i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6

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Review Article

Analysing the possibilities of using fuel cells in

ships


Jos
e J. de-Troya a, Carlos Alvarez b,*

ndez-Garrido c,
, Carlos Ferna
Luis Carral b
a
Escuela T
ecnica Superior de Na
utica y Ma

quinas, Universidade da Coruna, Campus de Coruna, 15071, A Coruna,
Spain
b
Escuela Politecnica Superior, Universidade da Coruna, Campus de Ferrol, 15471, A Coruna, Spain
c
Escuela “Antonio de Escan ~ o”, Spanish Navy, Spain

article info abstract

Article history: As the oil shortage continues and the environmental regulation of emissions grows more
Received 7 October 2015 restrictive, hydrogen becomes an attractive energetic vector.
Received in revised form There are various possible applications for both merchant vessels and warships.
26 November 2015 Standard distributed electricity or emergency electrical requirements can be generated by
Accepted 27 November 2015 fuel cells systems. Moreover, low propulsion power requirements or the total demand for
Available online 28 December 2015 electricity can also be supplied on ships equipped with electric propulsion by means of fuel
cells.
Keywords: Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
Fuel cell reserved.
Marine electric power generation
All-electric ship

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2854
Classification of fuel cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2854
Analysing different types of fuel cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2855
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2855
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2857
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2857

* Corresponding author.


E-mail addresses: joaquin.troya@udc.es (J.J. de-Troya), carlos.alvarez@udc.es (C. Alvarez),
ndez-Gar-
cfgarrido@fn.mde.es (C. Ferna
rido), lcarral@udc.es (L. Carral).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.145
0360-3199/Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2854 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6

Studies and projects for facilities of fuel cells in vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2857

USCGC VINDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2857
METHAPU project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2858
FellowSHIP e Viking Lady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2859
The e4ships project e fuel cells in marine applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2859
ZEMSHIP (Zero Emission Ships) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2860
Fuel cell systems for the U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2861
Submarines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2862
Current AIP systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2862
Stirling motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2862
MESMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2863
Cryogenic tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2863
HDW/Siemens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2863
Navantia/Hynergreen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2863
Considerations for installing fuel cells in vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2864
Cell selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2864
The fuel reformer and processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2864
Lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2865
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2865
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2865
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2866

so that they can compare with more conventional propulsion

Introduction systems.
There are several types of fuel cells. Section 2 provides a
Based on fossil fuels, the current energy model poses serious classification based on the electrolyte used. Different types are
problems in terms of sustainability. It is therefore evident why analysed in Section 3, indicating their application and main
energy alternatives must be sought. features. In Section 4, projects and studies on applications for
Natural resources are limited, environmental awareness is surface vessels and submarines are reviewed. Section 5 out-
on the increase and emission restrictions are becoming lines the selection criteria that must be taken into account to
stricter in navigation zones like the Sulphur Emission Control choose the battery and reformer. Here, service life and cost are
Areas (SECA) and Emission Control Areas (ECA). New systems analysed. As a result of this review, conclusions are obtained
of propulsion and electrical generation have been developed on the future use of this energetic alternative.
more and more in recent years. Here, fuel cells can play a key
role.
Both in parking and in the car industry, significant progress
Classification of fuel cells
has been made. Electricity is obtained by combining oxygen
and hydrogen to produce the fuel cell. A wide range of types
A fuel cell consists of the basic elements indicated in Fig. 1:
exist, depending on their applications.
electrodes and the electrolyte. In technical terms, cell or single
The fuel cell directly converts electrochemical energy by
cell is more commonly associated with fuel cell. On the other
transforming the chemical energy from certain compounds
into electric power. This transformation is carried out without
resorting to a thermodynamic cycle. As a result, it is not
subject to Carnot's Limit. Fig. 1 schematically illustrates the
behaviour of a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC).

H2 42Hþ þ 2e Anodic Reaction

1
O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e 4H2 O þ 2e Cathodic Reaction
2
The advantages of using fuel cells for Air Independent
Propulsion systems (AIP) in submarines are widely recognised.
However, this area falls outside the scope of this article. In the
case of surface and particularly merchant vessels, however,
the use of fuel cells has not yet become widespread. Perhaps it
is a question of obtaining cost benefits and technical reliability Fig. 1 e Fuel Cell [1].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6 2855

hand, battery refers to a stack, as indicated in Fig. 2. There is a

connection in series of the necessary single cells to achieve
the tension adapted to a given application. The battery or
stack, in this sense, is a more complex structure. It is used in a
range of auxiliary systems for evacuating heat, reforming or
feeding fuel or controlling the humidity in the electrolyte,
among other applications [2].
The most common criterion for classification has to do
with the electrolyte used. They are divided into the following
types: [1]

- AFC, “Alkaline Fuel Cell”.

- PEMFC, “Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell”.
- DMFC, “Direct Methanol Fuel Cell”.
- PAFC, “Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell”.
- MCFC, “Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell”.
- SOFC, “Solid Oxide Fuel Cell”.

Nevertheless, there is another, more generic division,

which is commonly found in the literature as a whole. This
division refers to the temperature in which the fuel cells
operate, creating three large groups [2]:

- Low temperature fuel cells that work at approximately

80  C: the AFC, PEMFC and DMFC.
- Intermediate temperature fuel cells that work at approxi-
mately 200  C: the PAFC.
- High temperature fuel cell whose working temperature is
between 650  C and 1000  C: the MCFC and SOFC.
A further classification distinguishes between static and
portable cells, according to how they are used [1].
Analysing different types of fuel cells
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
These are low temperature cells that work along the lines of
basic or alkaline fuel cells, as shown in Fig. 3. In other words,
Fig. 3 e AFC fuel [5].
the reaction takes place thanks to hydroxide groups [2]. The
electrolyte is an alkali, generally potassium hydroxide (KOH)
in watery dissolution, in concentrations from 30% to 35% in
weight and a temperature falling between 60  C and 100  C [4].
These cells have a drawback: the electrolyte reacts with the
CO2, which might be caused by impurities in the O2 or in the
H2. As a result, air cannot be used directly to provide O2; nor
can the fuel be reformed to produce H2.
The AFC does not tolerate even low concentrations of CO2.
Over 50 ppm, the CO2 reacts chemically with the alkaline
electrolyte to plug irreversibly the electrolyte and electrodes
with the solid carbonates formed in the reaction [4]. Taking
into account their application in cars, vessels or any other

Fig. 2 e Fuel cell and fuel cell stack [3].

2856 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6

forms of transport, pure hydrogen would have to be stored on batteries. This last factor makes them suitable for portable
board. Moreover, air is practically the only source for the O2 applications.
that is needed; it would have to be purged to eliminate CO2 by They boast many features that make them attractive for
means of a chemical cleaner [4]. A carbon fuel, such as transport. For instance, they are useful for managing fuel. A
methanol, freshly obtained from a reformer could not be used clear drawback is the CO2 emissions they give off. With a
[4]. The AFC is most commonly used in space programs and, to thermal engine, the only way to reduce this gas would be to
a lesser extent, the automotive industry. In the latter field, increase efficiency [2].
they have been rapidly replaced by solid polymer cells [4]. The technology for the DMFC does not compare well with
that of the PEMFC. Low temperature cells that do not use
hydrogen are still in their early stages of development so that
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
many unsolved problems remain. To achieve a current
discharge, the quantity of platinum used as a catalyst is still
The PEMFC uses an electrolyte formed by a polymer matrix
much greater than what is needed to achieve the same results
that is joined to functional groups; these groups can exchange
with the PEMFC. An additional problem with serious conse-
cations and anions. In general the electrolyte is an acid with a
quences is that methanol crosses the membrane from the
sulphonic group incorporated in the matrix, which is capable
anode up to the cathode. The cathode function is diminished
of transporting Hþ ions, whereas the anion is immobilised by
and more fuel is consumed as a result [4].
the polymer structure [4]. Therefore, the same reactions take
These cells normally come into play in low power portable
place in both these cells and those with acid electrolytes.
systems: computers and mobile phones. The way in which
They have the advantage that they are simpler and more
one of these cells recharges is shown in Fig. 4.
compact than other types of cells and, in addition, they need
When the cell is compared with batteries, one can see how
neither reservations of electrolyte nor recirculation [4]. The
the separation between the convertor and fuel tank provides
operational temperature ranges in an interval of 60  Ce130  C
greater flexibility during the design phase. The size of the cell
[4].
itself determines the maximum exit power, whereas the
Nevertheless, the way the PEMFC works at low tempera-
quantity of fuel in the depot limits operating time or
tures hinders the electrochemical reaction's kinetics. For this
maximum energy [7]. In the case of batteries, power and en-
reason, it is necessary to employ electrocatalyst materials.
ergy have much less bearing on the geometric design [7]. A
Most of these tend to be precious metals, such as platinum or
portable computer uses a minimum of 20 W; its usual oper-
ruthenium. Thus, the battery's cost increases. In addition, its
ating time is from two to three hours. Mobile phones only
fuel is restricted almost exclusively to high purity hydrogen. If
need between 2 W and 5 W, and can be in standby for up to 10
any other fuel, such as petrol or natural gas, is desired, the fuel
days [7]. The theoretical energy density for fuel cells is greater
should pass through a previous, reforming phase to produce
than the one for batteries. Recharging fuel cells only entails
hydrogen [2].
refilling the fuel tank [7].
The main applications of the PEMFC are diverse, although
After rechargeable batteries have been operating for a
these cells are mostly used in cars. Practically all car pro-
time, their capacity diminishes, due to multiple load cycles.
totypes that work with fuel cells rely on this technology. A
On the other hand, fuel cells potentially enjoy a longer service
further application, which is becoming more widespread, is to
life. Because the battery is separated from the fuel tank, self-
generate electricity and heat water in residential and do-
discharge does not represent a problem [7].
mestic settings [4].
PEMFCs are produced in small units of up to 100 kW and are
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
used to supply electrical energy.

In Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells, reactions take place along

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells are a variant of the PEMFC in which
the fuel is a methanol. The oxygen acts as an oxidiser,
although the hydrogen is not oxidised. Liquid methanol is the
fuel that oxidises directly in the anode [4], as
similar lines to the membrane cell, but at around 200  C,
making it an average temperature cell. Because it is the first of
its kind, it is the most developed cell [2].
As electrolytes, acids have the advantage of not reacting
with the CO2. The cost of hydrogen and air purification is

Anode : CH3 OH þ H2 O0CO2 þ 6Hþ þ 6e

3
Cathode : O2 þ 6Hþ þ 6e 03H2 O
2
Overall reaction : CH3 OH þ 32 O2 0CO2 þ 2H2 O

The major advantage of these cells is that they can adapt to

a wide number of applications, from mW up to kW. They may
be portable or stationary, since the working temperature is not
an impediment in either case. As their temperatures are
relatively low, their time of ignition is reduced. In addition,
they can be employed at any orientation. They have high
power densities, in comparison with those for other types of Fig. 4 e Recharging a DMFC in a Toshiba mobile phone [6].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
diminished. A reason for this is that the only concern here is to
prevent carbon monoxide or sulphur compounds from
poisoning the anode [4].
As electrolytes, acids have the advantage of not reacting
with the CO2. The cost of hydrogen and air purification is
diminished. A reason for this is that the only concern here is to
prevent carbon monoxide or sulphur compounds from
poisoning the anode [4].
The cell's operating temperature often varies from 150  C to
220  C, a suitable range for cogeneration as well as for ab-
sorption machines that produce cold [4].
Data were collected from the units in operation, which
have been running for thousands of hours. It can be deduced
that the electrical performance based on low heating power is
about 38%e40%, and thermal performance can be placed at
40%e45%. Therefore, global performances of 85% can be ob-
tained [4].
Among the main applications of this technology are elec-
trical power generation at the place of consumption (on site)
and the mass production of electricity. This technology has
been on the market for some time [4].
Other practical, working cases include systems that use the
methane produced in cities, treat waste water or generate
electric power. The gases from digester tanks, or “poor gases”
issued in the waste water treatment plants, are made up of
60% methane, 40% carbon dioxide and ppm H2S. Once the H2S
from the residual gas has been eliminated, it can be used in a
fuel cell system [4].
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
The MCFC, shown in Fig. 5, operates with a molten electrolyte,
a mixture of carbonates from alkaline metals. Transport is
carried out by the carbonate ions (CO2 3 ) consumed in the
anode and regenerated in the cathode [4].
Fig. 5 e MCFC [8].
2857
The operating temperature is approximately between
600  C and 650  C [4]. This high operating temperature is
necessary for the electrolyte to reach an adequate level of
conductivity. With this temperature noble metal catalysts are
no longer necessary for the electrochemical processes of
oxidation and reduction, in which electrodes are made with
synthesised nickel. The elevated working temperature also
means that MCFC can achieve high global performances. On
the other hand, cell components must be stabilised so that
they are resistant to corrosion; this is a difficult task [4].
With this fuel cell, the main advantage is that it can easily
consume fuels that contain monoxide and carbon dioxide, as
is the case with the gases obtained from reforming natural gas
or even coal [4].
Future applications could be in fields of cogeneration and
the generation or centralised production of electricity [4].
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
The SOFC uses solid oxides as electrolytes, impermeable ce-
ramics that can conduct an electrical charge by transporting
oxygen ions oxygen (O2) across a crystalline network at a
suitably high temperature. This is from 800  C to 1000  C,
although there have been attempts at developing systems that
work at 700  C [4]. The main material used is zirconium oxide
(ZrO2) stabilised in its cubic shape with small quantities of
calcium oxides (CaO), yttrium, (Y2O3), ytterbium (Yb2O3) or a
mixture of heavy rare earths. Their attraction can be
explained by their solid-state nature, as well as their potential
to reform gaseous fuels in the fuel cell. Another reason is their
high operating temperature, which can provide high quality
heat for producing additional electric power or for other uses
[4]. The solid electrolyte stops them from polluting and makes
it possible to achieve designs that use the electrolyte as a
structural part.
There are two types of solid oxide fuel cells: the flat and
tubular SOFC [4]. The two companies that have pioneered
these two technologies are respectively SulzereHexis, with
the flat SOFC, and Siemens Westinghouse, with its tubular
counterpart.
They have the same field of application as carbonate cells
[4], with experimental systems of hundreds of kW. Siemens
Westinghouse has developed tubular cells of up to 50 kW.
Studies and projects for facilities of fuel cells in
vessels
USCGC VINDICATOR
In this study, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) investi-
gated the impact of replacing four diesel generators with fuel
cells in one of its coast guard vessels with diesel electrical
propulsion by means of a direct-current motor (DC). In the
VINDICATOR CGC system (see Fig. 6) fuel cells were converted
for propulsion and auxiliary power [10]. The coast guard
VINDICATOR is a T-AGOS class single-hull ship, 68.3 m in
length, propelled by four Caterpillar diesel e electrical gener-
ators with direct current propulsion motors [10]. This vessel
was selected as a candidate for developing and demonstrating
2858 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
Fig. 6 e USCGC VINDICATOR [9].
the potential use of the fuel cell on board. Space and weight
limitations, as well as operational requirements, determined
in this study can be applied to other ship facilities.
All the structural changes necessary for the fuel supply
were carried out, in both the exhaust and all related systems.
This entailed replacing the four main diesel generators with
four Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) modules. Moreover,
the design scheme for each one of the demonstration mod-
ule's 625 kW MCFC was developed. Among the components
were the fuel processor, fuel cells and inverter [11]. The total
installed capacity was 4  625 kW ¼ 2.5 MW. For the fuel, F-76,
used by NATO, was chosen. This is a distilled marine fuel with
a sulphur oxides concentration lower than 1% in weight [11].
Thanks to only minor modifications, the fuel cell modules
proposed were compatible with the vessel's interfaces. These
modules are substantially bigger than the diesel generators
being replaced. As a result, the non-structural side plates in-
side the diesel generators room had to be removed. The
existing air an exhaust circuits, as well as fuel-supply sys-
tems, could be re-used with slight modifications.
The vessel's performance in terms of stability and behav-
iour at sea was practically unaffected. Only the room for
manoeuvre was altered and then only slightly. Major auton-
omy was achieved due to the high efficiency of the fuel cells
[11]. In global terms, it has been technically feasible to install
and operate fuel cells on this vessel [11].
METHAPU project
An example of fuel cell systems in the merchant navy is the
METHAPU (Methanol Auxiliary Power Unit) project, sponsored
by the European Commission within the FP6 Framework
Programme. Methanol-powered Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
modules were used to supply electricity supply on board the
MV Undine roero ship [12] (see Figs. 7e8).
The targets of this project were to [13]:
 Assess Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) technology on board a
cargo vessel, on international routes.
 Assess methanol as a fuel on board a ship, on international
routes.
 Find a technical justification for using methanol as a fuel
on board a ship, on international routes.
Fig. 7 e MV Undine Vessel loading on board the fuel cell
[13].
Fig. 8 e Methanol tank installed on the weather deck [13].
The characteristics of the fuel cell were [13]:
 Wartsila WFC20 fuel cell prototype.
 Technology: The high temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
 Operating temperature: 700  Ce800  C
 Fuel: methanol þ air
 Electrical efficiency: approximately 45%.
 Output: 20 kW, 400 VAC, 3 phases.
 Dimensions: 4.5 m in length 1.2 m in width and 1.7 m in
height.
Excess heat is also used. A fuel that has been reformed in
lighter hydrocarbons feeds the SOFC's unit. The methanol
separates into hydrogen and methane in a methane reformer
before going on to the fuel cell. Electricity is supplied to the
main board of the vessel, whereas the resulting heat from the
chemical process is extracted and used in other processes [13].
To minimise exhaust emissions, excess fuel is burnt. The
resulting heat is recycled to the SOFC unit to keep its operating
temperature high. This heat is also used for heating and air
conditioning systems on board, as well as for producing fresh
water and electricity. One of the aims in METHAPU is to test
the alternatives for heat recovery on board [13].
Fuel cell technology has two advantages. It is extremely
efficient and relatively clean in terms of exhaust gases. With
these units, it is not necessary to have special equipment to
handle and treat exhaust gases [13]. The benefits of using
methanol as a fuel are that it is potentially sustainable, it has a
high energetic volumetric density, it is liquid and it is available
worldwide [13].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
Nevertheless, the main dangers associated with using
methanol on board are related to the risks of fire and explo-
sion; its flash point is 12.2  C. There is a possibility that crews
can inhale toxins or that their skin comes into contact with
them [13]. The fuel cell's methanol should be stored in a
separate place. See Figs. 8e9.
FellowSHIP e Viking Lady
FellowSHIP (Fuel Cells for Low Emission Ships) is a research
and development project. Its mission is to fully integrate fuel
cells on board ships and off-shore platforms in order to make
them commercially viable for industry. The FellowSHIP proj-
ect is funded exclusively by the Research Council of Norway. It
also involves industrial partners: Eidesvik Offshore, provided
the ship; Wa € rtsila
€ , the energy, and DNV, the classification
rules [14,15].
In this project, a 330 kW fuel cell was successfully installed
on board the offshore supply vessel Viking Lady. Its smooth
operation was demonstrated for more than 7000 h [14]. When
internal consumption was taken into account, the electric
efficiency was estimated at 44.5%, and no NOx, SOx and PM
emissions were detectable [14]. When heat recovery was
enabled, the overall fuel efficiency was increased to 55% [14].
Viking Lady was also the first vessel to use high-temperature
fuel cell technology.
Electricity for propulsion is supplied by four Wartsila
6R32DF engines with an output of 2010 kW each. Its four main
generators are Alconza NIR 6391 A-10LWs, each producing
1950 kW of power. The ship also has two Rolls Royce AZP100FP
propeller systems [16].
The project used a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC),
developed by MTU in Germany and modified to operate in a
marine environment. Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) is the main
fuel in the gas-electric propulsion system for the Viking Lady;
no additional fuel system was needed to support the MCFC. In
the current installation, as illustrated in Fig. 10, the MCFC
delivers power to a direct current (DC) link that is connected to
the ship's alternating current (AC) bus through power con-
verters [14]. Therefore, the ship's electrical propulsion system
Fig. 9 e Plan view with the location of the methanol tank and fuel cell [13].
2859
consumes from the fuel cell the same amount of energy pro-
vided by the main generators.
The fuel cell stack is located in a large, purpose-built
container (13 m  5 m  4.4 m). Project-specific electrical
components (transformers, converters and DC bus), designed
to protect the fuel cell from potentially harmful disturbances
on the power grid, are situated in a standard 20-ft container.
See Fig. 11. The total weight of the containers is 110 tons, but
DNV representatives feel that both weight and volume could
be significantly reduced with fully integrated systems in the
future.
Viking Lady began operations on the North Sea in April
2009, and, in September of the same year, had the 330 kW
MCFC power pack installed. After initial testing, Viking Lady
became the first vessel to obtain the FC-Safety class notation.
The FellowSHIP fuel cell is considered as supplementary
power [14].
During the first year in operation, the fuel cell stack
showed no signs of degradation. In January 2012, the fuel cell
was cooled down and conserved for future demonstration
projects [14].
Fully loaded, the fuel cells produced electricity at a
measured electric efficiency of 52.1% [14] based on the lower
heating value of LNG.
The e4ships project e fuel cells in marine applications
The flagship project e4ships is a part of the German National
Innovation Programme for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technol-
ogy (NIP), and focuses on onboard power supply for shipping
[12].
It consists of a framework agreement related to different
subprojects called SchIBZ, and Pa-X-ell.
The e4ship project aims to improve significantly the energy
supply onboard large vessels. To achieve this, PEM and high-
temperature fuel cells are to be employed; these should
make it possible to reduce emissions and fuel use consider-
ably [17].
The sub-project SchIBZ is aimed at developing a maritime
FC-APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) for diesel fuel. The SchIBZ
2860 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6

Fig. 10 e Integrating fuel cell in the vessel's electric propulsion system [14].

Fig. 11 e The layout of the fuel cell (FC) elements on board [14].

programme differs from other pilot projects on ships in that it
uses a fuel that is commonly known and easily available, with
the highest possible energy content. “The use of pure
hydrogen is not viable at the present time, because there is no
acceptable process available to store the hydrogen within a
reasonable volume,” explains Keno Leites, Project Manager of
Blohm þ Voss Naval GmbH, the lead company [12].
All the membrane solutions are viable, according to a
preliminary study, which compares the systems available in
the market. Nevertheless, costs are “unacceptably high” with
the PEM (Polymer Electrolyte Membrane), especially when the
system is compared with the SOFC. That is why they have
decided to use a configuration with the SOFC, where the diesel
reformer simultaneously acts as a back-up sulphur trap [12].
The second e4ships sub-project, Pa-X-ell, studies using FC
systems on passenger ships. MEYER WERFT is leading this
project in which high-temperature PEM fuel cells are being
tested on passenger vessels. They are working with a stand-
ardised energy module with a universal application that can
be tested as a modular device on board. Moreover, the units
can be connected to larger power scale. The fuel cell systems
are integrated into commercially available 19-inch racks. In
the project's initial phase, 30 kW will be installed to demon-
strate that electricity, heat and cold can be produced in a
process called trigeneration. This will serve as a basis to feed
power into the ship's grid from a 120 kW system in parallel to
the conventional energy supply on a passenger vessel [17].
The installation will use an internal reformer and meth-
anol in its initial setup. A centralised reformer for natural gas
will subsequently be integrated into the fuel cell. Distributed
power generation among several plants will be tested in the
second phase [17].
ZEMSHIP (Zero Emission Ships)
On 29 August, 2008, the first commercially used fuel cell pas-
senger ship went into service on the Alster Lake in Hamburg
(Fig. 12). Since that date, up to 100 passengers have enjoyed
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6 2861

Fig. 12 e Layout of a FC's elements on board [19].

their ride on the inner city lake and its network of canals,
without generating any local emissions [18].
Zemships (Zero Emission Ships) is a joint project carried
out by nine partners and headed by the Ministry of Urban
Affairs and Environment of the Free and Hanseatic City of
Hamburg. Started in 2006, the Zemships project amounts to
5.5 million euros, 2.4 million of which were co-financed by the
European Union. Partners contributed the remaining amount
[18].
The hybrid fuel cell propulsion system of Zemships comes
from Proton Motor. As shown Fig. 13, its key components are
[18]:
 A 48 kW (peak) PM Basic A50 fuel cell system PM using
Proton Motor proprietary fuel cell stacks.
 350 bar hydrogen tanks for what are typically three-day
operating periods.
 Batteries as energy storage for buffering and peak load
“shaving“.
 An energy management system and fuel cell controls for
optimally efficient operation.
Linde Group has built and now operates the FCS Alster-
wasser hydrogen filling station. This station provides the
Zemship with gaseous hydrogen every two to three days. The
filing process takes around 12 min [20].
Fuel cell systems for the U.S. Navy
The U.S. Navy's Office of Naval Research (ONR) has sponsored
an Advanced Technology Development program to test a Ship
Service Fuel Cell (SSFC) electrical generator in the marine
environment. Under this program, a 625 kW molten carbonate
fuel cell generator, and a 500 kW fuel processor, designed for
PEM fuel cell applications, are being developed [20]. Both
systems focus on a fuel cell based ship service generator uti-
lising NATO-F76 logistics fuel to produce power with high fuel
system efficiency even at partial loads. Moreover, the ONR is

Fig. 13 e Operating principle for the propulsion system [19].

2862 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
Fig. 14 e Conventional propulsion in submarines [21].
Fig. 15 e Functional diagram of the AIP system [21].
sponsoring advanced research into power dense fuel re-
formers and processors, hydrogen separation membrane
technology and improved sulphide absorbents to increase
system power density [20].
Systems have been designed and evaluated for use with
both NATO F-76 fuel, which has a sulphur content of up to 1%
in weight, and JP-5, which has a sulphide content of up to 0.3%
in weight [20].
Submarines
Submarines with nuclear propulsion are the point of reference
for anaerobic ships. However, for a big navy, they are not a
suitable option. The reasons are well known: cost, technical
complexity, political opportunity and social response.
Fig. 16 e Main elements of an AIP system [21].
In a conventional submarine, the propulsion motor is
electrical and the electric power to move the motor is pro-
duced by the diesel generator. In immersion, the energy to
move the electric motor is obtained from the cell-packs, which
in turn can be recharged when the generators are operating,
[21] see Fig. 14.
In an anaerobic vessel, an Air Independent Propulsion (AIP)
system is added to the power plant, in which a diesel motor
powers an electric motor. It is the system used to provide
propulsion in immersion and, occasionally, to recharge cells.
As existing AIP systems are severely limited in the power
they can produce, they are unsuitable as the main propulsion
system for a submarine [21]. The propulsion plants of existing
AIP vessels must therefore be qualified as hybrid, a combi-
nation that feeds electric motors, diesel generators, cells or the
anaerobic system, as shown in Fig. 15.
Fuel cells come into play when the submarine needs the
maximum power while under immersion. They can provide a
great amount of energy during short periods of time. On the
other hand, the AIP system is used in immersion when a small
demand of power or a low speed is required for extensive time
intervals [21]. The three energy production and/or storage
systems e diesel generators, cells and anaerobic systems e
are complementary and usually exclusive. The main compo-
nents of the AIP systems are indicated in Fig. 16.
First of all, there are the storage tanks for oxygen (LOX) and
fuel. The ones for oxygen are found in all kinds of anaerobic
submarines. They are cryogenic and store the oxygen in its
liquid state [21]. The other tanks vary depending on the type of
fuel required in each kind of AIP system.
Current AIP systems
At the time of publication, the submarines that are either
operational or under construction use different AIP cells in
five different ways, by means of: the Stirling motor (Kockums);
the MESMA (DCNS) system; cryogenic tanks that contain
hydrogen (Rubin); systems based on obtaining hydrogen from
metal hydrocarbons (HDW/Siemens) or bio-ethanol reforming
(Navantia/Hynergreen) [21].
Stirling motor
Its main component is an external combustion alternative
engine that uses diesel fuel. When this engine runs, heat input
causes gas to expand in one or several cylinders. These cyl-
inders generate an alternative motion transmitted to a
crankshaft, which in turn is converted into electrical power.
The heat causing gas expansion is generated in an internal
combustion chamber [21].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
Fig. 17 e LOX tank in a 212 German submarine [22].
Although the idea of the Stirling motor was initiated in the
XIXth century, its technology has been developed in more
recent years by the Swedish company Kockums. It is used in
two types of Swedish warships-some employed at home and
others sold to Singapore- and in submarines for the Japanese
Navy [21].
MESMA
The MESMA (Module d'Energie Sous Marine Autonome) sys-
tem is a classic steam turbine, with a combustion chamber fed
by oxygen and diesel or ethanol serving as fuel [21]. It is a
French design from a state-owned company, DCNS. It began to
be developed in the early 1980s and has only been used for a
Pakistan Navy vessel [21].
Cryogenic tanks
In an AIP system designed by the Rubin Design Bureau, these
tanks play a role in the Lada or Sankt Peterburg class sub-
marines. The system relies on two vertical cryogenic tanks
that contain oxygen and hydrogen respectively. Although very
little is known of this system, it is believed that a certain type
of fuel cell is involved [21].
This type of solution is extremely risky in that a relatively
high amount of hydrogen is stored in a tank. Any leak from
this tank means that this element may combine with the
oxygen in the submarine's interior atmosphere, triggering an
uncontrollable exothermic reaction [21]. The pressure vessel
(Fig. 17) is specially designed to withstand shock load and
diving pressure, and is manufactured from the same material
as the submarine hull.
Fig. 18 e Schematic drawing of the type U212A Todaro class submarine [23].
2863
HDW/Siemens
The HDW (Howaldtswerke e Deutsche Wert GmbH, belonging
to the Thyssen Krupp group) German shipyard works in
cooperation with Siemens, which provided the fuel cell. This
joint venture has led to an AIP system based on storing
hydrogen in the form of metallic hydrocarbons and fuel cells.
The system is founded on the idea that certain metallic alloys
absorb hydrogen atoms. When hydrides are heated, hydrogen
is released. This hydrogen is brought to the fuel cells to be
combined with the oxygen and obtain energy [21].
This system is employed in submarines that are in use or
under construction (see Fig. 18), among which are these
classes: 212 A U-31 (Germany and Italy), 212 A Bacht (Ger-
many), 214 (Greece, South Korea, Turkey and Pakistan), Dol-
phin (Israel) and 209/1400 (Portugal) [21].
The fuel cell system consists of nine Siemens
30 kWe50 kW type PEM fuel cell modules. Hydrogen is carried
in metal hydride storage cylinders, while oxygen is trans-
ported in liquid form by tanks, both located outside the
pressure hull [24].
Hydrogen storage methods must be improved, since the
weight and also the cost of the metallic hydrocarbon cylinders
are high. Therefore, HDW has begun to develop a methanol
fume reformer. While the volumetric energy of hydrogen and
methanol are in the same range, the latter has a higher weight
in a 2.7 factor than hydrogen energy [25].
Steam reforming was chosen because it presents the
following advantages when compared with partial oxidation
[25]:
 Greater hydrogen production
 Lower oxygen demand
 Fewer CO2 emissions
Navantia/Hynergreen
In the S-80 submarine, this AIP system is based on fuel cells
and bioethanol reforming. When compared to other systems,
it offers an innovative. Hydrogen is obtained from a bio-
ethanol reforming process, so that it is easily stored in a vessel
and no longer poses any problems [25].
Developed by Hynergreen Technologies S.A, the API
Spanish design is designed to be operated with a 300 kW cell
fuel, made by the U.S. company, UTC Power [25]. The fuel cell
is fuelled by hydrogen, produced from bioethanol in a
reformer [25]. Oxygen is the other input for the fuel cell. The
2864 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6

fuel cell generates 300 kW of electric power and discharges
water. This water and waste by-products from the reformer,
carbon dioxide (CO2), are expelled from the submarine, which
is under construction [25].
Table 1 shows a summary of how the fuel cells described
above are used in ships and submarines.
Considerations for installing fuel cells in vessels
Cell selection
To choose the most suitable cell, it is necessary to take into
account these characteristics:
1. PEMFC. With its low operating temperature, the PEMFC
allows for rapid start up without resorting to corrosive
materials in the cells. The PEMFC mainly has trans-
portation and commercial applications because of its zero
emission, high power density and quick start up. Another
successful application of PEMFC for transport is in the field
of submarine propulsion [26].
2. AFC. The electrolyte in this kind of fuel cell is KOH oper-
ating at a temperature range from 50  C to 250  C. Oper-
ating at low temperature, the fuel cell is characterised by a
quick start up. One of the main drawbacks of the AFC is
that the KOH solution is very sensitive to the presence of
CO2. It involves having very pure H2 as the fuel [26]. It is
frequently used both in space applications and in laptops.
3. PAFC. This system operates in a temperature range be-
tween 50  C and 250  C. The chemical reaction is the same
as the one in PEMFC but pure hydrogen must be used as its
fuel. This solution also needs platinum as an electro-
catalyst in both the anode and cathode [26].
4. MCFC. These cells operate at the very high temperature
range of 600  Ce700  C. Due to the high operating tem-
perature, hydrocarbons reacting on CO can be converted
into hydrogen in the stack. MCFC does not need expensive
platinum as a catalyst, but nickel and nickel oxide are
required for the anode and cathode. Due to the high
operating temperature, MCFC can reform common hydro-
carbon fuels. The focus of MCFC development has been on
large stationary applications. This system can also be
suitable for marine applications, where the relatively large
size and weight of the MCFC and its slow start-up time are
a not real issue [26].
5. SOFC. These types of fuel cells usually operate at the very
high temperatures range of 600  Ce1000  C. The main
advantage is that SOFC operate at a high efficiency range
usually from 40% to 60%. Moreover, they can achieve an
efficiency of 70%e80% if they are integrated within a gas
turbine. Due to the high operating temperature, CO and
some hydrocarbons can be directly used as fuel. High
operating temperature, slow start up, high cost and
corrosion of metal stack components are some of the main
drawbacks in the SOFC. This is why they are only used for
auxiliary power units, as well as medium and large power
generation applications [26].
6. DMFC. DMFCs operate between 50  C and 120  C with a high
efficiency (up to 40%). As a liquid, methanol can be inte-
grated more easily with existent transmission and distri-
bution systems. One drawback is that directly reforming
the methanol within the FC stack means that the elec-
trodes require large quantities of platinum. Thanks to this
high energy density and safer handling, DMFC appears as
an excellent candidate for very small to mid-sized appli-
cations, such as mobile phones and other consumer
products. The automotive industry also employs this cell
[26].
On surface vessels, fuel cells that operate at elevated
temperatures are used when high power is a requirement,
since they offer higher wattages. Among these, the one which
fits best because of its operating temperature and the fact it
can use low sulphur hydrocarbons and the heat generated is
the MCFC.
The fuel reformer and processor
With the exception of the alkaline fuel cell, which must use
pure hydrogen fuel, all the others can run with a reformed
fuel. Reformation is an endothermal process (as shown in
Fig. 19), which produces hydrogen for consumption in these
other fuel cell types [10].
The fuel processor or reformer plays two important roles.
The first one is to convert the fuel stock into a hydrogen-rich
gas to be used in the fuel cell. To minimise pollution from
the cell electrodes, sulphur and the carbon monoxide should

Table 1 e Summary of marine cell facilities. Compiled by the author.

Vessel Type of cell Power Fuel Function
US VINDICATOR MCFC 625 Kw  4 F-76 Propulsion þ Electr Generat
METHAPU SOFC 20 kW Methanol Electr Generat
MV Undine
FellowSHIP MCFC 330 kW LNG Propulsion þ Electr Generat
Viking Lady
e4ships SchIBz SOFC 100 kW Diesel Electr Generat
e4ships PA-X-ell PEMFC/DMFC 120 kW Methanol Electr Generat
ZEMSHIP PEMFC 48 kW 50 kg H2 Propulsion
350 bar
US NAVY MCFC 625 kW F76-JP5 Electr Generat
SUBM. 212A PEMFC 303 kW H2/Methanol Propulsion
SUBM. S80 PEMFC 300 kW Bioethanol Propulsion
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
Fig. 19 e Block diagram of a fuel cell [27].
be eliminated by using desulphurisers and reducers that
transform the CO to CO2. The water vapour produced in the
reforming process also removes the hydrogen-rich gas, before
placing it in the cell. The fuel processor requires different
technologies for each fuel. As there is no fuel cell energy or
heat available when at the initial stages, an additional source
of energy is needed to start the fuel processor and cell.
This source of energy must generate vapour for the
reformer and preheat the fuel stock. For systems that run on a
larger scale, start-up periods of several hours are sometimes
necessary. This is a factor that may affect whether fuel cells
are an option for certain types of vessels.
One of the challenges of fuel cell applications on com-
mercial ships is the capability of using commercially available
fossil fuel, instead of pure hydrogen. It has been foreseen that
conventional liquid fuels, such as diesel oil or methanol, will
be a long-term solution for fuel cell applications onboard
ships. This solution requires a fuel reformer to extract
hydrogen from marine fuels. Although a fuel cell with a
reformer emits a very small amount of pollutants to the air,
there is no significant difference between the environmental
impact of fuel production and supply with both the MCFC and
diesel engine.
The study shows that, in global terms, by producing the
cell's components, supplying the materials for these compo-
nents and providing the necessary energy to produce them,
the environmental impact is significant. This is especially true
if this process is compared with the one that produces the
equivalent unit in diesel engines [27].
Lifetime
The key factors in terms of lifetime for the MCFC are nickel
oxide, as well as losses in nickel metal and electrolyte.
Currently, the designed lifetime is around five year for a MCFC
[26]. This life expectancy coincides with reference [24].
It is worth noting that the lifetime of stacks has greatly
increased due to recent innovations in technology. In Mag-
deburg, Germany, a 250 kW MCFC developed by MTU CFC
Corp., worked for more than 30 000 h. A Siemens-
Westinghouse CHP-100 SOFC (Combined Heat and Power)
achieved a lifetime of 30 000 h, and up to 70 000 h in laboratory
testing [26]. These recent R&D projects seem very promising
for naval FC applications.
2865
Cost
It is estimated that, between 2002 and 2009, the relative stack
module cost has fallen by 60%, as indicated in Fig. 20 [24]. At
present, the cost of the stack module makes up two-thirds of
the total cost of a MCFC power plant. It is about $4.000/kW for a
1.4 MW power plant [24]. If SOFC technology is considered, it is
reported that current factory cost for FC system is up to $9.000/
kW at low production volume [24]. However it was estimated
that the SOFC stack module cost can decrease to $750/kW if the
produced volume of stacks reaches 10 MW/yr [24].
Conclusions
Fuel cell systems seem to be a very attractive solution for
onboard ship power generation. These cells have the potential
of being more efficient and cleaner than the conventional in-
ternal combustion engine and gas turbines. Moreover, they
can be fully integrated into an All Electric Ship Concept.
While fuel cell use in civilian and military surface ships is
still at the investigation and demonstration stages, PEM fuel
cells using hydrogen and oxygen have achieved series matu-
rity for submarines [24]. It has been shown that methanol
reforming technology can be a very suitable application on AIP
submarines, and that high efficiency and flexibility are
possible.
An internal or external reformer can be placed on surface
vessels so that hydrocarbons from diesel-oil, natural gas,
Fig. 20 e Cost decrease for the MCFC [24].
2866 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 1 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 2 8 5 3 e2 8 6 6
methanol or ethanol can be a fuel option. Even if CO2 emis-
sions are produced, these are significantly lower than those
caused by diesel propulsion, and remaining pollutants prac-
tically disappear.
A key factor in the MCFC's lifetime have been the cells'
components themselves. For instance, although the MCFC
cells undergo losses in nickel metal, they have a life cycle of
five years. Other cells have been developed [26] to reach a
lifetime of about 30 000 h and above for 250 kW fuel cells.
Until an economic, safe and low-volume way of storing
pure hydrogen on board is found, the only alternative is to rely
on traditional fuels while fuel cells are being used for the first
time in the maritime sector. The aim here is to gain experience
under real operating conditions and reduce manufacturing
costs.
Current factory cost for FC systems is up to $9.000/kW, with
a low production volume [24]. However it was predicted that
the SOFC stack module cost could drop to $750/kW if stack
volume increased. As fuel cell applications grow, the cost will
be notably lower. As they become an increasingly more
attractive option, the number of their applications will also
rise.
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