Evolution Extinction Human

building complexity: evolution and extinction
(1) the process of biological evolution

(2) the role of extinction
POLL: Which of the following is/are true

about natural selection?
a) natural selection results in species perfectly suited to their
environment
b) natural selection improves species over time
c) natural selection results in a change in an organisms’ traits
throughout its lifetime
d) natural selection favors the fastest, strongest organisms
e) all of the above
f) none of the above
natural selection- differential survival and reproduction of
individuals due to differences in their observable traits
four primary factors needed for biological evolution
(1) genetic variability in inherited traits

(2) mechanism for differential survival and reproduction
(3) environmental pressure
(4) time
POLL: Which statement(s) is/are true about

natural selection versus artificial selection?
a) natural selection is the result of ‘natural’ or environmental
pressures; whereas artificial selection is human-caused
b) the mechanisms of natural selection and artificial
selection are the same
c) artificial selection typically (but not always) occurs faster
than natural selection
d) both artificial selection and natural selection must act on
variation that already exists in the species
e) all of the above
f) none of the above
natural selection- differential survival and reproduction

of individuals due to differences in their observable
traits (phenotype)
artificial selection- the intentional reproduction of

individuals in a population that have desirable traits
Natural selection requires variation
• mutation- change in nucleotide

frequencies in an organism’s
genome
• genetic drift- random changes in
gene/trait frequencies within
populations
• sexual reproduction- leads to the
recombination of chromosomes
variation 3: sexual reproduction
- recombination of
chromosomes
- ‘shuffles’ genes in
a population
natural selection is the process in which heritable traits
become gradually more or less common as a result of
differential survival and reproduction
microevolution- change of the frequency of

traits within a species
microevolution- change of the frequency

of traits within a species
microevolution: antibiotic resistance

NOT COMPLETING A COURSE OF

ANTIBIOTICS ACCELERATES THE
EVOLUTION OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

By 2050
microevolution: pesticide resistance

mortality
DDT
microevolution: viral evolution

Strains of COVID-19
CHAT: Why do viruses evolve so quickly?


Threat: spike protein evolution
complex traits
- complex vertebrate eye can develop from a simple patch of
light-sensitive cells in under ~400,000 years
- this represents less than ~0.01% of Earth’s history
Euglena
Planaria
pinhole eye
Nautalus
lens
complex traits
the eye is far from “perfectly
engineered”
complex traits
- complex vertebrate eye can develop from a simple patch of
light-sensitive cells in under ~400,000 years
- this represents less than ~0.01% of Earth’s history
macroevolution:
evolution above
the species level
i.e., speciation
macroevolution
Isolated populations +
genetic drift &/or natural selection
=new species
macroevolution: recent radiations
‘Darwin’s’ finches
macroevolution: recent radiations
Hawaiian honeycreepers
macroevolution
+ time
= biodiversity
The closest living

terrestrial relative
of whales is hippos
macroevolution
+ time
= biodiversity
Modern birds are

the living
descendants of
dinosaurs
macroevolution: today!
macroevolution + time = biodiversity


extinction
• the end of a biological lineage (typically a species)
– no individuals of the species remain on Earth
• this is a crucial component of how Earth’s

biosphere evolves, and is going on all the time
extinction
- background extinction rate: species last, on
average, ~1-10 million years
- roughly 99.9% of all species to have every existed

on Earth are now extinct
causes of extinction
- extraterrestrial impacts
- large shifts in volcanism
- climate shifts
- ecological competition
- disease
- habitat degradation
background
‘mass extinctions’
background
background
K/Pg impact
(formerly K/T)
K/Pg impact
(formerly K/T)
- diameter ~10km
- density ~2.5 g/cm3
- mass ~1.31 x 1015 kg (1.31 trillion tons)
- impact at 20 km/second
K/Pg impact
impact explosion: equivalent to ~6 x 107 megatons of TNT (MT)

‘Tsar Bomba’ (October 30, 1961) – 50 MT

‘Little Boy’ (August 6, 1945) – 0.015 MT

‘Little Boy’ (August 6, 1945) – 0.015 MT
K/Pg impact released over 4 billion times the energy

of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima
K/Pg impact
- global nuclear arsenal – 17,300 warheads

- assuming each is on average ~30 MT
- impact explosion equivalent to simultaneously
detonating the entire world’s nuclear arsenal
120 times
K/Pg impact
• heat storm – ejecta spread globally, and heat up as

they fall back to the surface
• ‘impact winter’ – collapse of food webs
• acid rain
• impact-induced volcanism
huge drop in temperatures and precipitation

impact
most of Earth’s surface is desert for nearly 10 years after impact

impact
many of the groups we take for granted in today’s

ecosystems, including large placental mammals like us, would
probably never have emerged without the K/Pg impact
“The Anthropocene”
humans as a planetary force
(1) biogeochemical cycles

(2) erosion/weathering
(3) climate
(4) ecosystems and biodiversity

(3) climate
CO! + H! O → CH! O + O! photosynthesis
CH! O + O! → CO! + H! O respiration
- photosynthesis stores energy -

- respiration releases energy -
Fossil fuels
CO2
- most of the organic matter
formed through photosynthesis
is destroyed by respiration
algae
respiration
- But, some fraction escapes
respiration and becomes buried
CO2
in sediments
CH2O
Fossil fuels
this organic matter becomes buried, and
increased temperature and pressure cause the
release of petroleum and gas
Fossil fuels
CH 2 O + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O
fossil fuels
energy
- the burning of fossil fuels essentially represents “planetary

respiration”, catalyzed by humans, with the energy release
fueling civilization
CHAT: What predictions can you make about how

this process will change atmospheric chemistry?
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels
CO2
O2
Fossil fuels
CH 2 O + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O
fossil fuels
energy
- this would eventually happen on its own, through the uplift

and weathering of organic matter in older sedimentary
rocks, but very slowly – roughly 106 years or more
- through the extraction and utilization of fossil fuels we have
accelerated this process by about 100 times
Ocean acidification
CO2
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
Ocean acidification
CO2
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3 Carbonic acid!

Ocean acidification
- when CO2 released from fossil fuel consumption dissolves in the

ocean it reacts with seawater to make carbonic acid (H2CO3)
- this results in a decrease in the pH of seawater, which is
referred to as ‘ocean acidification’
Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification
eutrophication
eutrophication
human civilization has approximately doubled the

amount of biologically available nitrogen that moves
through the Earth system
eutrophication
‘eutrophication’ – enrichment of water with nutrients
eutrophication
Eutrophication leads to algal blooms, which directly
result in anoxia (oxygen depletion)

(3) climate
“Humans are now an order of magnitude more important at

moving sediment than the sum of all other natural processes
operating on the surface of the planet.”
‘acid rock drainage’ – oxidation of minerals exposed

during mining generates acidity

(3) climate
(3) climate
CH 2 O + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O
fossil fuels
energy
- this would eventually happen on its own, through the uplift

and weathering of organic matter in older sedimentary
rocks, but very slowly – roughly 106 years or more
- through the extraction and utilization of fossil fuels we have
accelerated this process by about 100 times
(3) climate
(3) climate
fossil fuels
farming/agriculture
(3) climate
(3) climate
CO2 is the largest single contributor to climate shifts in the last century
(3) climate
Highest level in the last 2 million years

(3) climate

(3) climate
extinction
- the end of a biological lineage (typically a species)
– no individuals of the species remain on Earth
- this is a crucial component of how Earth’s

biosphere evolves, and is going on all the time
extinction
- background extinction rate: species last, on
average, ~1-10 million years
- roughly 99.9% of all species to have every existed

on Earth are now extinct
causes of extinction
Ultimate
Human Meteor Tectonic
extinction effects impact changes Volcanism
causes
Change in
Increase ocean Sedimentation/
CO2 circulation pollution
Proximate
extinction Global Changing
warming Acidic Low water ocean
causes
Overfishing oceans oxygen chemistry
After Harnik et al., 2012. TREE
“A feathered tempest”
“A feathered tempest”
- 1860s
- A single flock could be a mile across, 300
miles long, and would take over ten
hours to pass
- Estimated to be billions of birds, possibly
the most abundant bird on Earth
- 1914
- Martha, the last known passenger
pigeon, dies in the Cincinnati Zoo
End-Pleistocene
megafauna extinction
Sergio De la Rosa
Perce
Per
40

40
20
20
0
0
Australia
End-Pleistocene
100
100 Australia
80
80
60
Percent
60
Percent
40
40
20
20
0
0
100
Africa 100 North America
100 North America
80
80
80
60
Percent
60
Percent
60
Percent
40
40
40
20
20
20
0
0
0
100 Australia 100
100
80 80
80
60
Percent
60
60
Percent
Percent
Madagascar-New Zealand
40 40
40
20 20
20
00 0
100,000 10,000 1,000 100
100,000 10,000 1,000 100
Years ago
100 Years ago
North America
80
60
Percent
40
20
60
Percent
60
Percent 40

40
20
20
0
0
100 Australia
Australia
End-Pleistocene
100
80
80
60
Percent
60
Percent
40
40
20
20
0
0
100
Africa 100 North America
100 North America
80
80
80
60
Percent
60
Percent
60
Percent
40
40
40
20 humans
20
0
20
humans
0
0
100 Australia 100
100
80 80
80
60
Percent
60
60
Percent
Percent
40 40
40
20
20 humans 20
humans
00 0
100,000 10,000 1,000 100
100,000 10,000 1,000 100
Years ago
100 Years ago
North America
80
60
Percent
40
well-assessed
species
threatened not threatened
BIRDS MAMMALS
13% 25%
AMPHI
Are we in 41% BIANS
the midst of threatened

poorly-assessed
species a sixth mass not threatened
extinction?
by Bill Marsh, New York Times

data based on species that have been
assessed by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
‘5 mass extinctions’
background
Magnitude
mass extinctions are defined as 75%
of known species extinctions
75%
extinct
Ordovician
Devonian
Permian
Triassic
Cretaceous
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent species extinct
Barnosky et al. 2011, Nature.

Extinction magnitudes have not yet
reached that of a sixth 75%
extinct
mass extinction
Ordovician
Devonian
Permian
Triassic
Cretaceous
Cycad
Amphibians
Reef-forming Corals
Sharks & Rays
Freshwater Crabs
Molluscs*
Conifers
Recently extinct Mammals
Reptiles*
Threatened species Fishes*
Birds
Lobsters
Mass extinctions
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent species endangered or extinct
Relatively low, steady extinction rates
can result in a mass extinction
If extinctions
all occurred
over 500 yrs

Extinction rates must be curbed to
avoid the Sixth Mass Extinction
Modern Past
extinctions extinctions
mass extinction!
Recently extinct
Endangered species
Threatened species
Mass extinctions

Evolution Extinction Human

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building complexity: evolution and extinction

building complexity: evolution and extinction

(1) the process of biological evolution

POLL: Which of the following is/are true

(1) genetic variability in inherited traits

POLL: Which statement(s) is/are true about

natural selection- differential survival and reproduction

artificial selection- the intentional reproduction of

• mutation- change in nucleotide

variation 3: sexual reproduction

microevolution- change of the frequency of

microevolution- change of the frequency

microevolution: antibiotic resistance

microevolution: antibiotic resistance

NOT COMPLETING A COURSE OF

microevolution: antibiotic resistance

microevolution: antibiotic resistance

microevolution: pesticide resistance

microevolution: viral evolution

microevolution: viral evolution

CHAT: Why do viruses evolve so quickly?

microevolution: viral evolution

macroevolution: recent radiations

macroevolution: recent radiations

The closest living

Modern birds are

macroevolution + time = biodiversity

(1) the process of biological evolution

• this is a crucial component of how Earth’s

- roughly 99.9% of all species to have every existed

impact explosion: equivalent to ~6 x 107 megatons of TNT (MT)

‘Tsar Bomba’ (October 30, 1961) – 50 MT

‘Little Boy’ (August 6, 1945) – 0.015 MT

‘Little Boy’ (August 6, 1945) – 0.015 MT

K/Pg impact released over 4 billion times the energy

- global nuclear arsenal – 17,300 warheads

• heat storm – ejecta spread globally, and heat up as

huge drop in temperatures and precipitation

most of Earth’s surface is desert for nearly 10 years after impact

many of the groups we take for granted in today’s

(1) biogeochemical cycles

(1) biogeochemical cycles

CO! + H! O → CH! O + O! photosynthesis

CH! O + O! → CO! + H! O respiration

- photosynthesis stores energy -

- the burning of fossil fuels essentially represents “planetary

CHAT: What predictions can you make about how

- this would eventually happen on its own, through the uplift

H2CO3 Carbonic acid!

- when CO2 released from fossil fuel consumption dissolves in the

human civilization has approximately doubled the

(1) biogeochemical cycles

“Humans are now an order of magnitude more important at

‘acid rock drainage’ – oxidation of minerals exposed

(1) biogeochemical cycles

- this would eventually happen on its own, through the uplift

Highest level in the last 2 million years

(1) biogeochemical cycles

- this is a crucial component of how Earth’s

- roughly 99.9% of all species to have every existed

(4) ecosystems and biodiversity

(4) ecosystems and biodiversity