Part I: Domestic violence

Introduction:-
Domestic violence is a global problem that violates human
rights. such behavior is defined as all acts of physical, sexual,
psychological, or economic violence committed by family
members or intimate partners. Estimates suggest that one in three
women worldwide have experienced domestic violence,
perpetrated by an intimate male spouse or partner. Although
intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most commonly perpetrated
by males against their female partners (Iskandar, Braun, and
Katz, 2017).

There are a number of misconceptions surrounding

violence against women; including how and why it
occurs. Violence against women does not mean only physical
violence. It is much broader and includes sexual, emotional,
psychological and financial abuse. The National Plan targets two
main types of violence against women; domestic and family
violence, and sexual assault. On an international level, the United
Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
defined violence against women as any act of gender-based
violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or
psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of
such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether
.occurring in public or private life (Silva and Wickramage, 2017)

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In addition to the risk of acute injuries and their
consequences, IPV can result in mental health issues such as
depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Furthermore, physical health problems, such as chronic pain and
disorders of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and gynecologic
systems, can be exacerbated by IPV or else develop as a result of
.experiencing such behavior (Resick, and Kimerling, 2015)

Definition of domestic violence

Domestic violence can be defined as pattern of abusive behaviors

including a wide range of physical, sexual, and psychological
maltreatment used by one person in an intimate relationship against
another to gain power unfairly or maintain that person’s misuse of power,
control, and authority. It can either results or has a high likelihood of
resulting in injury, psychological harm, mal-development, or even a
death. Walker points that when one form of family violence appears, we
can expect all others, including various aggressive acts outside the family,
.in community (Dawn H, 2016)

Domestic violence is ‘misuse of power by a husband or intimate

partner against a woman, resulting in a loss of dignity, control, and safety
as well as a feeling of powerlessness and entrapment experienced by the
woman who is the direct victim of ongoing or repeated physical,
.’psychological, economic, sexual, verbal, and/or spiritual abuse
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines violence as ‘the
intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual against
oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either
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results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death,
.psychological harm, mal-development, or deprivation (Taylor, 2016)

Domestic violence is a pattern of assaultive and coercive

behaviors, including physical, sexual, and psychological attacks, as
well as economic coercion use by intimate partners. A combination
of physical attacks, terrorist acts, and controlling tactics used by
perpetrators that result in fear as well as physical and psychological
.harm to victims and their children (Taylor, 2016)

-:Nature and extent of domestic violence

Intimate partner violence extends to nearly every corner of the

earth and has become a global phenomena .Within some nations, it has
reached epidemic proportions through a variety of abuses, including
physical, emotional, psychological, sexual and spiritual. It is a pattern of
abusive behavior in any relation used by one partner to gain or maintain
power and control over another intimate partner. These behavior can be
physical, sexual, emotional, economic or psychological actions or threats
of actions that influence another person. Included among these behaviors
that intimate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce,
.threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound some one (Ross, 2018)

The National Family Violence Survey found that the injury

rate for women was six times higher than for men. Worldwide, 10-50
percent of women report having been hit or physically assaulted by an
intimate partner, at some time in their lives. Some estimates suggest that

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as many as one-third of all women are victims of domestic violence
during their lifetime. Four million women each year are assaulted by a
domestic partner, aged from 18 to 59 around one in four women and one
in eight men reported experiencing partner abuse in year 2008 to 2009.
Woman’s pregnancy is high-risk period for the initiation and escalation of
intimate partnership violence, and is leading cause of maternal mortality
.in the UK, USA and Australia (Straus and Gelles, 2016)

Dangerous for women is at the ending of relationship

because their partners become threatened by a clear indication of a
change or loss in the relationship. It could occur in all social strata, but
there is some evidence of population disparities, across socio-economic
and ethnic groups, and particular a higher prevalence for learning-
disabled people. A common pattern of domestic abuse, especially this
between intimate partners, is that the perpetrator alternates between
violent, abusive, and apologetic behavior with apparently heartfelt
promises to change and that the abuser could very pleasant most of the
.time (Jasinski and Kantor, 2015)

Domestic violence occurs daily in homes throughout the

world. The National Coalition against Domestic Violence reported that
1.3 million women are victims of domestic abuse each year. 85% of
domestic abuse victims are women. Most cases of domestic violence are
never reported to the police. There are approximately 16,800 homicides
.each year due to physical abuse (Buzawa, 2014)

-:Significance

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On average, nearly 20 people per minute are victims of physical
violence by an intimate partner in the United States. During one year, this
equates to more than 10 million women and men. One in 3 women had
experienced some form of physical violence by an intimate partner within
their lifetime. One in 5 women had experienced severe physical violence
by an intimate partner in their lifetime. On a typical day, there are more
than 20,000 phone calls placed to domestic violence hotlines nationwide.
In domestic violence homicides, women are six times more likely to be
killed when there is a gun in the house. Intimate partner violence
.accounts for 15% of all violent crime (Project Sanctuary, 2018)

One in 6 Australian women and 1 in 16 men have been subjected,

since the age of 15, to physical and/or sexual violence by a current or
previous cohabiting partner. Family, domestic and sexual violence
happens repeatedly—more than half (54%) of the women who had
experienced current partner violence, experienced more than one violent
incident. However, between 2005 and 2016, rates of partner violence
against women have remained relatively stable (Australian Bureau of
.Statistics (ABS), 2017)
In Egypt, an estimate of incidence of women abuse is not widely
available. However, the result of Egypt demographic health survey
conducted at 2014 found that more than 1 in 3 women experiencing
spousal physical or sexual violence are injuries as a result of the violence,
and 7 % have serious injuries (El-Zanaty et al., 2014). Three in 10 ever
married women age 15 – 49 years have experienced some form of spousal
violence as 25 % of them physical violence, 19% emotional violence, and
.4/5 sexual violence (EDHS, 2014)

Causes of domestic violence

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 A- Gender inequality and discrimination are root causes of violence
against women, influenced by the historical and structural power
imbalances between women and men which exist in varying
degrees across all communities in the world. Inequalities between
men and women across public and private spheres of life, and
across social, economic, cultural, and political rights; and are
manifested in restrictions and limitations on women’s freedoms,
choices and opportunities (Pewa et al, 2015).

These inequalities can increase women’s risks of abuse, violent

relationships and exploitation, for example, due to economic dependency
and limited survival and income-earning options, or discrimination under
the law as it relates to marriage, divorce, and child custody rights.
Violence against women is not only a consequence of gender inequality,
but reinforces women’s low status in society and the multiple disparities
.between women and men (Kamimura and Thomas, 2014)

B- A partner’s domination may take the form of emotional,

physical or sexual abuse. Studies suggest that violent
behavior often is caused by an interaction of situational
and individual factors. That means that abusers learn
violent behavior from their family, people in their
community and other cultural influences as they grow up.
They may have seen violence often or they may have
been victims themselves. Some abusers acknowledge
growing up having been abused as a child (Nandi,
Elbert, and Bambonye, 2017).

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 C- Exposure to violence in childhood most domestic
abusers grew up witnessing domestic abuse and violence
in their own homes. They learned to view physical and
emotional violence as valid ways to vent anger and cope
with their own internal fears and self-perception issues.
Many experts believe psychopathology, developed by
growing up in a violent and abusive household cause
domestic violence to continue as a generational legacy.
Witnessing abuse as the norm, or being abused, destroys
the child's ability to trust others and undermines his or her
ability to control emotions. This produces hostile,
dependent, and emotionally insecure people with a deeply
impaired ability to develop and maintain healthy
relationships (MacManus, et al, 2015).

Children who witness or are the victims of violence may learn to

believe that violence is a reasonable way to resolve conflict between
people. Boys who learn that women are not to be valued or respected and
who see violence directed against women are more likely to abuse
women when they grow up. Girls who witness domestic violence in their
families of origin are more likely to be victimized by their own husbands
.(Hinsberger, et al, 2016)

D- Alcohol and drugs may contribute to violent behavior. A drunk or

high person will be less likely to control his or her violent
impulses toward their partner, so keeping such drinking or drug
use episodes to a minimum may be valuable for a person living in
a domestic violence situation. No cause of domestic violence,

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 however, justifies the actions of the abuser, nor should it be used
as a rationale for their behavior. These possible causes are only to
better understand why an abuser believes it is acceptable to abuse
their partner physically, sexually, psychologically or emotionally.
Ultimately an abuser needs to get help for their unhealthy and
destructive behavior, or find them-selves living a solitary and
lonely life (Köbach, Schaal, and Elbert, 2015).
E- self-esteem and jealousy, Abusers may feel the need to control
their partner because of low self stem, extreme jealousy,
difficulties in regulating anger and other strong emotions, or when
they feel inferior to the other partner in education and
socioeconomic background. Some people with very traditional
beliefs may think they has the right to control their partner, and
that women aren’t equal to men. Others may have an undiagnosed
personality disorder or psychological disorder. Still others may has
learned this behavior from growing up in a household where
domestic violence was accepted as a normal part of being raised in
their family (Cockburn, 2013).
F- Genetic other experts believe other genetic predisposition plays a
part in the formation of an abuser, but very few studies offer
definitive data to support this. In cultures where traditional beliefs
endure dat put women beneath men in status and personhood,
domestic violence is rampant. Even though causes of domestic
abuse remain poorly understood, it's critical that society stands
strong against the crime of domestic violence and support laws
and social programs put in place to stop the cycle (Nandi, Elbert,
and Bambonye, 2017).

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 E- Lack of awareness of Laws: Victims of domestic violence are
afraid to protest as there is lack of awareness or rather lack of
initiative to make her aware of her rights.

There are four main reasons for domestic violence; 1) Male

dominated society: Even though women had risen to top
positions, still remains as a male dominated country. 2)Laxity
in implementation of the existing Acts: No or less efforts are
made to increase awareness amongst the women by the
authorities posted to implement the Act. 3) Bureaucracy and
Fear: If a domestic violence is reported by a third party then
he/she is scrutinized as an intruder and problem maker by the
community. The bureaucracy associated with reporting of
domestic violence (Parikh, 2017).

Also there are four widespread cultural conditions allow and

encourage men to abuse women these are; a) objectification of women
and the belief that women exist for the satisfaction of men’s personal,
sexual, emotional and physical needs, b) an entitlement to male authority
with a right and obligation to control, coerce, and/or punish her
independence, c) that the use of physical force is acceptable, appropriate,
and effective, and d) societal support for his dominance, controlling and
assaultive behavior. By failing to intervene aggressively against the
.abuse, the culture condones the violence (McCauley, et al, 2014)

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