Life on Other Worlds

L15
Life in the Universe

 Life on Earth
 Possibility of Life on Other Planets
 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence
 Interstellar Travel & its Implications
Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, 7th ed., Chapter 24

Assoc.Prof. Poenar Daniel Puiu EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.15-1
Are we alone? L15
Humans have speculated about Life on other worlds.

 Beliefin life on other worlds was formulated by some ancient Greek &
Roman philosophers and authors
 Assumed by many scientists/thinkers of 17th & 18th centuries
 Widely accepted by the public at the turn of 20th century
 More skeptical once we began exploring the planets
Recent advances in astronomy/biology renewed interest

during the last few decades  Astrobiology.
L15
Why do we think there could be Life outside Earth?
3 recent developments indicate the high possibility of life to

exist elsewhere as well:
 Life arose quite early in Earth’s history  It may form quickly
elsewhere as well, provided it has the right conditions
 Organic molecules could be formed even with laboratory chemical
reactions  strong indicator that Life may appear by naturally
occuring chemistry wherever it has the right conditions
 Microscopic living organisms were discovered to survive in conditions
similar to those on at least a few of other planets in our Solar system.
When did Life arise on Earth? L15
Earth formed ~4.5b years ago (b.y.a).

The first several 100s m years: Heavy bombardment →
intense flux of many asteroids & comets, including large
ones (even planetesimals)  Moon formation (30…50 m.y. after
Solar syst. formed)
 Last major impacts: 4.2…3.9 b.y.a
Mineral evidence suggests oceans formed by 200 m years.

 Natural chemistry laboratories that could lead to life
 Some impacts possibly vaporised early oceans → no life possible.
Living organisms quickly arose after impacts had subsided.
 Evidence suggests Life was already thriving prior to 3.85 b.y.a !
(From http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102/lectures/lifeform.htm)
How do we study early Life on Earth? L15
History of Life on Earth → deduced from study of fossils

buried in layers of sedimentary rocks.
The key issue: determine the correct dates at which fossil
organisms lived
 Radiometric dating → used both in geology & for fossil age estimation
(but with different isotopes for each purpose)
Old rocks are much rarer!
 Earth constantly renews itself! 
 Those old rocks which can be found have usually been transformed
Geological evidence of Life shows more detail in the last
~500 m years: All prior life were microscopic → Finding fossil
evidence of microscopic life organisms is extremely difficult
Fossil evidence for the early origin of Life L15
Stromatolites (colonies of microbes) found in very old rocks.

 Date back to 3.5 b years ago
 Ancient organisms became advanced enough to build stromatolites
There is evidence that life already thrived even 3.5 b years

ago!  Life arose when conditions first allowed it
Definition of Life L15
What is Life?
There is no simple & clear-cut definition of Life!
A more practical alternative is to identify the basic unit of
Life  CELL = the smallest unit alive. Cells have 8 basic
properties → by extension, these properties can also be
considered to be inherent resultant qualities of Life.
Life on Earth is based on carbon.
 Other chemical elements essential for life are: H, O, N (the
most abundant, but other elements may also play important
roles, even if their amount is rather small).
 Oxygen is essential for the metabolism of most organisms
The previously mentioned chemical elements form complex
macromolecules.
Definition of Life L15
 Before we study the main theories about the origin of Life, let
us first quickly review the key macromolecules
necessary/used in living cells & organisms:
Nucleic acids alongside proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
constitute the major types of key macromolecules
essential for all known forms of Life on Earth.
 DNA & RNA are nucleic acids
 Other important macromolecules are ATP, vitamins & enzymes,
hormones, and neurotransmitters.
DNA stores all the essential genetic information necessary
for a cell, and even for the entire body  the key
component involved in evolution
How did Life arise on Earth? L15
 Theories for the origin of Life → 2 categories:
 De Novo [from nothing] &
 Panspermia [from already existing ‘seeds’]
 1) De Novo theories
 1.1- Organic Soup Theory:
 Abiotic chemical interactions within a ‘primordial soup’  Special
polymeric molecules, such as RNA, were created, with the ability to
reproduce: the beginning of life.
 The Miller-Urey experiment (1953): Organic compounds (including a small
percentage of amino acids – the building elements of proteins) were
obtained from gases (believed to imitate early Earth's atmosphere) in a
closed system which subjected to heat and electrical discharges.
 Subsequent experiments showed that RNA & DNA bases could be obtained
through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere.
How did Life arise on Earth? (continued) L15
 Problems with the Miller-Urey experiment:
 Early Earth's atmosphere was different
 Lightning was not continuous
 Amino acids and other organic compounds may not have been formed in
the large amounts which the Miller/Urey experiment produced
1.2- Surface Metabolists Theory (Günter Wächtershäuser, 1988):
 Primitive microorganisms called ‘surface metabolists’ synthesised and
polymerised from inorganic compounds on the surface of minerals with a
positive surface charge via an autocatalytic process
1.3- Through iron monosulphide bubbles at hydrothermal
vents on the seafloor of the primordial Ocean (Russel &
Hall, 1997):
 Problems: Relies on very specific conditions which cannot be
ascertained =unclear whether it can be verified and proven
experimentally
From
http://www.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/local/forstudents/courses/geoscience/year3/earthsciencesynthesis/course
work/2008/JuliaBarrott/esswebpage_files/page0005.htm
How did Life arise on Earth? (continued) L15
 2) Panspermia theories
 Life was already present elsewhere in the Universe, and was
transported to Earth, most likely via meteorites or by comets (e.g.
during the Heavy Bombardment period)
 Its feasibility is well supported by some experimental facts
 Delicate bio-molecules are known to have been carried and brought by meteorites.
 ISM clouds and even protoplanetary disks contain not only many simple hydrocarbon
molecules, but also many types of complex organic molecules and even important bio-
molecules
 Key problem: Panspermia does not answer directly how Life itself arose
Problems with the De Novo model L15
 HOW and WHEN did RNA form? Before or after the DNA?
 Since nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) are necessary to build proteins, and
proteins are necessary to build nucleic acids, until the early 1980s it was
unclear which came first, the nucleic acid or the protein?
 This problem was solved when it was discovered that RNA can both store
genetic information and cause or catalyze the chemical reactions
necessary to copy itself.  Nucleic acids (and specifically, RNA) came
first — and later on, life switched to DNA-based inheritance.
HOW and WHEN did ATP form? Before or after the DNA?
 ATP = Primary energy source at cellular level for ALL Earth life.
 Studying ATP and other molecular fossils revealed that they are closely
related to nucleic acids  Nucleic acids (and specifically, RNA) came
first — and later on, ATP was soon synthesized
In an RNA world, how did DNA appear??
 RNA plays a central role in the mechanism of protein synthesis
 DNA synthesis and replication actually requires many proteins.
 DNA can be considered as a modified form of RNA.
 Why was DNA selected to replace RNA? → It is more stable and can
be repaired more faithfully
 One hypothesis: viral replication systems achieved the transition from
RNA to DNA: DNA & DNA replication proteins originated in viruses,
and DNA replication mechanisms have been transferred subsequently
from viruses to cells
 The invention of DNA required a complex multi-step process, much
more complex than previously thought. Interestingly, this complex process
was discovered independently more than once.
(From http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK6360/)
The origin of homochirality: how only certain orientations of
chiral biomolecules have been selected and used in living cells?
 Homochirality is essential to the correct functioning of many of
contemporary life-forms
 Such highly evolved molecules would not have been available from the
outset and it is NOT clear how they could have appeared.
 An extraterrestrial source has been suggested for homochiral molecules
& their discrimination.
Life has appeared only ONCE on Earth! WHY?
 Unique conditions, which could not be repeated again
There is only one basic life-form on Earth  All living species did NOT arise from
multiple independent first ancestors. .
 IF conditions cannot be repeated again, does it mean Life
on Earth is singular in Universe?
Until now nobody has been able to replicate Life from
scratch in a lab!
 Is there anything ELSE necessary to give birth to Life besides just
chemical reactions?
How did Life arise on Earth ? L15
How/where did the 1st organisms come from?

 We may never know for sure
Living organisms quickly arose after impacts had subsided
Very simple micro-organisms appeared initially
 The first to appear: prokaryotes → single-celled organisms
(bacteria) that do NOT have a nucleus
 Next: Archea → differ from bacteria in that they have different cell
membrane material
 Evolution then led to eukaryotes = cells with nuclei and other
organelles
 Appearance of eukaryotes  emergence of multicellular organisms
 This ultimately led to the evolution of complex, i.e. highly structured and
organized organisms, with specialized organs
(From http://www.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/local/forstudents/courses/geoscience/year3/
earthsciencesynthesis/coursework/2008/JuliaBarrott/esswebpage_files/page0004.htm)
Micro-organisms can be further categorised based on
metabolism:
 Autotrophs → gain energy & synthesize their own organic materials
for growth from inorganic compounds (e.g. CO2 or CH4) and hence may
be thought of as ‘producers’
 Chemo-autotrophs → use inorganic chemical reactions
 Photo-autotrophs → use sunlight
 Heterotrophs → require organic material for growth (e.g. dead

animals, etc.) and may be thought of as 'consumers'.
Life is divided into 3 main branches (domains) but all share

a common ancestor
(From
http://www.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/local/forstudents/courses/geoscience/year3/earthsciencesynthesis/coursework/2
008/JuliaBarrott/esswebpage_files/page0004.htm)
Cyanobacteria produced O2 through photosynthesis:
 May have started 3.5 b.y.a
 Chemical reactions with rocks removed O2
 From 2.4...2 b.y.a. O2 started to accumulate in atmosphere
Oxygen reached higher % by 700…600 m y.a. → first
complex organisms!
 Life on land became possible when atmospheric O2
accumulated enough to form an ozone layer.
 O2 reached breathable level only a few 100s m y.a.
O2 = initially toxic to most organisms living before ~2 b y.a.
Dramatic change in fossil record ~540 m y.a.
 Cambrian explosion → sudden increase in animal diversity!
 This sudden burst of new life is also called “Darwin’s dilemma” because
it appears to contradict the hypothesis of gradual evolution by natural
selection
Age of Reptiles L15
Life forms developed, complexified and continuously
changed WHY? → Evolution
Early dinosaurs & mammals arose ~225…250 m y.a.
Dinosaurs dominated for over 100 m years.
 Diedout ~65 m y.a., most probably due to asteroid/comet impact
 Paved the way for large mammals
Earliest humans appeared only a few m y.a.

 Our industry/technology only existed over the last few centuries
Conditions for Life L15
Life, as we know it, is carbon-based.

Its requirements are:
Liquid water
 Abundant oxygen
 Atmosphere that is not poisonous
 Abundant & varied food sources
 Suitable & stable environmental conditions
 Fairly narrow temperature range (–40…60oC)
It may seem that these conditions for Life are narrow &
specific.
But Life does exist in more hostile environments!
Life in extreme conditions L15
 Life has also been found in all sort of extreme conditions, from very
cold (Antarctic lakes) to very hot (volcanic vents) very high salinity,
acidity, etc.
 Organisms (mainly bacteria) which can survive in such extreme
conditions are called extremophiles
 Examples of extremophiles:
 Thermophiles & Hyperthermophiles = creatures that live in hot (e.g.
between 45 and 80°C), and VERY hot (>80°C) environments.
 Lithotrophic = organisms using inorganic materials to use in
biosynthesis (e.g., CO2 fixation) or energy conservation (i.e., ATP
production) via aerobic or anaerobic respiration
 Halophiles = creatures or Archean bacteria that thrive in very salty
environments.
• Halophilic bacteria (halobacteria) may be the oldest life form on earth!
• Large family of bacteria, with great variations in in nutritional demands, which are
very dfferent from normal bacteria.
• They are relevant as Mars & Europa may have similar subterranean salt(y)
Assoc.Prof. Poenar Daniel Puiu
formations/seas EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.15-21
Examples of extremophiles: (continued) L15
 Methanogen = A microorganism that produces CH4 as a byproduct of
its metabolism
• All known methanogens are both Archaeans and obligate anaerobes, that is, they
cannot live in the presence of O2!
• More than 50 species have been identified, including some extremophiles which can
thrive in hot springs, submarine hydrothermal vents, and hot dry deserts.
• Some scientists speculate that methanogens may be responsible for the CH4
detected in the atmosphere of Mars.
 Methane ice worms
 A kind of worm discovered in the cold, dark depths of the sea-floor in the Gulf of
Mexico at lakes of ‘methane clathrate’ = CH4-trapping ice that forms at high p and low
T. It is believed that these worms graze on bacteria that feed on the clathrate.
 The existence of a higher order organism in this habitat suggests the possibility of life
in similar extraterrestrial habitats such as the huge ocean of Europa.
 Tardigrades (“water bears”)
 Invertebrate animals which can withstand a large range of environmental extremes
 They survive by going into cryptobiosis, a state of suspended animation, in which
body functions like metabolism temporarily shut down → unlocking the secrets of
this process is important for future long interstellar flights
Necessities of Life L15
Life (as we know it) as a whole has only 3 basic requirements:
 Nutrientssource(s) from which to build living cells
 Energy to fuel activities of life
Liquid water
Serve as starting point/guidelines/roadmap to search for Life
elsewhere.
 Nutrients/energy readily available on almost every planet/moon
Liquid water is the limiting factor! → search for liquid water is
the currently the key criterion in the search of Life on other planets
The water requirement rules out most worlds in our Solar
system  There are 2 major possibilities beside Earth: Mars
& Europa
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 1) Mars L15
 1) Mars: possibly the best candidate to host life?

 It has been warm & wet for some periods in its distant past, similar to
early Earth.
 IF water existed on Mars → Life was possible!
 Subsurface ice was discovered recently, and apparently even
presently liquid water still flows sometimes on the Martian surface.
 IF Life may still exist near such sources of liquid water  need to
sterilize future probes and rovers sent to Mars in order to prevent
contamination
 Huge plumes of CH4 in the northern hemisphere of Mars were
discovered in 2003, indicating some unexplained ongoing process
that released the gas from at least 3 active sites. The methane has
also been removed from the atmosphere 600× faster than expected!
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 2) Ganymede L15
 2) Large moons orbiting Jovian planets, most notably Europa
Ganymede boasts a lot of water, perhaps 25× the volume of
Earth’s oceans. Its sub-surface oceans are estimated to be up
to 800 km deep!
 Ganymede: the largest moon in the Solar system
 Ganymede and Callisto are clearly deficient in rocky materials
 The only moon in the Solar System known to have magnetosphere
 hence it has a source of internal heat (hot liquid Fe core)
 Galileo mission confirmed it may have an ocean extending to depths
of hundreds of miles. It also found evidence of salty seas, which
may contain magnesium sulfate ( MgSO4)
 New research suggests Ganymede may have alternate ice &
liquid oceans stacked up like a multi-layered club sandwich
…but no -or limited- energy source for life in these oceans
CONCLUSION: As yet, Ganymede is NOT
considered a primeEE8086
Assoc.Prof. Poenar Daniel Puiu
contender in the search of Life.p.15-25
– Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 3) Europa L15
Europa is considered one of the most biologically interesting

worlds in the solar system due to several key factors:
a) Likely presence of a salty sub-surface ocean of liquid water (perhaps as
much as 150 km deep), which may contain 2× the volume of Earth’s
oceans, and could provide a medium and solvent for life
b) Intense radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere striking ice on Europa's
surface and releasing oxygen, which, IF it finds its way into the ocean could
provide a fuel for life; and
c) Possible presence of undersea volcanic vents, which could furnish energy
(heat) and nutrients for organisms, possibly with volcanic vents on ocean
floor
 Conditions similar to those of early Earth life?
 Chemicals from Europa’s sub-surface ocean (or maybe just from liquid
water “lakes” in near-surface pockets?) are leaking to the surface, and
chemicals from the surface are cycling back into the ocean, too
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 3) Europa L15
Some scientists consider Europa to be the best place for

finding life in the Solar system, but...
There are important hurdles for on-site studying Europa in
detail:
 Many, large and expensive missions would be needed to provide a clear
answer to the compelling question “Is there Life on Europa?”
 Far from Earth  ↑ time & cost of the total mission
 Thick shielding against Jovian intense radiation & a source of
independent energy (nuclear power) are necessary  ↑ ↑ weight
 ↑ ↑ ↑ cost is necessary
 A manned mission is 10× to 100× more challenging than a robotic
probe
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 4) Enceladus L15
 Other moons are also similar to Europa: Enceladus
Enceladus (6th moon of Saturn) is another good candidate,
and might be more easily explored (than Europa) because:
 Signs of active geology indicative of internal heat & the right
ingredients for life.
 Plumes of water ice and other materials on Enceladus are known to
erupt  Enceladus’ interior may be warm, contain a subsurface
ocean and that its surface is presently tectonically active (with
volcanic vents).
 It may host a large, possibly regional, ocean about 10 km deep,
beneath an ice shell about 30 to 40 km thick
 In contrast to Europa, the exposed crevasses on Enceladus that may
hold liquid water are thought to be only about a half-km deep.
 Enceladus continually produces astounding amounts of heat and
gas. Tidal movement cannot explain the release of so much energy.
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 5) Triton ? L15
Triton -The 7th & largest of Neptune’s 14 moons:
 Its icy surface has one of the higest albedo in the Solar system:
0.7...0.8!  it reflects most of what little sunlight reaches it that it is
one of the coldest objects in the Solar system, at about –240oC. At this
temperature, CH4, N2, and CO2 all freeze solid.
 Lies inside the magnetosphere of Neptune, which is harmful to life
 Regions on Titan's surface show evidence of past volcanic and tectonic
activity. The internal heat source for Triton's geologic activity is not
known, but it may involve tidal heating.
 Unknown processes pump unusual plumes of gas (probably a mixture
of liquid N2, CH4 and dust) and particles into the atmosphere
 It is unclear if Triton‘s interior is differentiated.
 May still have a thin layer of liquid NH3-rich water today which
could form a sub-surface ocean – but only if Triton started its life as a
Neptunian moon with a highly eccentric orbit that slowly circularized
over time in order to benefit from possible tidal heating
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 6) Titan L15
Titan, Saturn’s largest moon:
 The 2nd largest moon in the Solar System, after Ganymede, even larger
than Mercury, 50% larger than our Moon!
 Its interior is likely differentiated.
 An NH3-rich subsurface ocean (~240 km thick?) may exist under a
crust of CH4-rich ice (~35 km thick?)
 Titan is the only natural satellite known to have a dense atmosphere
(2× as thick as Earth’s!) of 95% N2, 4.9% CH4 and a small percentage of
many hydrocarbon compounds, with ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) &
acetylene (C2H2) the most important ones (although even PAHs were
discovered)
 Surface pressure: about 1.45× that of Earth's
 Ethane and methane are liquid and form a network of seas, lakes and
rivers  Titan’s CH4 cycle is a distant cousin to Earth’s water cycle but
it similarly carves the surface of Titan.
 The continued presence of CH4 in Titan's atmosphere is a major enigma
 CH4 mustDaniel
Assoc.Prof. Poenar
be somehow
Puiu
replenished p.15-30
EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 6) Titan (continued)
L15
Some consider Titan an even more interesting & promising place
even than Europa!
Possibility of surface Life?
 Complex organic molecules are known to be present in Titan’s
atmosphere: could they lead to formation of precursors of Life?
 Problem: lack of O2 (traces of CO2 & CO are present in the
atmosphere) & of liquid water.
 Could life-forms exist based on a hydrocarbon instead of water? (less risk of
biomolecules being hydrolysed).
 Could Life exist in lakes of liquid CH4 on Titan, just as organisms on
Earth live in water? Such creatures would inhale H2 in place of
O2, metabolize it with C2H2 instead of glucose, and exhale
CH4 instead of CO2 → This hypothesis was supported by findings
that concentrations of both H2 & C2H2 ↓ from the upper atmosphere
towards the surface, where they apparently disappear
Best candidates for extraterrestrial Life: 6) Titan (continued)
L15
 However, IF Life hypothesis will be confirmed by presence
of organisms in Titan's lakes it would have revolutionary
implications: it would mean a second, independent origin
of life is within the Solar System, implying that life has a high
probability of emerging on habitable worlds throughout the
Cosmos.
 Scientists have developed a Planetary Habitability Index
which takes into account factors including characteristics of
the surface and atmosphere, availability of energy, solvents
and organic compounds. Using this index, based on data
available in late 2011, the model suggests that Titan has the
highest current habitability rating of any known world other
than Earth
(From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(moon)
Assoc.Prof. Poenar Daniel Puiu & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Titan
EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology ) p.15-32
What about other stars? L15
Only certain stars may have habitable planets 
Habitability Conditions:
 Last long enough so that life can arise in a few 100s of m y.
 Allow for stable planetary orbits  cannot be binary systems or around
young and massive/hot stars
 Water can exist as liquid on surface
The Habitable Zone of a star (H.Z.) = the region in

which a terrestrial planet can orbit to maintain liquid water
on its surface
 Very small stars (red dwarfs) are present in huge numbers! But...
 Much narrower H.Z.  Extremely high sensitivity to variations in
location (planet must be exactly in the right place). Conversely, the
HZ around hotter stars (e.g. F or A type) is much wider and further
away from the star.
 H.Z. is very close to star  Planet is tidally locked (always faces
the star  possible large temperature extremes between its 2 sides)
 Prone
Assoc.Prof. Poenarto (sometimes
Daniel Puiu HUGE)
EE8086 X-rayStars,
– Astronomy: flares!
Galaxies & Cosmology p.15-33
Habitable Zone of a Galaxy L15
 An H.Z. can also be formulated at the level of a galaxy, too

 Galactic Habitability Conditions:
 Outer regions of a galaxy have little abundance of heavy elements.
 Even within the galactic disk, the abundance of heavy elements ↓ with
distance from the center of the galaxy
 Inner regions are unfavourable due to:
 High density of stars & of supernova rates
 High levels of high-energy radiation
Most scientists expect Earth-like planets to be common
Some scientists proposed a “rare-Earth hypothesis”.
Debate about how unique these “coincidences” are.
 Will not know until we have more data on many more Earth-like
planets
Many exoplanets have been found in the last decade, but...
How to find Earth-like planets? L15
 Current planet-finding methods favour gas giants & “super-
Earths”.
 To unequivocally find Earth-like planets, direct visual observation is
preferrable, but…. direct visual observation is extremely difficult
(quasi-impossible) at current technological level, even with Hubble &
Kepler  possible future solutions: an interferometric array of
satellites and/or a large telescope on the Moon’s dark side
Images and spectra of exoplanets are necessary to deduce:
 The planet’s atmosphere composition (search for O2, or…. polution?)
 The presence of Life – either from the atmosphere (if it has O2, or CH4)
or from possible surface spectra (presence of plant foliage!)
 E.T. Life may be very different → useless to look for same biomolecules
or probe for Earth-similar signs of Life ? Can we recognize it even if we
saw it??
L15
Can we expect to find intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations?
How many civilizations exist in our galaxy with whom we
could make contact? → A formula was first expressed in
1961 by “Drake’s equation”
 A simplified variation of that first equation is:
Number of civilizations NC = NHP × flife × fciv × fnow
where
NHP = number of habitable planets in the galaxy
flife = fraction of habitable planets which actually contain life
fciv = fraction of life-bearing planets where civilization at some time has arisen
fnow = fraction of communicating civilizations which still exist NOW
Unfortunately, we do not know the value of ANY of the

factors, hence cannot calculate NC accurately
 A lot of speculations for the factors values can lead to “rare-Earth” or
“abundant-Earth” conclusions which are hotly debated
Are we alone? L15
Fermi’s paradox: If so many alien civilization could

exist, why we have not detected yet any one or
being visited by one?
Another argument: We are very rare!
 At least 10 m species on Earth → we are the only one with our level of
intelligence & technical capability  this slow progress of life
towards intelligence might suggest that the appearance of a
civilization is very rare even on planets with complex life
We could slowly populate the galaxy with our current
technology 
Civilizations should already exist in the galaxy if we are
typical
L15
Possible Solutions to Fermi’s Paradox
We are alone.
Life is common, and there are many Civilizations, but none
has colonized the galaxy.
There is a galactic meta-civilization (“club”) which is
deliberately concealed from us.
SETI: Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence

If we are typical & there are other intelligent species, then
some should also be interested in making contact….
 Radio telescopes used to listen for encoded radio signals
 SETI now privately funded due to lack of significant results in the last
decades, estimated low chance of success & large amount of time
required
How about visiting them? L15
Can we actually visit worlds in other star systems?
 Pioneer 10 & 11, Voyager 1 & 2 will take >10,000 years to travel 1 l.y.
Current technology (chemical propulsion) is impractical for
interstellar distances (VERY long journey time) and also not
applicable/up-scaleable for large life-sustaining systems
To make interstellar journeys within a human lifetime,
starships must travel close to the speed of light (c)
 This may ↓ the journey time and probably could make feasible interstellar
journeys in our ‘close’ galactic vicinity (10s of l.y. only)
…but close to the speed of light relativistic effects appear:
 Velocity: limited to ~0.5c → beyond this value, mass ↑ ↑ ↑ very rapidly
 Relativistic time dilation: time slows down for interstellar traveler (the
“twins paradox”). The space travelers become ‘ageless’ as they move fast
forward into the future  for long journeys, returning back to Earth
becomes useless!
 … length
Assoc.Prof. alsoDaniel
Poenar changes
Puiu (length
EE8086contraction)
– Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.15-39
Considerations for Interstellar Travel L15
New types of engines & energy sources required!
 What other alternative rocket engines might exist?
Key rocket engine parameters:
 Thrust = the reaction force according to Newton’s 3rd law: Mass
expelled/ejected in one direction will cause a force of equal magnitude
but opposite direction onto the rocket [Newtons]  rocket acceleration
= thrust/(payload)
 Specific impulse = change in momentum obtained per unit of
propellant mass [seconds]
Considerations for Interstellar Travel L15
Solar sail
 Very low thrust (9 μN/m2!) & specific impulse  small payload
 NO fuel needed! Also, it is very economic; can be easily fabricated
A ‘nanosail’ was already tested successfully in low-Earth orbit in 2011,
and a bigger version, “Sunjammer”, was supposed to be launched in
Jan.2015
 Can be used within the Solar system, but may require power lasers to be
placed on intermediary “stepping stones” for usage in areas where
sunlight is too faint
 Small payload + may gradually achieve high velocities but cannot
decelerate  Less attractive for interstellar travel  send a “fleet” of
small but many probes of a few types for quick feasibility study of target
Ionic rocket engine (Ion thruster)
 Very feasible & in advanced stages of R&D for usage in near future (e.g.
trips to Mars)
 Still limited in terms of capability (useful for ‘small’ distances; rather
within the
Assoc.Prof. Solar
Poenar system;
Daniel Puiu delivers only small accelerations, ~g/1000)p.15-41
EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology
Considerations for Interstellar Travel (continued) L15
Nuclear pulse propulsion
 Uses nuclear explosions (behind a ‘pushing’ plate) for thrust
 In principle can be implemented even today; USA had even done
prototype experiments in the 50s
 Provides BOTH high thrust and high specific impulse simultaneously!
 Present international treaties that ban usage of nuclear weapons in space
prevent considering such an alternative.
 Shielding the crew against the intense emission of energetic radiation
is one key problem
Nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) propulsion
A working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, is heated to a high
temperature in a nuclear (fission!) reactor, and then expands through
a rocket nozzle to create thrust.
 It produces a superior effective exhaust velocity and can roughly
double or triple the payload carried to orbit.
 Although extensively tested between 1950s-1970s it has not been used
practically, but it may be considered for future interstellar missions p.15-42
Assoc.Prof. Poenar Daniel Puiu EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology
Interstellar ramjet engine
 An astronomically sized magnetic scoop collects interstellar hydrogen
and uses it for fusion-based acceleration
 It has to get up to a significant percentage of lightspeed before lighting its
fusion reaction!
 Requires huge amounts of energy for the magnetic scoop
 Fusion reactors are NOT available yet!
Space warp (Alcubierre) engine

 Miguel Alcubierre proposed a device that causes the space in front of the
spacecraft to contract, while the space behind it expands. This creates a
warp bubble that carries the spacecraft through space-time at 10 times
the speed of light !
 Purely theoretical, no one knows how to build or fuel one!
 It may require incredibly large amounts of energy, which were
hypothesized that could result from matter-antimatter annihilation →
again, nobody knows how to obtain antimatter, and how to store it in
complete
Assoc.Prof. isolation!
Poenar Daniel Puiu EE8086 – Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.15-43
Wormhole → a hypothetical topological feature of spacetime: a
shortcut through spacetime by uniting 2 otherwise separate &
distant points after bending the spacetime fabric
 Unfeasible as it raises numerous technologic and scientific
fundamental unsolvable problems: nobody knows how to
produce and use one!
Conclusions for Interstellar Travel L15
Interstellar travel is technologically feasible with some
available technologies even today, but travel time is still
prohibitive
 Other aspects may also need to be first studied and advanced
technologically, e.g. life-support systems; improving the capability of
humans to withstand very long periods (decades) in space without
biological problems; closed space ecologies; cryo-suspension &
reanimation of humans
Constructing such a starship would be extremely expensive.
 Political will & international cooperation required
Theory of relativity will complicate life for space travelers.
 Long-distance targets will probably require only one-ticket journeys! 
more new demands (as yet unstudied) on implanting/tranplanting the
human species in a totally new habitat
Enormous obstacles to interstellar travel!
 Possible if we do not destroy ourselves first
L15
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Life on Other Worlds

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L15

Life in the Universe

Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, 7th ed., Chapter 24

Humans have speculated about Life on other worlds.

Recent advances in astronomy/biology renewed interest

3 recent developments indicate the high possibility of life to

Earth formed ~4.5b years ago (b.y.a).

Mineral evidence suggests oceans formed by 200 m years.

History of Life on Earth → deduced from study of fossils

Stromatolites (colonies of microbes) found in very old rocks.

There is evidence that life already thrived even 3.5 b years

How/where did the 1st organisms come from?

 Heterotrophs → require organic material for growth (e.g. dead

Life is divided into 3 main branches (domains) but all share

Earliest humans appeared only a few m y.a.

Life, as we know it, is carbon-based.

 1) Mars: possibly the best candidate to host life?

Europa is considered one of the most biologically interesting

Some scientists consider Europa to be the best place for

The Habitable Zone of a star (H.Z.) = the region in

 An H.Z. can also be formulated at the level of a galaxy, too

Unfortunately, we do not know the value of ANY of the

Fermi’s paradox: If so many alien civilization could

SETI: Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence

Space warp (Alcubierre) engine

Examples of questions from this lesson for

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