1

Irish Republicanism; Development in the 18th, 19th and 20th Century and Relation to Irish

Nationalism

Christian Nussbaum

The age of revolution, marked from 1789 to 18481, saw uprising around the entire globe

against imperial rule. This age, with inspiration from both the French and America, can be seen

with multiple uprisings against the British Empire. Looking to their neighbors, the Irish nation

became a part of this era. Inspired by other countries revolting against Imperial Rule, the Irish

began to support the idea of republicanism throughout their struggle to seize control of power

over their own nation, to form an Irish Republic. However, it was not until 1922, with the

mobilization of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), and a rebellion from the Irish Republic, that

the Irish nation became a state. The IRA was a homogenized group, made up of past movements

and separate Irish freedom fighters unifying in the name of Irish Republicanism. Irish

republicanism and nationalism were indistinguishable in their development over time. Activist

groups such as the United Irishman, Irish Volunteers and Irish Republican Brotherhood all came

together with a single cause, to fight for the independence of Ireland from Imperial Britain. Each

of these groups were founded on the principles of republicanism, with desire to reform their

government and preserve the Irish nation. Leaders from each generation drew from their

predecessors all leading to the tipping point of Easter Rising 1916, eventually leading to an

autonomous Irish state. After the eventually grant of autonomy of the Irish state, continuous

struggles remained for the Irish to completely sever the power England had in their country, as it

remained part of the British Commonwealth. This article will observe the forces in play that

contributed to the Irish struggles to form their Republic, as well as how Irish republicanism

1
Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Revolutions 1798-1848, (New York: New American Library), 1962
ix.
2

developed overtime side by side with Irish nationalism. It will analyze the efforts of the Irish

people in separating herself from the British politically, culturally, militarily, and overall

nationally.

Desire for Irish Independence was very much present well before the Irish rebellion of

1798. In fact, the Repeal Act of 1782 blocked British intervention with laws passed in Ireland2.

Dependence of the Irish on the British was no longer desired, and this Act of 1782 was meant to

be the initial break from English dependence. It was the failed rebellion seeking full autonomy

from England, that caused the imperial Power to tighten its leash on the Irish nation,

demonstrated through the Acts of the Union of 1800. This Act completely unified the Nations of

Ireland and Britain under a single parliament3, in effect eradicating what Parliament the Irish had

in place for themselves. The British intention behind this act was to guarantee future dependence

of the Irish on the British. The Irish folk then had to identify as British commoners to obtain any

representation in their overseeing government4. The British were attempting to suppress Irish

control over their province. In effect, they were suppressing the Irish culture and its people.

Opposition to the Acts of the Union would lay the groundwork for the development of Irish

Republicanism and nationalism over the next century.

Wolfe Tone and the Founding of Irish Republicanism

Irish Republicanism emerged at the end of the 18th century through the writings of Wolfe

Tone. The view of Theobald Wolfe Tone depended on the perspective one had when viewing

him. To the British, he was a traitor. Wolfe Tone was sentenced to death in 1798 for his role in

the Irish rebellion, guilty of treason by participation in the rebellion as a soldier and a writer.

2
Repeal Act of 1782, section 22 c.53 http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1871/act/116/enacted/en/print.html (May
2021)
3
Acts of the Union 1800, Article 4 https://www.legislation.gov.uk/aip/Geo3/40/38/contents (May 2021)
4
Ibid.
3

However, he killed himself by slitting his own throat while being held in prison5. Wolfe Tone

may have died a criminal, but that is not how he is remembered. He is known as the father of

Irish Republicanism, and the founder of the United Irishman. Wolfe Tone’s legacy would branch

into multiple movements, that would later come together again in the 20th century in the

mobilization of the Irish Republican Army, fighting the same fight for independence from the

British. It was the first of many centripetal forces that would allow for the Irish people to unify

together and was a constant force at play from its inception and continued on after the Irish

seized power of their government. Irish republicanism allowed an introspective look for Irish

citizens in the community to which they were engaged in, feeling pride for that community.

Furthermore, there became desire to preserve said community, and the best course of action to

guarantee that was independence from the British.

Wolfe Tone was not the first in Irelands history to file grievances against the British, that

had been done centuries earlier. What Wolfe Tone did was begin the unification of the Irish

people in response to what he saw as the wrongdoings of the British. The list of Tone’s

grievances is both eccentric and expressive. In a letter to a fellow United Irishman Thomas

Russell, Tone complains about “tyranny” and “corruption” as well as “ignorant prejudices” and

“oppressive norms”6 being passed by the British government onto the Irish people. The evil of

the British Empire had not only been imposed upon the Irish people, in Tone’s opinion it had

unacceptably became the norm of Irish life to be oppressed by the British. Beyond that, Tone

was angered by the failures of Parliamentary reform7, the intentional ignorance of Irish interests8

5
Collins, James, “Trial of Mr. T.W. Tone.”, (Trial, Dublin, 1798), 1-8. 
6
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, The Writings of Theobald Wolfe Tone, “Resolutions enclosed with Tone’s letter to Thomas
Russell”, (Clarendon Press, 1791), 106-107.
7
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, “Reasons why the Question of parliamentary reform has always failed in Irish Legislature”,
485.
8
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, “Circular Letter announcing the Foundation of the Society of the United Irishman of
Dublin”, 157.
4

and the overall treatment of the Catholic people in the United Kingdom. He claims that taxation

had been used to bar Ireland rather than support it9. He also claims that Catholics would settle for

any change, considering that their treatment could not be any worse10. Wolfe Tone and the Irish

grew tired of being subjects to the British, forced to be at their service, therefore in response he

would start a movement to unite the nation in favor of Irish Republicanism.

Tone set his sights on two fundamental ideals; overcoming religious separation in Ireland

would be the first. Tone, under the alias of Senex voiced the opinion that Catholics were

“circumstanced by the law”11 and that they had no opportunity in the United Kingdom, strictly

because of their religion. Catholics had been seen as inferior to Protestants for generations. When

Parliament attempted to reform to favor the Irish, they expanded voting rights among the

Protestants, but ignored the Catholics12. Issues such as these kept Ireland oppressed, and Tone

realized that because of these issues, the British were unable to properly reform Parliament to the

extent that the Irish desired. Many times, Tone makes the statement “We have no national

government”, feeling as though the British rule was not the government of the Irish people, for

they were oppressive, and the Irish held no representation. He desired unification of all Ireland,

providing a type of emancipation for the oppressed Catholics, who then would become allies of

the cause. Overcoming of religious differences was groundbreaking work for Irish nationalism.

Tone estimated that of the 4,500,000 people in Ireland, 3,150,000 of them were Catholic, and

another 900,00013 people wanted a new government. A majority of Ireland was being oppressed

9
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, “Reasons why the Question of parliamentary reform has always failed in Irish Legislature”,
485.
10
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, “Memorandum on the Situation in Ireland”, 504.
11
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, “To the printer of the Hibernian Journal by Senex i.e. Tone”, 294.
12
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, “Reasons why the Question of parliamentary reform has always failed in Irish
Legislature”, 487.
13
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, The Writings of Theobald Wolfe Tone “Memorandum on the Situation in Ireland”, 504.
5

by the British, even more called for a new governance, bringing together both Irish Nationalism

and Republicanism.

The next step for Tone was bringing together the Society of the United Irishman. This

societies listed its three resolutions as; reducing the weight of the British rule and unification in

Ireland, “a complete and radical reform of the representation of the people in parliament” and

each reform will include Irishmen of every religion14. The Society of the United Irishman

bringing the nation together for reform was the first instance of Irish republicanism. Because of

the miniscule representation in Parliament the Irishmen held as of 1791, tensions built to the

point of a new ongoing revolution for Irish autonomy, that would not cease until they felt they

were rightly represented in the governing body.

Irish Republicanism is the unification of Ireland in attempt to gain independence and

create their own republic, which they will have representation of all of the people.

Republicanism in the 18th century is characterized by historian Thomas Bartlett as vocabulary of

“protest and resistance to tyrants”15 which was precisely what the Irish were doing, while trying

to establish a government with representation. The earliest republicans of Ireland, who Tone

calls “The Dissenters”, focused their cause on liberty and republicanism by obtaining

representation. In fact, they saw liberty and republicanism as the synonymous. In a note from

Tone expressing how the reforms of the British were destined to be a failure, he explains “That

no man is free who is taxed when he is not represented or bound by laws in the framing of which

he has no power”16. The country of Ireland would not remain subservient to the British without

14
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, The Writings of Theobald Wolfe Tone “Declaration and Resolutions of the Society of the
United Irishman of Belfast”, 140-141.
15
Bartlett, Thomas. “The Burden of the Present: Theobald Wolfe Tone, Republican and Seperatist”, (University
College, Gelway, 1993), 5.
16
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, The Writings of Theobald Wolfe Tone “Reasons why the Question of parliamentary reform
has always failed in Irish Legislature”, 490.
6

the ability to influence the government. Wolfe Tone, the father of Irish Republicanism,

fashioned the movement around liberty, nationalism, and republicanism.

The Legacy of the Society of the United Irishman

The Society of the United Irishman marked a new era in the late 18th Century for the Irish

people. Following the leaders of Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell came the unification of the

Irish nation. New ideals, expressed in “A Letter to the People of Ireland, on the Present situation

of the Country in 1796” by Thomas Russell, expresses the new status quo of what it meant to be

an Irishman. Russell, a member of the United Irishman Society, draws from Irish Republicanism

in effort to promote nationalism. The Irishmen needed to undergo a period of Enlightenment.

What this meant for the Irish was to abandon the old Irish way of life for their new one, one that

would unite them as a country entirely, not to be sectionalized. The Irishmen, many of whom

were inspired and apart of the freemasons17, bought into the motto of “Liberty and Equality”

during the age of revolution, this meant the abandonment of religious separation. Like Wolfe

Tone, the rest of the society sought out to assist the Catholics and bring unity of the two

Christian branches of religions. To achieve this, recognition of what cause the sectionalism in

Ireland would be necessary, and it would need to be eradicated. Beyond that, Russell would have

to persuade the Irish people what reasons they had to unify with one another, effectively

proposing a new Irish nationalism.

Thomas Russell explains to “banish religious prejudices by effecting a union of Irishmen

of all religious persuasion”18. Founders of the United Irishman took the first step in unity, finally

putting those differences behind them. This new establishment of religious understanding was

17
Smyth, Jim. "Wolfe Tone's Library: The United Irishmen and "Enlightenment" (Eighteenth-Century Studies 45, no. 3,
2012), 423-35.
18
Russell, Thomas. “A letter to the people of Ireland, on the present situation of the country, by Thomas Russell, -an
United Irishman”, (Northern Star Office, Belfast, 1796), 4.
7

meant by Russel and Tone to achieve two things, first to create a unified Ireland. The desired an

Ireland not separated by religious differences, but one unified in both understanding and

‘friendship’. Religion, in past history of Ireland and England, acted as a centrifugal force, pulling

apart the nation, creating division among citizens of the same state. It was disunion, Russell said,

that allowed for the continuation of oppressive rule onto the Irish from the British Empire in the

first place. Religious differences create barriers between neighbors, prevents being as one,

undertaking the same goal. Religious persecution causes its followers to reject tolerance of one

another, making it virtually impossible for the formation of an agreed upon Irish identity.

Counteracting the centrifugal force of religious persecution, came the centripetal force of

religious acceptance across Ireland. The Irish would share a new national pride and identity as

part of the same republic, with no prerequisite of being of the same religion. Considering a

majority of the country was oppressed Catholics, this was widely embraced in Ireland. With this,

Irish nationalism further developed.

Abandonment of the centrifugal force of religious persecution prevented further division

within Ireland. However, this does not mean that there was a natural gravitation towards

unification in Ireland. In order for a nation to be of the same mind and buy into the idea of Irish

republicanism and nationalism, there needs to be a centripetal force bringing them together.

Without this force, the nation could remain stagnate. To do this, Russell would have to generate

reason as to why the people of the Irish community should fight as one. Russell wanted the

country to become invigorated under the “common cause”19. This cause was the reformation of

the Irish Parliament, and control of the Irish state rather than the oppressive government that had

current controlled the power. Russell dubs the British Empire the “common enemy”20, due to the
19
Russell, Thomas. “A letter to the people of Ireland, on the present situation of the country, by Thomas Russell, -an
United Irishman”, 4.
20
Russell, Thomas. “A letter to the people of Ireland, on the present situation of the country, by Thomas Russell, -an
United Irishman”, 6.
8

“oppression of the tax collector, tythe-protector, and landlords”21. Association and interaction

with a common enemy naturally increases the probability of cooperation22. Because the inception

of Irish nationalism was founded on the basis of the concept of a common enemy, being the

British Empire, and their main grievances against the British were ignorance to Irish interests

and a lack of representation within Parliament, It can be concluded that the revolution to gain

autonomy was founded on ideals of Irish Republicanism. With the grievances against the British,

and unification of her people, the birth of what Russell calls the ‘national spirit’ and the rise of

the Society of the United Irishman were formed.

The ‘national spirit’ proposed by Russell developed into the national identity of Ireland.

The fight for independence became synonymous with Irish nationalism, a cause that would unite

the whole country, and would reach past differences in class or religion, bought into by citizens

of Ireland because they were of Ireland. The fight thus far had accomplished the task of making

an emotional connection to the national spirit of Ireland. Those leaders the Irish Republic turned

to achieved martyrdom during their fight for independence. In his final days, Wolfe Tone

claimed “He had been […] actuated by the purest motives of love to his country”23. 118 years

later, one of the founders of the IRA and planners to Easter Rising, Thomas MacDonagh said “I

enjoy in being one of those predestined to die in this lamentation for the cause of Irish

Independence”24. Two men separated by more than a century of struggle, with the same fate to

be put to death by the British Empire show similar sentiment in love towards their country and

fight for its Independence. Martyrdom, a great tool to reach the emotions of the people, aided the

21
Russell, Thomas. “A letter to the people of Ireland, on the present situation of the country, by Thomas Russell, -an
United Irishman”, 2.
22
De Jaegher, Kris (2021), “COMMON‐ENEMY EFFECTS: MULTIDISCIPLINARY ANTECEDENTS AND
ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES”, (Journal of Economic Surveys 35), 3-33. 
23
Collins, James, “Trial of Mr. T.W. Tone.” (Trial, Dublin, 1798), 6. 
24
MacDonagh, Thomas. “Speech of Thomas MacDonagh memorized from notes taken by one of the Court
Martials”, (Court Martial, Dublin, 1916), 1.
9

Irish cause. Irish republicanism from when it was formed, was founded on the Irishman’s

burning desire for independence, which would be ongoing until it achieves its goal. It became a

force so strong that not only were there those who were willing to die for its cause, MacDonagh

says he enjoyed it. Wolfe Tone knew “it was his lot to fail, and he was resigned to his fate”25, the

words of a true martyr. Although it may have been the fate of the first Irish Rebellion to fail in

1798, the rhetoric and legacies left behind would thrive. Irish Republicanism, and the national

spirit, was born in by the end of the 18th century and inspired future Irish movements.

The Gaelic League and the Preservation of Irish Culture

Although the Society of the United Irishman was fighting for the unification of all of

Ireland, this does not mean that Irish nationalism was simply all of the Irish population aligning

to a single mind. Irish nationalism and republicanism became synonymous but was made up of

numerous organizations who focused on different aspects of nationalism and republicanism.

Ireland had issues outside of political oppression and religious differences, therefore needed

different organizations who could attend to these issues. Ireland had been threatened with the

loss of the Irish spoken language, Gaelic. In order to combat this came the rise of the Gaelic

League. They have been described as one of the strongest impulses of the Irish national

movement and the ones who triggered the eventual development of eventual Irish Independence

from Britain26. I argue the society of the United Irishman to hold the title foe more influential

organization in the fight for independence and believe that Wolfe Tones Irish Republicanism set

the movement in motion, but the Gaelic League preservation of Irish culture undoubtably had

major influence in the late 19th century. Dr. Douglas Hyde, founder of the Gaelic League, gave a

speech in 1892 titled “The Necessity of de-Anglicizing Ireland”. In this speech, Hyde warns the

25
Collins, James, “Trial of Mr. T.W. Tone.” (Trial, Dublin, 1798), 6. 
26
Grote, Georg. “Torn Between Politics And Culture: the Gaelic League, 1893- 1993”, (Münster, Waxmann, 1994),
19.
10

audience to the trends of Gaelic literature and language fading as English overtake it27.

Anglicization, Hyde argues, is a type of assimilation from the Anglo-Saxons in Britain over the

Irish. This overtaking was seen in loss of Irish language, literature, games, books, music, fashion,

etc.28 The oneness of Ireland was fading into a singularity with the United Kingdom, something

which the Gaelic League would combat. The Gaelic League looked to preserve Irish culture as

an apolitical entity, to “enable every lover of the Irish language and everybody interested in

preserving Irish traditions to join the League”29. However, this is true, there is no doubt that Dr.

Hyde had a separatist agenda. He helped for the League in hope a “native spirit and a growth of

native custom […]will form the strongest barrier against English influence and be in the end the

surest guarantee of Irish autonomy”30. This apolitical organization would help Ireland maintain

the cultural separation from England, showing to the world that there was a concise difference

between the two. This may not have been specifically in favor of Republicanism, but the

foundation of the Gaelic League promoted both Irish Nationalism and autonomy from Britain.

By 1915, the Gaelic League dropped their neutrality and participated in Easter rising 191631.

The Foundation of the Irish Republican Brotherhood

Irish republicanism was what inspired the creation of the Irish Republican Brotherhood

(IRB). 60 years after the end of the Irish Rebellion and the death of Theobald Wolfe Tone, James

Stephens formed the IRB. The IRB sought out to take the helm as the leaders in Irelands ongoing

fight for Independence. They would carry out the wishes of Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen

in their era. National pride for Ireland was the centerpiece for this freedom fighting organization.

The IRB was committed to being known as “the most faithful of her [Ireland] patriots, the
27
Hyde, Douglas. “The necessity for de-Anglicising Ireland”, (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1904), 117-161.
28
Grote, Georg. “Torn Between Politics And Culture: the Gaelic League, 1893- 1993”, 20.
29
Ibid, 24.
30
Hyde, Douglas. “The necessity for de-Anglicising Ireland”, 117-161.
31
O’Donoghue, Martin. “‘Ireland’s Independence Day’: the 1918 election campaign in Ireland and the Wilsonian
moment” (European Review of History, 2019), 838.
11

noblest of her peoples”32. The patriotism that inspired the IRB is the same patriotism created by

the United Irishman, committing to “the advancement of the Irish Republic”33. Irish

Republicanism sought to layout the cause for an independent Irish state. Like the Society of the

United Irishman, the IRB sought to unify the country for the cause of Irish Republicanism. The

IRB took the next step in unification, seeking to unify the Irish people beyond all differences,

religious, class, or region. These aspects were the same as Russell and Tone, desiring an Irish

government for all Irelanders. In the words of the IRB “Hatred to English rule, […] is confined

to no rank, no creed, no province of Ireland. It pervades to the conscience of the whole people”34.

It is yet again the common enemy that continues to act as a centripetal force for the Irish nation,

and it is this force that overcomes all divisions of Irish society to unite the people. The

oppression coming from Imperial rule unifying the whole Irish state, regardless of demographics,

shows the Irish people’s willingness to fight for one another. The next step for the IRB was to

moderate the mobilization of a new army to fight for the Irish people, another desire Tone had

when formulating the United Irishman35. However, the IRB’s forces would have the ability to

eventually take action against the British. There was the uprising of the Fenians in 1867, who

marched on Dublin. They failed for three reasons; they were poorly armed, poorly drilled and

deliberately attacked police against orders36. Although they failed, the influence of the IRB

remained.

The IRB was founded on principles first and foremost “irrespective of class or creed […]

willing to labor for the establishment of a free and independent republican government in
32
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: A Message From the I.R.B. Supreme Council to the Irish People, 24
April 1868”, (Irish Historical Society and the Ulster Society for Irish Historical Studies, 1975), 300.
33
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: Constitution of the I.R.B. Supreme Council, 18 August 1869”, 304.
34
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: A Message From the I.R.B. Supreme Council to the Irish People, 24 April
1868”, 302.
35
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, The Writings of Theobald Wolfe Tone “Reasons why the Question of parliamentary reform
has always failed in Irish Legislature”, 505.
36
Takagami, Shin-ichi. “The Fenian Rising in Dublin, March 1867”, (Irish Historical Studies 29, 1995).
12

Ireland”37. This Brotherhood, founded on establishing a republic, claimed control over the Irish

military forces and also took it upon themselves to draft the first constitution for the Irish

Republic, before it even gained autonomy from the British. With their influence The IRB

prepared a new army to fight for the independence of the people in 1868, immediately after the

failure in 1867. They commanded an early assembly of the Irish Republican army38, and it was

the IRB that stated “we demand to put our army in a position to assume active operations”39. This

would be the beginning of the final chapter of the British Imperial rule in Ireland. The IRB, after

leading a united Irish state, was ready again to use force for independence. “Arm Ireland and

Ireland is free”40 was the mentality of these people. Nationalism was a source of fuel for these

efforts of mobilization. At the center of the IRB, like others before them, was belief in an Irish

Republic, completely independent of British rule. Military mobilization was the final piece to the

IRB’s plan for a free state. With full intentions of mobilization, the IRB prepped themselves to

become independent. Beyond the militarization, they were ready to organize the politics of the

Irish Republic, readying themselves to control the state after it had separated from the Empire.

The constitution drafted by the IRB in 1869 was in preparation of the Irish Republic. It

begins “Whereas it is necessary to the well-being of the Irish Republic to enact and declare the

constitution of the supreme and executive government thereof”41. This document for the new free

Ireland did not seek out a form of monarchy, but guaranteed democracy. The new Irish

government, in the eyes of the IRB, will hold eleven members of the Supreme Council, and will

be composed of seven members elected by the seven districts, four members elected by
37
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: Amended constitution of the I.R.B. and of the Supreme Council, 17
August 1873”, 314.
38
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: A Message From the I.R.B. Supreme Council to the Irish People, 24 April
1868”, 299.
39
Ibid, 300.
40
Ibid, 301.
41
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: Constitution of the I.R.B. Supreme Council, 18 August 1869”, 303.
13

provincial representatives, with an executive42. It also guarantees religious freedoms43 and

mandates an oath of allegiance to the Irish Republic44. After its revisions a few times over, there

are many notable characteristics of the IRB constitution. Guaranteeing religious freedom while

mandating allegiance shows the commitment the IRB has to maintaining Irish nationalism. All of

this came only two years after the uprising of 1867, which was described as “the zenith of IRB

influence and organization”45. The IRB capitalized on their peak of influence over Ireland

guaranteeing an extension of rights to the people. Without these guarantees to the public, the

Irish may be facing threats of disunion, and factions. The Supreme Council notes the Republics

commitment to harmony, repressing factions in Ireland as well as insubordination and treason46.

Unity is of the upmost importance in this draft of the IRB constitution. Unification under the

fight for autonomy was a driving national force in Ireland.

Home Rule and Political Reform in the 19th and 20th Century

The new Republic is committed to democracy, saying that the Supreme Council will be

the “first really elected government of the Irish Republic”47. Granting the Irish a new governing

body is vital for its people. Since the Act of Union of 1800, the Irish nation was not recognized

as a governing body. Because of its dependence on Britain, the Irish people had to operate with

English oversight. British granted the Irish 105 seats in parliament in 183248, which was a

42
Ibid, 304.
43
Ibid, 306.
44
Ibid, 305.
45
Kelley, Matthew “DUBLIN FENIANISM IN THE 1880s: ‘THE IRISH CULTURE OF THE FUTURE ’ ?”,
(Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2000), 729-750).
46
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: Address of the IRB Supreme Council to the People of Ireland, January
1870””, 308.
47
Ibid.
48
Irish Reform Act 1832, s19, sch V. https://erskinemay.parliament.uk/section/4510/ireland-and-northern-ireland/
(May 2021).
14

minority of the 658 total seats. Furthermore, it wasn’t until 1884, more than a decade after this

drafting, that the Reform Act was passed, which still only granted around 40% of the male

population the right to vote out of Ireland49. This act was in response to the “One Man One Vote

Movement”, started by a British Trade Unionist George Howell50. Howell believed in the need

for equal representation in the polls regardless of social class, which had been a barrier for many

up until this act. The Irish suffered from these voter restriction laws, with a majority still not able

to vote as of 1884. Representation and voting are a fundamental pillar to the establishment of a

republic. Even further, the official governor of Ireland, dubbed name the Lord Lieutenant,

appointed in 1801, was criticized for both having little to no power. Because the British

Parliament oversaw the whole of Irish activities, the Lord Lieutenant of Dublin was no longer

required. Not only that, but the Lord Lieutenant “offended and oppressed the mass of the people,

thereby creating discontent and civil war”51. The British created a position of office for the Irish

that had little to no power and caused disunion across the nation. Their intentions to suppress the

probability of the formation of an Irish Republic are clear. Over the next 40 years, drastic

change would occur in the United Kingdom. Large in part due to the aftermath of World War

One, the Representation of the People Act was ratified in 1918. This was not in direct response

to Irish resistance, rather it was in response to the underrepresentation of WW1 veterans as they

returned home. Regardless, this act tripled the electorate in the UK, abolish a majority of

property qualifications52. Only four years later the Irish would gain autonomy from the British,

49
Third Reform Act 1884. https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-
heritage/evolutionofparliament/houseofcommons/reformacts/overview/one-man-one-vote/
50
Howell, George. “One Man, One Vote” 1880.

51
Mr. Hume, “LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND”, (Common Sitting, Hansard, 1823).
< https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1823/jun/25/lord-lieutenant-of-ireland (May 2021)
52
Representation of the People Act 1918. https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-
heritage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/parliamentary-collections/collections-the-vote-and-
after/representation-of-the-people-act-1918/
15

finally gaining the political independence they desired. The struggle in overcoming voter

restrictions was a lengthy battle for the Irish, and multiple external factors would need to assist

them. Until this point, Irish Republicanism rang out, but with no opportunity for political and

peaceful resolution because of the under-representation of the polls. With the Irish members of

Parliament only holding a minority of seats and the Lord Lieutenant not holding legitimate

power, organizations such as the IRB were forced to mobilize and militarize in order to establish

the new Republic the Irish nation fought for.

In 1870, Isaac Butt founded the Home Rule League (HRL), which eventually developed

into the Irish Parliamentary Party53. This was yet another organization that advocated for Irish

independence, built on the foundations of Irish nationalism. The HRL defined themselves as an

“alliance”, which accepted both Protestants and Catholics, as well as citizens from various social

classes, and politicians with various political affiliations54. The HRL was not an unpartisan group

with a single side, rather a symbol of Irish unification, working towards the goal to separate from

England. The largest accomplishments from the HRL is the proposals of the four Home Rule

Bills, the third of which was passed in 1914. Issues arose with these bills. It promised the “Irish

Legislature was made absolutely independent”, however affairs such as the army, navy, trade and

foreign were left to the crown55. Controversy arose, even after the passing of the Third Home

Rule Bill. Unionists emerged in Ireland, wishing to remain a part of the United Kingdom56. The

Sinn Fein party, one established on “national self-determination”57 and the largest party in

Ireland, rejected the Bill in favor of complete and total independence. The Bill faced push and
53
CEA Rewarding Learning, “Understanding 1917 and Beyond: The Home Rule Movement”, Nerve Center,
https://ccea.org.uk/downloads/docs/ccea-asset/Resource/Government%20of%20Ireland%20Act%20%20-
%20Resource.pdf
54
CEA Rewarding Learning, “Understanding 1917 and Beyond: The Home Rule Movement”
55
Shepard, Walter James. "The Government of Ireland (Home Rule) Bill." (The American Political Science Review 6,
1912), 564-73.
56
CEA Rewarding Learning, “Understanding 1917 and Beyond: The Home Rule Movement”
57
“Sinn Fein” Irish Republican News, (May 2021). www.sinnfein.org.
16

pull from the three sides of the British in Westminster, the Sinn Fein, and the Unionists. When

the Third Home Rule was passed, it was suspended in its execution due to the breakout of the

First World War58. By the time the Fourth Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1916, the Sinn Fein

movement and the rest of Ireland no longer were willing to settle for anything less than complete

independence from England, and the Fourth Home Rule Bill was rejected 59. A slow and steady

pace was set for the Irish nationalists. They were prepared to take a large step in national

independence, ready to overtake the Irish Legislature. Although, the two years in which they

existed in their own independence limbo caused a buildup of impatience for independence. This

delay was the last straw, by 1916 there was an outbreak of violence.

Violent Push for Independence

Within Ireland “characteristics of the revolutionary organizations […] welcomed

violence as a political means to achieve their separatist aims”60. By the time 1916 came, Ireland

was prepared for violence. Easter Rising 1916 was the spark used by the IRB to ignite the next

Irish Rebellion. The IRA, made up of the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizens Army, attempted to

seize control in Dublin, resulting in the death of 450 people, including 254 civilians. This was

the day which the Irish Proclamation of the Republic was posted, declaring its Independence.

Signees of the Proclamation, such as Thomas Clarke and Thomas MacDonagh helped organize

an Irish military force, starting a battle in the streets of Dublin. The IRB, as early as 1868, held

control over the IRA. It mentions the army by name in its “Message from the Supreme Council

of the IRB to the Irish People”61. The drive to achieve the goals of Irish Republicanism had

radicalized the IRB, causing them to rebel amidst a World War. The plan to wait until Britain
58
Suspensory Act 1914, s.10. https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1915/mar/09/suspensory-act-1914-
amendment-bill-hl (May 2021)
59
CEA Rewarding Learning, “Understanding 1917 and Beyond: The Home Rule Movement”
60
Grote, Georg. “Torn Between Politics And Culture: the Gaelic League, 1893- 1993”, 20.
61
The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: A Message From the I.R.B. Supreme Council to the Irish People, 24 April
1868”, 299.
17

was at its weakest was deliberate, the IRA was formed almost 50 years earlier. However, the

rebels were deeply criticized for their decision to wait until the midst of WW1. The IRB did not

represent the entirety of the nation, The Irish News claimed if a vote had been cast, 99% of

Ireland would have been against Easter Rising62. This is due to both the predicament in the fight

against Germany, combined with the deaths of so many civilians. The Irish Independent claims

there to be a link between the uprising and the Germans63. It was well known that the IRB was

patiently waiting for the ‘right moment’, as is stated in their Proclamation64. These accusations

are the first to accuse the IRB to be acting against Irish Republicanism and nationalism, rather in

favor of Germany. The IRB deliberately waited until Britain was at its weakest, because the

British fight was not the same as the Irish fight, even if there were Irish enlistees. The uprising of

1867 had been such a failure that the IRB knew they stood no chance unless the correct

opportunity presented itself. In the trial before his execution, Thomas Macdonagh was

questioned on his loyalty to Britain. MacDonagh, a signee of the Proclamation, claimed Ireland

as his country, not Britain. Furthermore, when asked if he would die for Germany, he responded

“not if Germany had violated and despoiled my country and persisted in withholding her

birthright and freedom”65. MacDonagh, defending himself against the criticism of being on the

side of the Germans, is equating his fight with the British to the British fight with the Germans.

The IRB viewed the British as their only true enemy and did not care to entangle their military

efforts with the British. In the eyes of the IRB, attacking when they did was the best thing they

could have done for the Republic. They said themselves that the IRA was “unprepared to attain

62
The Irish News, “The Aftermath”, (United Kingdom, May 4th 1916).
63
Irish Independent, “Criminal Madness”, (United Kingdom, May 4th 1916).
64
Pearse, Patrick. “The Provisional Government of the Irish Republic to the People of Ireland” (April 24th, 1916).
65
MacDonagh, Thomas. “Speech of Thomas MacDonagh memorized from notes taken by one of the Court
Martials”, 4.
18

even temporary success”66 in 1868. The Irish viewed themselves as the underdogs and although

they may have been criticized by fellow Irishmen, they truly believed patience in waiting for a

moment of British weakness was the best course of action. The IRB and IRA were offspring of

the Irish republican movement, fighting for independence by any means necessary.

The Proclamation of the Republic was revealed during Easter Rising on the outside of a

post office door. The Proclamation was signed by seven men, all whom were executed by the

British government for treason. Although short, the six paragraph document achieves multiple

things, most importantly was the proclamation of a new Irish Republic. This new Republic

guarantees “religious and civil liberty, equal rights and equal opportunities of all its citizens, and

declares its resolve to pursue the happiness and prosperity of the whole nation”67. Also, it

prepares sympathizers for the Irish cause to be ready to sacrifice their lives. This achieves; taking

leadership of the upcoming rebellion, incentivizes participation and predicts the cost to win

Irelands freedom. The Proclamation of the Irish Republic is the embodiment of Irish

Republicanism and nationalism, promising a new future for its country.

Patrick Pearse, a signee, was the first to read this document to the public, attributing the

planning of the uprising to the IRB. Not only this, but the Proclamation details how their military

force was made up by the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army, making up what is

known as the IRA. The Irish Volunteers, like the other groups they allied with, have nationalism

and liberty at the forefront of their policy. The official constitution of the Irish Volunteers reads

the purpose of the Volunteers is “to unite the people of Ireland on the basis of Irish nationality

and a common national interest […] to secure the abolition of the system of governing Ireland

66
“The I.R.B. Supreme Council, 1868-78: A Message From the I.R.B. Supreme Council to the Irish People, 24 April
1868”, 301.
67
Pearse, Patrick. “The Provisional Government of the Irish Republic to the People of Ireland” (April 24th, 1916).
19

through Dublin Castle and the British military power”68. The IRB and Volunteers unite together

in a shared effort to establish an Irish Republic. Claiming responsibility for Easter Rising put the

IRB at the forefront of the revolution, inspired by Irish nationalism and Republicanism.

The guarantee for equality for their citizens is a vital piece of the Irish fight for

independence. Looking back to Wolf Tone, it is apparent that equality was essential to the

Republicanism sentiment. Equality in Ireland coalesces with her history since the inception of

Republicanism, such as the resistance to religious persecution and voting limitations. Guaranteed

equality from the IRB uplifts the ideal Ireland that is being fought for, inspiring others to fight

for an Irish nation that they could soon have, granting Irish nationalism a deeper hold on her

people.

The willingness to sacrifice oneself for their country emphasizes exactly how far the Irish

people were willing to go in the fight for their nation. The development of Irish nationalism to

these measures is uplifted by Republicanism. Pride in Irelands politics, culture, and military are

intertwined with establish a Republic to preserve those Irish qualities. The expectation for those

who join the fight are ready to die for the Irish Republic. At the climax of the fight for freedom,

republicanism and nationalism were indistinguishable. This does not mean that all forces acting

in favor of Ireland were radicalized to the point of taking up arms against the British, but the

tipping point of the fight had been passed, with the IRB at the charge.

Sinn Fein Party Takes Control

1918 held one of the most vital turning points in the history of Ireland. The Home Rule

Act of 1914 being delayed because of WW1 was the beginning of the defeat of the IPP. The IPP

leader, John Redmond, had encouraged Irish forces to enlist into the British army to support

68
Irish Volunteers, “Constitution of the Irish Volunteers”, (Dublin, 1914). http://kilmainhamgaolmuseum.ie/wp-
content/uploads/2016/02/17PL-1C13-16-IV-Constitution.pdf. (May 2021).
20

efforts. This would not bode well for the IPP in the coming election, by 1916 it was made clear

that the Irish people were no longer willing to wait for the end of the war for autonomy. In Irish

politics, the IPP had “dominated”69 the political realm. Their goal as of 1912 was to obtain

“home rule within the United Kingdom”70, and leader James Redmond was seen to have a

“personal loyalty to the empire”71. This sentiment was not shared across the entirety of the

country. Sinn Fein would renew its popularity after 1916, holding the stance of the more radical

nationalists seeking further independence that what was offered72. The Sinn Fein radicalized

stance challenged the dominance of the IPP. This election would reveal the true interest of the

Irish national spirit. By 1918, the IPP’s stance was a “clumsy amalgam”73 between home rule and

dominion status. The Sinn Fein party contrasted the IPP, trying to claim the throne of the

embodiment of the national spirit. They became more radical, focused on “self determination”74

as they fought for power in Irish politics. Sinn Fein grabbed hold of power in the 1918 election,

through emotional appeal and propaganda75 According to Sinn Fein’s newspaper “‘Sinn Féin, as

everybody knows, stands for an independent Ireland, an Ireland absolutely and wholly separate

and separated from England – an Irish republic’”76. The Sinn Fein won 73 seats, the IPP won 6,

and the Unionist Party Won 22 in the 1918 election77.

69
O’Donoghue, Martin. “‘Ireland’s Independence Day’: the 1918 election campaign in Ireland and the Wilsonian
moment” 836.
70
Ibid, 837.
71
Ibid.
72
Ibid, 838.
73
Ibid, 839.
74
O’Donoghue, Martin. “‘Ireland’s Independence Day’: the 1918 election campaign in Ireland and the Wilsonian
moment” 841.
75
Ibid, 842.
76
O’Donoghue, Martin. “‘Ireland’s Independence Day’: the 1918 election campaign in Ireland and the Wilsonian
moment; Nationality Newspaper, September 7th 1918”.
77
O’Donoghue, Martin. “‘Ireland’s Independence Day’: the 1918 election campaign in Ireland and the Wilsonian
moment” 845.
21

Autonomy was extremely close for the Irish after the Sinn Fein victory of 1918. Soon

after in 1919 came the assembly of the First Dáil. The Dáil Éireann were a separating body of

government, who were elected to Parliament in Westminster, but would obstain. It was made up

of the 69 successfully elected members of the Sinn Fein party, but all elected Parliament

members were invited to join regardless of party78. At the first meeting of the Dáil Éireann in

1919, they created their own Declaration of Independence to be announced to the world. It read

“ the elected Representatives of the Irish people alone have power to make laws binding on the

people of Ireland, and that the Irish Parliament is the only Parliament to which that people will

give its allegiance”79. This declaration, paired with the Proclamation of 1916, are vital documents

that mark the end of British rule in Ireland, the unity of the Irish people, the complete autonomy

of the Irish nation and the establishment of an Irish Republic. The battle for Irish autonomy and

establishment of an Irish Republic had been fought for over a century. The British Rule was

facing its conclusion, the Irish Republic was just beginning its era.

Violence would break out in the final years for Irelands fight to separate from Britain.

The Irish War for Independence would last from 1919 to 1921. Bloody Sunday in 1920 was a

dramatic boiling point where the IRA assassinated 14 members of British Intelligence, and

British forces opened fire on a crowd gathered at Croke Park who were there for a soccer game80.

Fourteen people were killed, some of them children81. By 1921, the violence stopped and the

Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed. This finally made Ireland a free state, but this was only in the

78
Century Ireland, “Explainer: Establishing the First Dail”, (Boston College),
https://www.rte.ie/centuryireland/index.php/articles/explainer-establishing-the-first-dail (May 2021).
79
“Irish Declaration of Independence”, (Dáil Éireann, Dublin, 1919).
80
BBC News Editors. “Bloody Sunday 1920: Croke Park Killings Remembered 100 Years on”, (BBC, 2020),
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54908852. (May 2021).
81
Ibid.
22

south and western parts of the country82. Although the treaty marked the independence of the

Irish state “Much of the support came from those desiring peace and normality rather than from

any enthusiasm for the terms”83 Northern Ireland remained a part of the UK, which allowed a

future century of turmoil in the area. Regardless, Ireland official was an entirely independent

Republic.

Conclusion

The Irish fight for independence and republicanism is a multi-layer’s complex history. Its

inception from Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell called for the overcoming of religious

persecution, while demanding independence due to the inability for the British Parliament to

substantially reform to the degree the Irish desired. Irish Republicanism was born in the 1790’s

and would link itself to the national spirit throughout the 19th century. The Society of the United

Irishman was the first of a huge Irish nationalism movement, made up of varying different

nationalist groups focused on diversified issues. Although diverse, all national movements were

linked by desire of nationalism and republicanism, against the common enemy of the British.

The Gaelic League, for instance, fought to preserve the Irish language, literature, and culture.

Their focus, up until 1915, was to unify the country outside of the political realm, for the love of

the Irish way of life. Furthermore, the Irish Republican Brotherhood formed and seized all the

power they could hold, attempting to mobilize and control an Irish army, even after their failures

in the 1867 uprising. The IRB constructed its own constitution in favor of rebellion against the

British and the eventual establishment of an Irish Republic. The IRB patiently waited until the

British were weakened, specifically by WW1 and by 1916 violence broke out on Easter in

Dublin, where the Proclamation of the Irish Republic would be introduced to the public. The late
82
“Encyclopedia of Irish history and Culture: Anglo Irish Treaty of 1921” (Macmillan Library Reference,
encyclopedia.com), https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/anglo-irish-treaty-1921. (May 2021).
83
Ibid.
23

9th and early 20th century consisted of reforming Home Rule Acts and the political dominance of

the IPP, but with the delay of WW1, James Redmond’s personal loyalty to the British Empire

and the new radical nationalistic stance of Sinn Fein (who were involved in the 1916 uprising),

the IPP lost its power in the 1918 election. Sinn Fein breaking off the Westminster Parliament

and forming the Dáil Éireann began the end of the British rule over southwestern Ireland. After

the begrudgingly signed 1921 treaty, Southwest Ireland officially gained autonomy from Britain.

It was then recognized as a Republic, achieving Wolfe Tones vision of Irish Republicanism.

Though, Northern Ireland would continue its struggle with the United Kingdom in future

decades. Ireland experience the age of revolution like none other. The age of revolution in

Ireland lasted over 123 years. The fight for republicanism grabbed the heart strings of the Irish

people, and the flame never died, achieving Independence by any means necessary.

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