R PUZZLER Jennifer is holding on to an electrically charged sphere that reaches an electric potential of about 100 000 V. The device that generates this high electric potential is called a Van de Graaff generator. What causes Jennifer's hair to stand on end like the needles of a porcupine? Whyis she safe in this situation in view of the fact that 110 V from a wall outlet can kill you? (Henry Leap and Jim Lehman) Electric PotentialSS POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL B Change in potential energy AU=-—- go I E-ds — AU | 7 Potential difference AV =—=- E-ds 90 A The electron volt 1eV = 1.60 x 107! C-V = 1.60 x 107197SS POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD Al 7 a ‘ n AU = qa AV= —qoEd sQ— BQ— (a) (b) B B B Yp- van ave -| Eds=-| Beos 0° as = ~[ Eds A A A Potential difference in a uniform AV= -e | ds = — Kd electric fieldA EXAMPLE Motion ofa Proton in a Uniform Electric Field A proton is released from rest in a uniform electric field that has a magnitude of 8.0 X 10* V/m and is directed along the positive x axis (Fig. 25.5). The proton undergoes a displace- ment of 0.50 m in the direction of E. (a) Find the change in electric potential between points A and B. (b) Find the change in potential energy of the proton for this displacement. Figure 25.5 A proton accelerates from A to B in the direction of the electric field.SS Solution AV = — Fd = —(8.0 x 10¢V/m)(0.50 m) = -4.0 x 104V AU= qAV= eAV = (1.6 X 1078) (—4.0 X 104V) = -64x 107%]SS ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY DUE TO POINT CHARGES B Figure 25.6 The potential differ- ence between points Aand B due to a point charge g depends only on the initial and final radial coordi- nates ry and rg. The two dashed cir- cles represent cross-sections of spherical equipotential surfaces.Fcctrie potential (V) we) Figure 25.7 (a) The electric potential in the plane around a single positive charge is plotted on the vertical axis. (The electric potential function for a negative charge would look like a hole instead of a hill.) The red line shows the 1 /rnature of the electric potential, as given by Equation 25.11. (b) View looking straight down the vertical axis of the graph in part (a), showing concen- tric circles where the electric potential is constant. These circles are cross sections of equipoten- tial spheres having the charge at the center.A Electric potential due to several Fl : al V=k ee point c! arges € 7 Or. al Electric potential energy due to U=k Nd e two charges TigElectric potential (V) Figure 25.8 (a) The electric potential in the plane containing a dipole. (b) Top view of the function graphed in part (a).EXAMPLE The Electric Potential Due to Two Point Charges A charge q; = 2.00 wC is located at the origin, and a charge q2 = —6.00 pC is located at (0, 3.00) m, as shown in Figure 25.1la. (a) Find the total electric potential due to these charges at the point P, whose coordinates are (4.00, 0) m. (b) Find the change in potential energy of a 3.00-uC charge as it moves from infinity to point P (Fig. 25.11b). J J -6.00uC -6.00 uC 3.00 m 3.00 m 2.00 uC 4.00 m 2.00uC 4.00 m 3.00 uC (a) (b)SS Solution pe (2 a a2) ry TY o N:m? {2.00 x 10°C | —6.00 x 107°C = 8.99 X 10° —] + c 4.00 m 5.00 m = —629x 10°V AU = q3Vp — 0 = (3.00 X 1078 C)(—6.29 x 10° V) -18.9 x 1073]OBTAINING THE VALUE OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD FROM THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL dV = —E-ds Figure 25.12 Equipotential surfaces (dashed blue lines) and electric field lines (red lines) for (a) a uniform electric field produced by an infinite sheet of charge, (b) a point charge, and (c) an electric dipole. In all cases, the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric field lines at every point. Compare these drawings with Figures 25.2, 25.7b, and 25.8b.eee In general, the electric potential is a function of all three spatial coordinates. If V(r) is given in terms of the cartesian coordinates, the electric field components E,, Ey, and E, can readily be found from V(x, y, 2) as the partial derivatives? av av ov E, = -— Ey =-— E, = —-— Ox oy Oz For example, if V = 3x°y + y? + yz, then av 0 a d = a yty + y2 + = (3x2y) = 3y-—— (x2) =6 ax ae OF) J ye) aa xy) y dx (x*) ey 3 In vector notation, E is often written where Vis called the gradient operatorSS EXAMPLE The Electric Potential Due to a Dipole An electric dipole consists of two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a distance 2a, as shown in Fig- ure 25.13. The dipole is along the x axis and is centered at the origin. (a) Calculate the electric potential at point P. (How would this result change if point P happened to be lo- cated to the left of the negative charge?) P (b) Calculate V and F, at a point far from the dipole. Solution VE q q 2heqa van, > =4,(—-_*]=- =" a A -a —) xe — a2 x>> a k V= 2 a (x >> a) x dV 4k qa E, = — (x >> a)SS (c) Calculate V and F, if point P is located anywhere be- tween the two charges. Solution i 2h qx ee w(t _ <4) = ——2hg a@-—x xta wera dv d Qkege -w-@ ) E,=-—-=- - = Qk * dx dx ( xe =) 2 al (x? — a2)? voSS ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS Figure 25.14 The electric poten- tial at the point P due to a continu- ous charge distribution cat be cal- culated by dividing the charged body into segments of charge dq and summing the electric potential contributions over all segments.SS EXAMPLE (a) Find an expression for the electric potential at a point P located on the perpendicular central axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius aand total charge Q. SolutionSS (b) Find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at point P. Solution dV d poe a pp oe t yn * dx & dx (te) = —h,Q(—3) 2? + a?) 9/2 (2x) k,Qx (2 + a3?A EXAMPLE Electric Potential Due to a Finite Line of Charge A rod of length ¢ located along the » axis has a total charge Q and a uniform linear charge density A = Q/€. Find the electric potential at a point P located on the y axis a distance afrom the origin (Fig. 25.17). Solution w= a eee Nn a? € € d d v= ral * =1,2[ * lo Vx? + a? € Jo x2 + a? a: 2 2 |S = In(x + Vx2 + a?) Vx? + a? Figure 25.17 A uniform line charge of length € located along the x axis. To calculate the electric potential at P, the line charge is divided into segments each of length dx and each carrying a charge ve 4) ( NER Ve+@ ) £ aA ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A CHARGED CONDUCTOR * 3 a! Figure 25.20 An arbitrarily shaped conductor carrying a posi- ae +~— tive charge. When the conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium, ~<—+ ee all of the charge resides at the surface, E = 0 inside the conduc- * # tor, and the direction of E just outside the conductor is perpen- ~~ e 3g os the conductor and is equal to the potential at the surface. Note # dicular to the surface. The electric potential is constant inside x 4 + \s E | from the spacing of the plus signs that the surface charge density is nonuniform. B tet -| E-ds =0 Ai The surface of a charged conductor is an equipotential surface the surface of any charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an equipo- tential surface. Furthermore, because the electric field is zero inside the con- ductor, we conclude from the relationship E, = — dV/dr that the electric poten- tial is constant everywhere inside the conductor and equal to its value at the surface. Electric field pattern of a charged conducting plate placed near an oppositely charged pointed conductor. Small pieces of thread suspended in oil align with the electric field lines. The field surrounding the pointed conductor is most intense near the pointed end and at other places where the radius of curvature is small.Figure 25.21 (a) The excess charge on a conducting sphere of radius Ris uniformly distributed on its surface. (b) Electric potential versus distance rfrom the center of the charged conducting sphere. (c) Electric field magnitude versus distance rfrom the center of the charged conducting sphere.Figure 25.22) The electric field lines (in red) around two spherical conductors. The smaller sphere has a net charge Q, and the larger one has zero net charge. The blue curves are cross- sections of equipotential surfaces.EXAMPLE Two Connected Charged Spheres Two spherical conductors of radii r; and rg are separated by a distance much greater than the radius of either sphere. The spheres are connected by a conducting wire, as shown in Fig- ure 25.23, The charges on the spheres in equilibrium are q; and qg, respectively, and they are uniformly charged. Find the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric fields at the sur- faces of the spheres. Solution Venta, 2 nen mi r q2 a2 Nn Ey=k and By =k, TY rg Ei _ % Es ry) 4 Figure 25.23 Two charged spherical conductors connected by a rs conducting wire. The spheres are at the same electric potential V.SS THE MILLIKAN OIL-DROP EXPERIMENT Oil droplets Battery Pin hole Charged plate Telescope Switch Figure 25.25 Schematic drawing of the Millikan oil-drop apparatus. Figure 25.26 The forces acting on a negatively charged oil droplet in the Millikan experiment. qzne n=0,-1,-2,-38,... e=1.60X 107'%C mg (a) Field off (b) Field on.APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS The Electrostatic Precipitator Insulator Clean air out air in \ Weight Dirt out (a) (b) (c) Figure 25.28 (a) Schematic diagram of an electrostatic precipitator. The high negative electri potential maintained on the central coiled wire creates an electrical discharge in the vicinity of the wire. Compare the air pollution when the electrostatic precipitator is (b) operating and (c) turned off.> Light causes some areas of drum to become electrically conducting, removing positive charge Xerography and Laser Printers ‘Selenium-coated Negatively ea charged toner (a) Charging the drum (b) Imaging the document _() Applying the toner Interlaced pattern of laser lines (a) Transferring the (e) Laser printer drum toner to the paper Figure 25.29 The xerographie process: (a) The photoconductive surface of the drum is posi- tively charged. (b) Through the use of a light source and lens, an image is formed on the surface in the form of positive charges. (c) The surface containing the i image is covered with a negatively charged powder, which adheres only to the image area. (d) A piece of paper is placed over the surface and given a positive charge. This transfers the image to the paper as the negatively charged powder particles migrate to the paper. The paper is then heat-treated to “fix” the pow- der. (e) A laser printer operates similarly except the image is produced by turning a laser beam on and off as it sweeps across the selenium-coated drum.