposals:

Section 1 Assessing the climate impact of air transport .............................................................. 4

Section 3 Challenges to overcome .............................................................................................. 14

Section 4 Strategies for a swift deployment ............................................................................... 17

1.1 EVALUATING THE CLIMATE IMPACT OF A

1.2.1 CO2 IMPACT, A WELL-UNDERSTOOD

A warmer effect in the northern hemisphere

The impact of synthetic fuels on contrail formation

Weather conditions in the area of the flight segment

Contributor Confidence level

trajectory ignoring weather conditions, and then assess the weather 67

BEYOND FLIGHT: FUEL LOAD, TAXI, AND ONBOARD

often aiming at reducing or eliminating the need to purchase fuel

Can reducing onboard consumption be a viable option?

To assess the “dilution” of the CO2-perfect flight reduction potential,

The table below summarizes the overall CO2 reduction potential of a

Number of flight hours

EXTRAPOLATING THE REDUCTION POTENTIAL AS A

Table 6: Reducing the effects of contrails and their induced cirrus

Figure 12: Reduction potential to the climate effects of air transport

3.1 A STRUCTURAL CHALLENGE:

Figure 14: Aircraft operational inefficiency (blue curve) increases with

3.1.1 AIRLINES, ANSPS AND AIRPORTS

Governments themselves have a role in this area as air traffic is also an

3.1.3 … BUT EFFECTIVE MEANS OF ACTION 3.2 A TRANSFORMATIONAL CHALLENGE: THE

To enable the large-scale deployment of

3.3 CONJECTURAL CHALLENGE: THE 3.3.2 A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY FOR EXPERIMENTS

The COVID-19 crisis, drastically reducing concerns over

3.3.1 HIGHER DIFFICULTY TO IMPLEMENT NEW

The COVID-19 crisis makes it difficult

BUILDING A CONSENSUS To be widely disseminated, the evaluation process

DATA COLLECTION: COLLABORATIVE OR NOT? Non-collaborative data from observation satellites

The “green box”

 A non-collaborative evaluation system uses whatever data is

4.2.1 AN IMPLEMENTATION BASED ON GRADUAL

FROM STRATEGIC PLANNING TO COLLABORATIVE AND

Eco-friendly flight operations are complex to

Finally, beyond collaboration challenges, the climate-perfect flight’s

COLLABORATION, A COMMON PRACTICE IN AIR

 On the one hand, collaborative Decision Making (CDM) has been

Figure 21: Example of an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB): specific processes

These different digital tools could then be connected, taking benefit of

In the Green Flag example, this new type of

4.2.3 A TECHNICAL SOLUTION BASED ON DIGITAL

4.2.4 A CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROCESS 4.3 PROPOSAL 3:

This SMS could be extended to include ecological objectives and thus

Example: the Green Flag concept (4/4)

Specific label or existing label?

… THROUGH INVESTORS Two examples of constraint-based strategies

Strategies must be adapted to the realities of

Providing pilots and controllers with tools enabling them

Reducing the ecological footprint of air transport

By showing practical results, their example

Table 8: Boundary conditions corresponding to radiative forcing and

The ERF/RF ratio is sometimes used to characterize which element is

A.1.2 REPRESENTATIVE CONCENTRATION PATHWAY

Figure 22: Ozone abundance in the atmosphere as a function of altitude

Figure 24: The four RCP scenarios considered by the IPCC

RF CALCULATION FOR CONTRAILS, AND ASSOCIATED

A.1.4 APPLICATION TO AIR TRANSPORT

A.2 ABBREVIATIONS A.3 REFERENCES