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Planiranje Elektroenergetskog Sistema Bosne I Hercegovine U Novim Uslovima Power System Planning of Bosnia and Herzegovina Under New Conditions
Planiranje Elektroenergetskog Sistema Bosne I Hercegovine U Novim Uslovima Power System Planning of Bosnia and Herzegovina Under New Conditions
IZDAVA^ SADR@AJ/CONTENTS
Me|unarodna konferencija
CIGRÉ,Pariz
Izudin Kapetanoviæ
Bosanskohercegova~ki Vlado Mad`areviæ
komitet CIGRÉ Jasmin Smajiæ
Titova 48/IV, NUMERIÈKO RJEŠAVANJE
Tel.: 00 387 71 441-886, Nikola Rusanov HELMHOLTZOVE JEDNAÈINE
PLANIRANJE ELEKTROENERGETSKOG NA SISTEMU GENERATORSKIH
Fax: 00 387 71 441-887 SISTEMA BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE EKRANIZIRANIH SABIRNICA
E_mail: cigre@utic.net.ba U NOVIM USLOVIMA
APPLICATION OF NUMERICAL
Glavni urednik POWER SYSTEM PLANNING SOLUTION OF HELMHOTZ EQUATION
OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA TO THE SYSTEM OF SHIELD
Rusmir Mahmut}ehaji} 4 UNDER NEW CONDITIONS GENERATOR BUSBAR 50
Uredni{tvo Almir Imamovi} Ognjen Markovi}
Salih ^ar{imamovi} PREDVI\ANJA U SVJETSKOJ POTRO[NJI Kemo Sokolija
Rasim Ga~anovi} ELEKTRI^NE ENERGIJE SA OSVRTOM Amra Omeragi}
A}if Hadrovi} NA BOSNU I HERCEGOVINU
OSNOVNE KARAKTERISTIKE
Mevludin Had`imehmedagi} FORECASTING IN THE WORLD’S KOMPOZITNIH IZOLATORA
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION WITH I DOSADA[NJA ISKUSTVA
Mensur Hajro 9 REGARD TO BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA U EKSPLOATACIJI KOMPOZITNIH
Bajro Isakovi} IZOLATORA U PRENOSNOJ MRE@I
Mirsad Kapetanovi} Kemo Sokolija
JP ELEKTROPRIVREDA BOSNE
KOMPOZITNI IZOLATORI
Malik Kulender ZA NADZEMNE VODOVE
I HERCEGOVINE
Mensur La~evi} ZA[TO DA - ZA[TO NE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
Rusmir Mahmut}ehaji} OF COMPOSITE INSULATORS
COMPOSITE INSULATORS
AND PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES
[emsudin Ma{i} FOR OVERHEAD LINES
IN USE OF COMPOSITE INSULATORS
Zijo Pa{i} 13 SOME OF THE YES - SOME OF THE NO
IN THE TRANSMISSION NETWORK
Nikola Rusanov René Joulie OF ELECTROPRIVREDA OF
Kemo Sokolija Laurent Pargamin BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 58
Milivoje Tomi} Claude De Tourreil Rasim Ga~anovi}
Mustafa Vatrenjak SEDIVEROVI KOMPOZITNI IZOLATORI: Rusmir Mahmut}ehaji}
DIZAJN, POGONSKA ISKUSTVA PRIMJENA REKURZIVNE KONVOLUCIJE
Ninoslav Vidovi} I NOVI PROIZVODI U RA^UNANJU PRIJELAZNIH
Sekretar uredni{tva SEDIVER COMPOSITE INSULATORS ELEKTROMAGNETNIH POJAVA
Jasmina Jaki} DESIGN, SERVICE EXPERIENCE NA NADZEMNIM VODOVIMA
19 AND NEW PRODUCTS I PODZEMNIM KABELIMA
Lektor APPLICATION OF THE RECURSIVE
Thomas Johansson
Fadila Gu{o CONVOLUTION IN CALCULATION
Christopher Heaven
OF TRANSIENT ELECTROMEGNETIC
Lektor engleskog jezika OBJAŠNJENJA PERFORMANSI
PHENOMENA FOR OVERHEAD LINES
Colleen B. London ALTERNATIVNIH VRSTA IZOLATORA
AND UNDERGROUND CABLES 66
ZA PRIJENOSNE SISTEME
Tehni~ki urednik EXPLANATIONS TO THE PERFORMANCE Edina Dedovi}
i ra~unarska obrada OF ALTERNATIVE TYPES APROKSIMACIJA KRIVE TRAJANJA
27 OF TRANSMISSION INSULATOR OPTERE]ENJA POLINOMOM
Narcis Pozderac
PETOG STEPENA
Tira` 500 primjeraka Anke Schütz
AN APPROXIMATION OF THE LOAD
Peter Besold DURATION CURVE BY THE FIFTH
@iro-ra~un (KM): POUZDANOST I EKONOMSKE ORDER POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION 70
PREDNOSTI IZOLATORA
10100-678-41341 OD SILIKONSKE GUME Alija Muharemovi}
RELIABILITY AND ECONOMIC D`email Vlahovljak
@iro-ra~un (DEM): Irfan Turkovi}
ADVANTAGES OF SILICONE
10100-678-2041341 33 RUBBER INSULATORS Branko Djoki}
ASPEKTI RJE[AVANJA SISTEMA
^asopis Bosanskohercegova~ka Salih Sadovic
KATODNE ZA[TITE BU[OTINA NAFTE
elektrotehnika upisan je u evidenciju javnih PRIMJENA ODVODNIKA PRENAPONA
U USLOVIMA PUSTINJE
glasila u Federalnom Ministarstvu obrazo- U DIZAJNIRANJU KOMPAKTIRANIH
DALEKOVODA CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM
vanja, nauke, kulture i sporta Bosne i
ASPECTS FOR OIL BORING-HOLES
Hercegovine pod rednim brojem 599. USE OF LINE SURGE ARRESTERS
IN DESERT CONDITIONS 75
Mi{ljenjem Federalnog Ministarstva 39 IN COMPACT LINE DESIGN
obrazovanja, nauke, kulture i sporta Kemo Sokolija
Bosne i Hercegovine br. 08-75-4/97 Kemo Sokolija
POVODOM ODR@ANOG ZNANSTVENOG
od 24. 02. 1997. ~asopis Mirsad Kapetanovi} SKUPA ”INTERNATIONAL COLLOQIUM
Bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika O NEKIM BITNIM PITANJIMA VEZANIM ON MODERN INSULATOR
oslobo|en je pla}anja poreza ZA DIZAJN KOMPOZITNIH IZOLATORA TECHNOLOGIES - COMPOSITE
na promet proizvoda i usluga. ABOUT SOME IMPORTANT ITEMS OF INSULATORS:
ISSN 1515-5483 45 COMPOSITE INSULATORS DESIGN WHY YES - WHY NO” 80
4 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
Tabela I
z=Min[I(x)+O(x)+I(y)+D(x,y)+L(x,y)]
Max[T(x) - I(y)]
OECD 6292 6533 7581 7203 7977 8266 7657 8921 8863 8018 9781
SAD 2713 2757 3107 3042 3174 3286 3177 3400 3476 3303 3655
Kanada 431 432 528 484 573 559 494 631 604 516 701
Meksiko 111 118 140 128 152 164 144 186 185 158 216
Japan 744 792 946 846 1053 1186 1024 1364 1309 1100 1545
OECD Evropa 2113 2249 2641 2496 2793 2832 2598 3080 3027 2707 3373
UK 273 298 350 321 381 375 334 421 401 348 460
Francuska 327 360 423 399 447 453 415 494 484 432 540
Njema~ka 487 520 611 575 648 655 597 717 700 622 784
Italija 225 234 274 258 291 294 268 322 314 280 352
Nizozemska 73 77 90 85 95 97 89 105 103 92 115
Ostala OECD Evropa 729 761 893 861 927 958 900 1018 1024 936 1117
Australija i Novi Zeland 180 185 220 208 232 240 221 260 262 235 291
EE/FSU 1907 1815 1915 1833 2000 2020 1890 2157 2102 1914 2302
Biv{i Sovjetski Savez 1488 1437 1493 1439 1550 1573 1485 1666 1630 1499 1769
Isto~na Evropa 418 378 421 394 450 447 405 491 472 416 534
Ne-OECD Azija 1268 1492 2100 1880 2338 2511 2133 2935 2918 2370 3555
Kina 562 682 1130 1008 1262 1347 1143 1578 1593 1287 1952
Ostala ne-OECD Azija 706 810 971 872 1076 1163 990 1357 1324 1083 1602
Bliski Istok 196 186 237 218 257 269 237 303 293 249 342
Afrika 285 292 335 313 357 358 323 395 378 330 430
Centralna i Ju`na Amerika 444 479 625 579 674 689 611 773 742 634 861
Svijet 10391 10797 12792 12026 13603 14112 12850 15484 15296 13516 17271
Y
E
S
N Y
O E
S
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 15
Y Y
E E
S S
Y N
E O
S
16 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
N N
O O
N Y
O E
S
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 17
Y Y
E E
S S
IF THE ANSWER WERE "YES" IF THE ANSWER WERE "YES"
I would like to propose to discuss the following issues:
I would like to propose to discuss the following issues:
Material of fibre reinforced rod
Design items
y Epoxy resins or polyester resins
y Alternating sheds - Yes or No
y E glass or elecctrograde corrosion resistant
Y Y
y Underibs - Yes or No
(ECR) glass
y Minimum sheath thickness (3 mm)
y The distance between the lower end fitting and Material of end fittings
the lowest shed (40 - 50 mm) y fittings forged steel
y Avoiding molding lines running parallel to the y cast iron
electric field y other materials
y The design of the joint between housing and
end fittings; sealing problems
E
Material of hosing
y EPDM looses completely the hidrophobicity,
even under usual service conditions, but
successfully survived at the usual service
conditions?
y Influence of the filler content on hydrophobici-
E
S S
ty of
SiR – minimum content of siloxane in SIR
formulation in order to keep hydrophobi
city during the life time
18 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
ni~kog fakulteta u Zagrebu: Srebrena plakata ”Josip
Lon~ar”.
Od diplomiranja sve do danas radi na Univerzitetu u
Sarajevu - na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu i Saobra}aj-
nom fakultetu. U vi{e navrata boravio je na Politecnico
di Torino u svojstvu gostuju}eg profesora, kao i na
University of Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology (UMIST), gdje je imao svojstvo gostuju}eg
istra`iva~a, i gdje je uradio eksperimentalni dio svoje
doktorske disertacije.
Kemo Sokolija ro|en je 1948. godine u Sarajevu. Diplo- U`a podru~ja njegovog stru~nog i znanstvenog rada
mirao je 1972. na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu Univer- su elektri~na visokonaponska izolacija i CAD u oblasti
ziteta u Sarajevu, magistrirao 1977. i doktorirao 1988. visokonaponske tehnologije. Iz ovih oblasti objavio je
na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu Sveu~ili{ta u Zagrebu. vi{e od pedeset stru~nih i znanstvenih radova u nas i
za izradu uspje{ne i zna~ajne doktorske disertacije u svijetu. ^lan je IEEE i Me|unardone konferencije
dobio je 1998. godine visoko priznanje Elektroteh- CIGRÉ.
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 19
Fig. 5 : Visual aspect of various typical brittle fractures [7] Fig 6 : Typical ZnO surge arresters for distribution network
core. This would indicate that an external source of A well designed and manufactured elastomeric hous-
acid (acid rain) or electrical discharges are not a ing will prevent moisture from reaching the stack of
requirement for the brittle fracture to occur. ZnO blocks. It is bonded to both the filament wound
tube and the metal fittings.
The requirements to have a composite insulator
design that will ensure high reliability over the entire
service life are : 3.2 Dimensioning of the surge arrester
• the lowest possible number of interfaces; Composite housing ZnO arresters often replace older
• a perfect sealing to prevent moisture ingress; devices such as arcing horns or silicone carbide
• the lowest number of different dielectric materials arresters. The dimensioning of the modern ZnO
to ensure uniform electrical performance; arresters is therefore based on one of two methods.
• a weathershed formulation (silicone or EPDM) with
mineral fillers that can provide good long term elec- 3.2.1 Distribution networks with
trical and mechanical characteristics and provide
silicone carbide arresters
good resistance to surface discharges.
Silicone carbide arresters are designed with internal
gaps, which when stressed by an arc or when affect-
3. DISTRIBUTION ZnO SURGE ARRESTERS ed by aging tend to become short circuited. This leads
WITH COMPOSITE HOUSING to the destruction of the arrester and a fault on the line.
The advantages of the composite insulator technology The dimensioning of the ZnO arrester depends on the
are so numerous that it has been used for the manu- type of distribution network to be protected :
facture of ZnO surge arresters.
• network with grounded neutral or low impedance
neutral;
3.1 Surge arrester design • network with isolated neutral.
The technology developed for line composite insula- Usually, for grounded neutral or low impedance neu-
tors may be extended to the manufacture of compos- tral networks, the rated voltage level of a surge
ite housing surge arresters. A typical surge arrester arrester is:
with composite housing is made of :
• Urated = 0,8 phase to phase voltage of the net-
• a stack of zinc oxide (ZnO) blocks; work
• a filament-wound tube;
for isolated neutral networks it is :
• 2 metal end fittings;
• an elastomeric envelope. • Urated = 1.0 phase to phase voltage of the net-
work.
Such arresters are shown in Figure 6.
24 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
These levels ensure that the arrester will meet the tem- addition, a judicious adjustment of the series gap pre-
porary overvoltages generated by single phase faults. vents current flow during switching surges with ampli-
tudes well below the flashover level of the insulator
chain.
3.2.2 Distribution networks with arcing horns
In this case, a special ZnO arrester configuration will
improve the voltage quality at low additional cost 5. COMPOSITE HOLLOW INSULATORS
(material and installation cost). The ZnO arrester is Porcelain insulators are being replaced in increasing
mounted in series with the arcing horns [11]. Such an numbers by composite hollow insulators. These com-
arrangement is shown in Figure 7. posite insulators are used in :
• circuit breakers [17];
• cable terminations [18, 19];
• surge arresters housings;
• wall and transformer bushings;
• posts for disconnect switches and bus-bars;
• line post insulators.
Such composite hollow insulators are shown in Figure 8.
Sa`etak Background
Izolatori predstavljaju jedan od bitnih dijelova VN elek- Today information regarding practical operative expe-
trièkih sistema. Pribli`ne godišnje investicije za kupov- rience of different types of Insulators is available. Dur-
inu izolatora iznose milijardu i šestotinahiljada amer- ing recent years comparative evaluations of transmis-
ièkih dolara, od èega se polovica odnosi na izolatore sion line Insulators have been published [1, 2], mainly
za prijenosne sisteme. based on data initially published by CIGRE [3].
Dok je ovaj trošak samo mali dio ukupne cijene pri- The conclusion from these published evaluations,
jenosne linije, loše performanse izolatora jasno košta- based on a substantial volume of practical experience,
ju mnogo više kad je u pitanju sveukupni sistem. Zbog is very clear and shows that the performance of Porce-
toga je prijeko potrebno izabrati pravi tip izolatora. lain Long Rods is superior to Composite Long Rods
which is better than Glass Cap & Pins which in turn is
Danas su nam na raspolaganju informacije o pogon-
better than Porcelain Cap & Pins. This obvious techni-
skim iskustvima s razlièitim vrstama izolatora. U pos-
cal, higher reliability, and economical Insulator practi-
ljednjim godinama objavljene su usporedne procjene
cally eliminates maintenance and inspection as well as
(uglavnom bazirane na podacima što ih je objavila
the need for Insulator spare part stocks. With all of
CIGRE [1, 2]) ponašanja izolatora za prijenosne linije.
these advantages, sales volumes of Porcelain Long
Zakljuèci ovih procjena su veoma jasni i pokazuju da Rods do not match their obvious benefits.
su performanse dugih štapnih porculanskih izolatora
In this paper will we discuss the technical reasons
superiornije od onih što ih imaju kompozitni štapni izo- behind the differences in technical & economical
latori, koji su bolji od staklenih kapastih izolatora, a ovi behaviour.
opet bolji od kapastih porculanskih izolatora. Ovaj
oèigledno, tehnièki, ekonomski i u pogledu pouzda- There are principally two designs of Transmission
nosti bolji izolator praktièki eliminira potrebe za odr`a- Insulators, Cap & Pin and Long Rod, and three differ-
vanjem i pregledima, kao i za postojanjem skladišta ent types of materials, Porcelain, Glass and Polymer,
rezervnih dijelova. used today. Because of mechanical reasons polymers
can not be used for Cap & Pin and Glass for Long
Bez obzira na sve ove prednosti, kolièina prodatih du- Rods. This leaves us with principally four different
gih štapnih izolatora ne odgovara oèitim pogodnosti- types of Transmission Insulators used today i.e.:
ma što ih oni donose.
• Porcelain Long Rods;
U ovom radu razmotriæemo tehnièke razloge što stoje • Composite Long Rods (Polymer-Polymer-Glass
iza razlika u tehnièkom i ekonomskom ponašanju. fibre composite);
• Glass Cap & Pins;
Introduction • Porcelain Cap & Pins, see Fig 1.
The Cap & Pin is a sandwich construction built up by
Insulators are an essential part of High Voltage Electri-
thin Metal, Cement and Porcelain or Glass layers. The
cal systems. An approximate annual investment in
total amount of layers in a 500 kV string is 100-150,
these insulators is $1.6G, with half of this amount
and thereby is it a complicated system with large and
spent on transmission insulators. While this cost is a
numerous interface surfaces.
small fraction of the total spent on the transmission
line, bad performance of the insulators clearly costs a The Long Rod concept is an insulating part between
much higher amount to the total system. It is therefore two metallic end caps. The Porcelain Long Rod con-
imperative that the right type of insulator is chosen. sists of one monolithic porcelain piece between the
Razmatrano na International Colloquium on Insulator Technologies, Sarajevo, september 1998.
28 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
TRANSMISSION INSULATORS
MATERIAL LR C&P
PORCELAIN
METAL
CEMENT
GLASS
POLYMER
4/16/99 (TJ) ©
High weight
Low Quality CD
FIG: 2
ping, that is the most dangerous event both for the High weight
electrical supply and for people close to the line. The
Cap & Pin strings are the heaviest alternative.
common method for avoiding this type of problem is
the frequent, expensive and time consuming puncture
tests of the Cap & Pins. Because of the high failure fre- Low Quality CD
quency customers require a large and expensive, Cap
The quality of a Creepage Distance(CD) can be exact-
& Pin spare part stock.
ly calculated by new computer programs [4]. It is clear
that the big amount of "high diameter" CD and the cor-
Ionic Conducting Cement
responding low amount of "low diameter" CD results in
Because of the "sandwich design" of a Cap & Pin low performance quality of the CD on a Cap & Pin
string an electrical capacitance is inherent in the con- string. This in turn increases the electrical failure fre-
struction. This results in alternating currents in the quency of the string.
metal parts of the string, which builds up >75% of the
total string length. When the current passes the inter- High Maintenance Costs
face between electronic conducting metal and the ion
conducting cement an electrolytic process will take Because of all the problems indicated above
place. Such electrolytic processes are normally called
corrosion. The corrosion can be slowed down by Routine Tests at <50% of Design Strength!!
applying zinc but it is always a question of time before
such a construction breaks down. Unbelievable that such low routine test loads are
accepted.
One other problem from the electrical activity with the
cement in combination with the environment is a famil- In Fig. 3 is the Glass Cap & Pin and the problems are
iar problem known as "cement growth" resulting in identical as those with the Porcelain Cap & Pin except
expansion of the cement holding the caps & pins, that the failure frequencies of a glass disk is lower
resulting in line drops. compared with Porcelain disks. The Glass Cap & Pin
is also a:
Ionic Conducting
Cement
High weight
Low Quality CD
FIG: 3
Ageing
FIG: 4
• The end fittings. They are not normally sensitive to The laws of our universe tells us that all systems,
corrosion because of the "high" diameter, compared that are not at equilibrium, are moving towards a
with the pin in a Cap & Pin construction but the fix- more thermodynamically stable condition. What is
ing of the fittings to composite Long Rod is still a the end state of the parts of a Composite Insulator?:
very much discussed problem in publications [5]. • End fittings: => Fe2O3 + other metal oxides. This
• The polymeric material that is used as a surface destruction is normally much slower than the
coating. This layer normally consist of Silicones, a destruction of the other parts
porous solid part that stores liquid silicone oil in the • Silicone Polymers: => SiO2 +CO2 + H2O. The
pore system. Because of the bad mechanical prop- degradation of silicones is a clearly measurable
erties of silicone material is it only used for creating process and is influencing the properties within a
specific surface properties. limited time. The degradation is promoted by envi-
• The central fibre reinforced polymeric rod. This part ronmental factors such as H2O, HNO3, H2SO4, UV-
is normally built up by epoxy that is reinforced with radiation, Electrical field [6], plasma(corona). For
glass fibres. The function of this part is for mechan- over coming the problem with deteriorated surface
ical load. properties the solid part of the silicone polymer is
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 31
loaded with silicone oil in the pore system, but this thickness of the silicone coating, have also experi-
is only delaying the final surface collapse. The enced much higher frequencies of brittle fracture. Is
amount of silicone oil stored in the thin surface lay- this the right way to solve this problem? NO!
er is small and continuously consumed. The prod-
As can be seen above that the moisture, and also the
ucts formed when the oil is destroyed on the sur-
HNO3, blocking effect of silicone is lower than for any
face, mainly SiO2 and organic scrap, is also block-
other of the "normal" Polymeric materials used today.
ing further diffusion of fresh silicone oil. The result-
ing consequences is that a composite Insulator ini- It is still one of the big problems with the composite
tially has very attractive surface properties but they insulator concept and there is not, up to now, any safe
are deteriorating with time. The survival time of the solution presented.
surface properties is closely connected with the
environment. Published recommendations regard- High Vandalism Sensitivity
ing composite Insulators are: "-Very heavy pollu- Because of the weak mechanical properties of the sil-
tion: The use of non-ceramic Insulators seems icone coating in combination with the high sensitivity
questionable" [7]. of the central rod, the composite concept is very vul-
• Central glass fibre reinforced epoxy rod: =>CO2, nerable to vandalism. This is confirmed by practical
H2O, SiO2, Na+, K+, Ca2+, This is the most critical tests [9].
part in the composite Insulator concept because it is
handling all the mechanical stress on the Insulator.
• A glass fibre has extremely high strength directly Microbe & Animal Attractive
after it is produced but the mechanical properties Fungus and bacteria's living on composite insulator and
deteriorates quickly, within minutes, when exposed eating silicon oil has been reported [10]. Also, it is
to "normal" environment. The isolation of the glass known that birds like to use the silicone as a chewing-
fibres from the surrounding environment is only gum.
slowing down degradation to some extent because
the epoxy has some inherent H2O, produced by the
polymerisation process, that easily diffuse to the Routine Tests at <<50% of Design Strength!!
glass surface. Unbelievable that such low routine test loads are
• Epoxy is a material that is very sensitive to "normal" accepted.
environment. The degradation caused by moisture
and especially HNO3 develops quickly, especially The conclusion regarding composite insulators is that
in high electrical fields. the technology must develop much further before it
Also, ion movement at the interface surfaces can meet the demands of advanced applications,
between the glass and epoxy, parallel to the elec- especially regarding ageing and mechanical reliability.
trical field, is causing deterioration, especially in DC
applications. No Cement
Instead of cement a ductile Lead-Antimony alloy is
Very Vulnerable Rod, with Big Internal used which does not show any change, even after 20
Interface Surface, Protected by a Thin, years in operation. The avoidance of any ageing
Soft & Permeable "Skin"
One of the big problems with
the composite insulators are the Moister Blocking Effect of One mm Thick
brittle fractures that occur with
an unpredictable, but with time Layer of Silicone is equal to:
increasing, frequence [5, 8].
One reason for this problem is v 100 mm of air
believed to be the Nitric Acid
that is created by the electrical v 0.053 mm of Crude Rubber
field from the Ni-trogen, Oxygen
and moisture that is present in v 0.002 mm of LD Polyethylene
and around the Insulator 8.
Because of this brittle fracture v 276 nm of HD Polyethylene
problem, much work been
invested in technologies for v 6.8 nm of Polyclortrifuorethylene
protecting the epoxy rod. The
most common solution up to v 0.01 nm of Porcelain
now is to protect it with surface
silicone coating. Experience v 0.00001 nm of Aluminium
collected, indicates that pro-
– From Polymer Handbook
ducers who have tried to
4/16/99 (TJ) ©
reduce costs by decreasing the
32 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
cement increases the mechanical reliability dramati- other types than Transmission & Distribution Insulators
cally. when composite and porcelain concepts are com-
pared.
Small Amount of Metal Today is Porcelain Long Rods the most reliable and
Much lower weight than Cap & Pin. cost effective alternative as a Transmission Insulator in
comparison with Porcelain or Glass Cap & Pins or
Long Insulator Distance composite Long Rods. The simple reason for the
Porcelain Long Rods superior properties during long
No theoretical or practical risk for puncture. time, >50y, compared with alternative Transmission &
Distribution Insulators is a combination of a) initial con-
No Ion Conductor firmation of demanded properties by routine tests and
Most of the corrosion problems eliminated b) no significant ageing.
Not Ageing
References
None of the parts in the Porcelain Long Rod Concept,
[1] Tikhodeev. ETEP Vol. 6, No. 6, Nov/Dec 1996. p.
Corrosion protected caps - Lead-Antimony alloy - or
419-425
Porcelain, is ageing with a serious speed. Especially
[2] Johansson et al. Insulator News & Market Report
the Alumina Porcelain is close to equilibrium with its
Vol. 5, No. 2 Mar/Apr 1997. p. 44-47
surrounding and thereby is ageing impossible!
[3] CIGRÉ Session 1994, Panel 3-04, Study com. 22
Electra 78 pages 13-34
High Quality CD Electra 130 pages 69-77
The lack of metal, especially at the low diameter loca- Electra 147 pages 10-19
tions, makes the quality of the CD high and thereby is Electra 153 pages 23-31
the electrical performance improved. [4] Johansson et al. Proceedings from: International
Symposium on Modern Insulator Technologies.
Low Maintenance Costs Coral Gables, Florida, USA. November 16-19, 1997,p.
Close to zero! 191-194.
[5] Kumosa et al. Composite Science and Technolo-
Routine Test at 80 to 100% of Design Strength, includ- gy 57 (1997) p. 739-751
ing dynamic load!! [6] Blackmore et al. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics
This is the way it should be then a product with high and Electrical Insulation Vol 4 No 2, April 1997, p.
reliability demands are produced. 210-217
[7] Petrusch et al. ETEP vol. 6, No. 6, Nov/Dec 1996,
p. 433-440
Conclusions [8] Interview with M. Kumosa, Insulator News & Mar-
The big difference in performance experience among ket Report, Jul/Aug 1997 p. 46-51
different types of Transmission Insulators can be [9] Burnham et al, IEEE Transactions on Power
explained by well known technical factors such as Delivery, Vol 12, No 4, Oct 1997, p. 1651-1656
cement promoted corrosion, dielectric strength or [10] Hetherington. Proceedings from: International
instability of and penetrability through polymeric mate- Symposium on Modern Insulator Tech-nologies.
rials. It is also clear that the same type of technical fac- Coral Gables, Florida, USA. November 16-19, 1997,p.
tors, that has been discussed above, is also valid for 243-266.
No Ion Conductor
Not Ageing
High Quality CD
or by gun shot or water may enter the area between Fig. 2: Test arrangement for corrosion test
housing, end fitting and FRP rod. This area is very sen- on FRP rods
sitive to moisture ingress since it is highly mechani-
cally stressed. Thus, it is very important to seal this
area very carefully. When choosing the sealing 2.2 Housing material
method it must be taken into account that there are
In the world-wide development of composite insulators
three materials with different thermal extension coeffi-
a lot of housing materials were tested, such as epoxy
cients connected to each other in this area. Therefore,
resin, PTFE, PUR, ethylene propylene rubber (EPR)
this inter-face is stressed not only by mechanical load
and sili-cone rubber (SIR). However, it turned out quite
but also by temperature changes. Thus, the sealing
soon that for mechanical reasons the housing must be
material must be able to adjust itself to any alteration
rubber-like. Today, for high voltage applications only
in this area. A meta-stable silicone acting like a sticky
SIR is used, since it has proven its outstanding suit-
fluid with very high viscosity has been proven suc-
ability for outdoor applications for more than 30 years
cessful in service since 1982 (see Fig. 1).
even under severe environmental conditions.
Another problem caused by moisture attack to the FRP
The advantages of silicone rubber are: flexibility even at
rod is brittle fracture. Brittle fracture is a mechanical fail-
low temperature, high mechanical strength, resistance
ure of the FRP rod, which leads to catastrophic break-
to weathering, e. g. to ozone, UV radiation and heat.
age under very low loads of the rod and may even
Due to the property of hydrophobicity, silicone rubber is
cause line drops. It already occurred in the sixties.
superior to any other polymeric material. SIR is the only
Some brittle fractures that occurred recently show that
housing material able to transfer its water-repellent
this problem still exists [1]. The basic mechanism of
property to a pollution layer on the surface. Therefore,
brittle fracture is stress corrosion caused by acid
leakage currents are suppressed and the risk of
attacks to glass fibres, which are simultaneously
flashover is reduced. Moreover, composite insulators
stressed by tensile load. Acids may already be in the
with silicone rubber housing do not require cleaning.
atmosphere or may be generated when moisture, for
example rain, is exposed to electrical discharges [1, 2]. However, the term silicone elastomere or silicone rub-
Such acidic moisture can penetrate into the glass fibre ber comprises a large family of synthetic rubbers
core and attack the fibres. The weakened glass fibres which may have different properties depending on
cannot longer stand the mechanical load and break chemical composi-tion, vulcanization process, filler
even under low loads. This process expands through- material, filler content and additives.
out the FRP rod until the remaining sound fibres are no
longer able to bear the load and the rod breaks. This Influence of filler
failure mode is a very rare event, however, it affected
The mechanical strength of unfilled silicone rubbers is
composite insulators of nearly all manufacturers.
very poor because forces between molecular chains
In order to avoid brittle fracture, chemical resistant E- are very low. On the other hand, the low intermolecu-
glass fibres (ECR) must be used (see Fig. 1). ECR is lar forces are the reason for high elasticity of SIR inde-
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 35
pendent of temperature. To increase tensile strength ever, the amount of LMW silicones influences the
and tear resis-tance rubbers are usually filled with sili- speed of hydrophobicity transfer. In addition, it has not
cic acid. In order to improve tracking and erosion yet been found out for sure, whether these LMW com-
resistance, inorganic fillers are added in significant ponents are used up or whether new LMW silicones
quantities. The filler con-tent may amount to a total of are generated in the bulk. In both cases a larger
70 to 80 % by weight. amount of siloxane in the formulation grants longer life
of the hydrophobicity transfer. In conclusion it can be
Alumina trihydrate (ATH) is the most common inor-
stated that increasing the filler content results in wors-
ganic filler. There are a lot of investigations using salt
ening the hydrophobicity transfer.
fog tests showing that an increase in the filler content
improves tracking and erosion (T&E) resistance (Fig. Concerning the amount of filler there are two opposing
3). It was also found that there seems to exist a certain statements:
saturation level. Above this level no further improve-
• in order to improve tracking and erosion resistance
ment can be achieved. A further increase in the filler
the filler content has to be increased;
content may even lead to a reverse effect on the T&E
• in order to improve hydrophobicity performance
resistance. This saturation or optimum level may
the amount of filler has to be reduced.
depend on the silicone rubber formu-lation, since it is
also possible to improve tracking and erosion resis- It is often stated that the latter is more important to ser-
tance by means of additives. Fig. 3 shows that the vice performance of composite insulators. This is due
quality of alumina trihydrate is of importance, too. to the fact that on hydrophobic insulator surfaces leak-
age currents are suppressed and tracking and erosion
Lower costs are another advantage of high filler con-
will not occur.
tents. Siloxane itself is very expensive while fillers,
Optimizing the formulation in such a way that both
requirements are fulfilled is part of both the insulator
manufacturer's and the silicone manufacturer's know-
how. However, quite often the amount of filler is
increased only for the purpose of reducing costs.
RODURFLEX® insulators with HTV housing have
been in service for more than 18 years now. Most of
the RO-DURFLEX® insulators of the first generation
with RTV housing are still in service, too, some of them
for about 30 years. Frequent analyses of these old
insulators showed that the hydrophobicity transfer is
still working [6].
5. ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES
4. TESTING PROCEDURES
Economic justification is mainly given by reduced
main-tenance costs since silicone insulators do not
require washing. In addition, the costs associated with
line fail-ures or replacement of broken insulators may
be reduced. In case of composite insulators with sili-
cone housing leak-age currents and thus line losses
are decreased. By using composite insulators it is
possible to cut down the con-struction costs of a line
due to their short section length and light weight.
Depending on electrical and mechanical characteris-
tics, composite insulators may even be lower in price
than conventional ones.
To judge the economic performance of insulators both
acquisition costs and life cycle costs must be consid-
ered. Life cycle costs include expenses for acquisition,
storage, transportation, installation and maintenance,
such as washing, etc..
Fig. 4: Number of registered Flashover (FPL [10])
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 37
The Israel Electric Corp. Ltd. did such a calculation for
their 22 kV lines [12]. They calculated life cycle costs
for ceramic insulators and for composite insulators
with sili-cone housing. EPDM insulators were not
included as there was no reduction of maintenance
costs expected since such insulators require washing.
The calculation was done for a life period of 30 years.
It was assumed that acquisi-tion costs of silicone insu-
lators were about 70% higher than those of ceramic
ones. Based upon their service experience they esti-
mated one washing cycle per year in case of ceramic
insulators. The result was that even in case the sili-
cone insulators might also need washing every five
years, the life cycle cost savings were about 41%
compared to ceramic insulators. If no washing of sili- Fig. 5: Comparison of annual Life Cycle Costs
cone insulators was required the savings would have
been about 50%. It was further stated that in case of
high voltage lines silicone insulators are even more Concerning line losses, Florida Light and Power per-
advantageous compared to ceramic ones because of formed leakage current measurements on polymer
the lower maintenance costs and shorter and lighter and ceramic insulators of a 500 kV line. It was found
strings. Additional savings are expected due to the that in case of high humidity the power loss of poly-
vandalism resistance of composite insulators, their meric insulators was much lower than that of the
lower radio and TV interference and the possibility of ceramic ones. The calculated value of the power loss
building compact lines. savings was about 10% of the 500 kV polymeric insu-
Other examples for cutting down costs and improving lator´s purchase price [10].
line performance by applying silicone insulators are
given by M/s. Powerlink Queensland [13]. They 6. CONCLUSION
installed composite insulators in their lines up to 275 • State-of-the-art composite insulator design com-
kV. Maintenance con-siderations were the primary rea- prises a FRP rod made from chemical resistant
son for selecting silicone rubber insulators, especially glass fibres (ECR) and epoxy resin and a silicone
in case of lines where access was very difficult. Anoth- rubber housing chemically bonded to the FRP rod
er important fact was the possibility of building more • Composite insulators with silicone rubber housing
compact lines than in case of ceramic insulators. This have proven their outstanding performance in ser-
is not only a visual but even a cost effective advan- vice for more than 30 years. Pollution flashovers
tage. For example: a compact narrow based tower are reduced. Still, one concern in case of insulators
with horizontal V-insulated composite cross-arms for a made from standard E-glass fibres is the mechani-
275 kV DC line had a profile similar to an adjacent 110 cal failure mode of brittle fracture whereas in case
kV structure. The overall tower weight of the compact of FRP rods with ECR-glass fibres brittle fracture
tower was 27 per cent less than that of the con-ven- cannot occur.
tional tower. The costs for the right of way were • Not all silicone rubbers perform alike. There are
reduced. A shorter crossarm could be used. Silicone various material formulations with different proper-
composite insulators were installed in a line that ties. It is the manufacturer's know-how to develop
passed near a cement factory. They provided mainte- the best silicone composition. Performance can be
nance free pollution performance. proven only by long-term service.
Furthermore, M/s Powerlink conducted a cost com- • World-wide service experience with silicone rubber
parison for two lines where they experienced pollution insulators is excellent. Especiall, under heavy pol-
problems. In these lines they tested different coatings lution conditions silicone insulators outperform any
as well as composite insulators of different brands with other type of insulator by far.
EPDM and silicone housing. After 3 years of service, • So far there have no laboratory tests been known
the performance of all EPDM insulators was consid- to judge performance in service or life expectancy.
ered to be poor. Some of the silicone insulators suf- Suitability of composite insulator design and mate-
fered degradation, however, two types of silicone insu- rials can be proven by long-term service experi-
lators maintained excellent per-formance with regard ence only.
to hydrophobicity and leakage current. It was • Composite insulators offer economic advantages
assumed that these silicone insulators would perform such as low cost compact lines, low transportation
more years of satisfactory service. A com-parison of and installation costs and drastically reduced main-
life cycle costs (LCC) for ceramic discs (incl. washing), tenance costs.
silicone coated ceramic discs and silicone rubber • Due to their superior performance under any ser-
insulators was carried out (Fig. 5). The annual life vice conditions and their technical and economic
cycle costs for a coated ceramic disc are about 60 - 67 advantages composite insulators with silicone rub-
% , the LCC for a silicone insulator are only 30 - 34% ber housing will represent the absolute future insu-
refer-ring to the LCC for a ceramic disc string. lation material.
38 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
8. LITERATURE [8] C.N. Ravera, P.J. Olivier, et. al.; Silicone rubber
insulators on ESKOM's AC transmission lines; AC
[1] Kumosa, M.; Research of Brittle Fracture in Com-
and DC Power Transm., Conf. Publ. No. 423, IEE 1996
posite Insulators, Interview given to Insulator News &
Market Report, July/August 1997 [9] Muñoz, J.M.; Spanish Utility moves to composite
[2] Dietz, H. et al.; Latest Developments and experi- insulators to reduce contamination related faults
ence with composite longrod insulators, Cigré 1986 on 400 kV lines; Interview in Insulator News & Market
Session, Paper 15-09 Report, Nov./Dez. 1997
[3] CIGRE WG 22-03, Guide for the identification of [10] Burnham, J.; Using transmission polymer insu-
brittle fracture of composite insulator FRP rod, lators to reduce costs and increase reliability; Inter-
ELECTRA No. 143, August 1992, pages 61 - 65 national Symp. on Modern Insulator Techno-logies,
[4] Kunde, K.; Hennings, R.; et.al.; New experiences Florida, Nov. 1997
with composite insulators; to be published Cigré
[11] Gorur, R.S.; Bernstein, et.al; Evaluation of poly-
meeting 1998, Paris
meric materials for HV outdoor insulation, Cigre
[5] Presented by R.S. Gorur on Composite Insulator Meeting, Paper 15-107, Paris 1994
Symp., Miami , Nov. 1997
[6] Kuhl, M.; Report on properties of SIR composite [12] Munteanu, R.; Silicone rubber insulators reduce
insulators after long-term exposure in service, IEEE life cycle costs; Transmission and Distribution, No. 1
Stockholm Power Tech Conf, Paper SPT IS 12-4, June 1994
1995 [13] Pokarier, B.; Experience and Applications with
[7] Munteanu, R.; Silicone insulator use on the rise Non-ceramic Insulators at Powerlink Queensland,
worldwide; Transmission and Distribution, May 1996 Insulator News & Market Report, July/August 1996
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 39
Table 1
Results of the electrogeometric simulations
Standard Compact
WE (m) 147,4 96,3
N L (str/100 km/y) 41,3 26,9
IM (kA) 31,9 30,3
Figure 6 - Standard and Compact double circuit Figure 8 - Shielded single and double circuit compact lines
line designs
Figure 7 - Comparison of double circuit flashover rates for Figure 9 - Single circuit shielded compact line: Lightning
standard and compact double circuit lines performance for line without and with line surge arresters
circuit flashover rate than the standard configuration all simulations. The ratio between soil resistivity and
double circuit line. tower low current footing resistance is equal to 30.
Polymer housed line surge arresters, which are with-
4. SHIELDED COMPACT LINES out series external gaps have MCOV equal to 84 kV.
For single circuit line arresters are installed on the bot-
Lightning performance of single and double 123 kV tom conductor, each tower, while for the double circuit
shielded compact lines without and with line surge line the configuration with three arresters, each tower
arresters are compared. Both lines have composite
(two bottom and one upper conductor) is used.
line post insulators, which are installed on the steel
poles (Figure 8). Single circuit line has one shield wire, Results of the simulations for the single circuit com-
while for the double circuit line two ground wires are pact line are presented in Figure 9. Installation of line
used. Line insulation critical flashover voltage is 590 surge arrester at the bottom conductor only, substan-
kV, ground flash density is 2,8 strokes/km2/y, line span tially improves line lightning performance. This con-
175 m and tower surge impedance of 200 Ω is used in ductor has a poor coupling factor with a ground wire.
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 43
Figure 10 - Double circuit shielded compact line Figure 11- Double circuit shielded compact line
Total line lightning performance for line without and with line Double circuit flashover rate for line without
surge arresters and with line surge arresters
Line surge arresters installed eliminate completely pact lines can be substantially improved by the use
back flashovers on this conductor. If line lightning per- of these devices.
formances of this line without line arresters are com- 4. Line surge arresters without external series gaps
pared with that of standard design line without can help in the control of phase to ground and
arresters (Figure 3), we see that compact line has a phase to phase switching overvoltages, which is
better performance. This comes from the fact that extremely important for compact line designs.
compact line has lower towers and that coupling 5. Software packages sigma spx and sigma slp
between conductors is better for the compact line. enable very easy, fast, accurate and user friendly
insulation coordination in HV substation and deter-
Comparison of lightning performance for double cir-
mination of transmission line lightning perfor-
cuit shielded compact line is given in Figures 10 and
mance. Thanks to the object oriented program-
11. Figure 10 gives line total flashover rate, while in
ming, Windows environment, computer graphic
Figure 11 double circuit flashovers are compared. We
and database management these software tools
see that this installation configuration of line surge
give us the possibility to perform a very complex
arresters also substantially improves total and double
insulation co-ordination studies in very short times.
circuit flashover rate. Arresters on the bottom conduc-
tors, eliminating back flashovers on these conductors
with a poor coupling improve total flashover rate, while 6. ANNEX
additional arrester on the upper conductor of one cir-
cuit improves double circuit flashover rate. Conductor position on the towers for 123 kV single
shielded line are given in Table A.1. Table A.2 gives
conductor data for double circuit shielded line.
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. Thanks to the recent development of composite
line post insulators, compact line designs become
a very realistic alternative to the standard line
designs. Line voltage upgrading of the existing Table A.1
lines will also benefit from the composite line post Conductor position for 123 kV single circuit
insulators. shielded line
2. Application of polymer housed line surge arresters
has increased over the last decade. These devices Cond. x (m) y (m) r (mm)
are mainly used for the improvement of line light- 1 2,6 21 11
ning performance and for the reduction of double
circuit outages. 2 -3,1 18,5 11
3. The use of line surge arresters in compact line
design insulation coordination becomes a very 3 3,6 16 11
important task. Line lightning performance of com-
4 0 25,7 4,5
44 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
ment of Metal-oxide Line Surge Arrester and it's
Table A.2 Efficiency, CIGRÉ Session 1994, paper 33-201
Conductor position for 123 kV double circuit
[4] T. E. McDermott, T. A. Short, J. G. Anderson, Light-
shielded line
ning Protection of Distribution Lines, IEEE Transac-
Cond. x (m) y (m) r (mm) tions on Power Delivery, vol. 9, no. 1, January 1994,
pp. 138 - 152
1 -2,6 21 11
[5] S. Sadovic, R. Joulie, S. Tartier, Transmission
2 -3,1 18,5 11 Lines Lightning Performance Improvement by the
Installation of Line Surge Arresters, Ninth Interna-
3 -3,6 16 11 tional Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Graz
Austria 1995, paper 6731
4 2,6 21 11
[6] S. Sadovic, R. Joulie, S. Tartier, E. Brocard Use of
5 3,1 18,5 11 Line Surge Arresters for the Improvement of the
Lightning Performance of 63 kV and 90 kV Shield-
6 3,6 16 11 ed and Unshielded Transmission Lines, IEEE Trans-
7 0 25,7 4,5 actions on Power Delivery, vol. 12, no. 3, July 1997,
pp. 1232 - 1240
[7] M. Kawai, H. Azuma, Design and Performance of
Unbalanced Insulation in Double Circuit Transmis-
sion Lines, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. 84, no. 9, September 1965, pp. 839 - 846
7. REFERENCES
[8] M. A. Sargent, M. Darveniza, The Calculation of
[1] R. E. Koch, J. A. Timoshenko, J. G. Anderson, C. H. Double Circuit Outage Rate of Transmission Lines,
Shih, Design of Zinc Oxide Transmission Line IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Arresters for Application on 138 kV Towers, IEEE vol. 86, no. 6, June 1967, pp. 665 - 678
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol.
[9] E. Brocard, S. Tartier, Simulation and Optimization
104, no. 10, October 1985, pp. 2675 - 2680
of the Lightning Protection of Overhead Lines,
[2] C. H. Shih, R. M. Hayes, D. K. Nichols, R. E. Koch, CIGRÉ International Workshop on Line Surge Arresters
J. A. Timoshenko, J. G. Anderson, Application of and Lightning, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, April 24 - 26 1996
Special Arresters on 138 kV Lines of Appalachian
[10] S. Sadovic, R. Joulie, S. Tartier, E. Brocard Line
Power Company, IEEE Transactions on Power Appa-
Surge Arresters and Unbalanced Insulation in the
ratus and Systems, vol. 104, no. 10, October 1985, pp.
Reduction of Double Circuit Outages on a 225 kV
2857 - 2863
Transmission Line, X International Symposium on
[3] T. Kawamura, M. Nagano, M. Ichihara, K. Ishikawa, High Voltage Engineering, August 25-29, 1997, Mon-
S. Mizoguchi, T. Imakoma, T. Shimomura, Develop- tréal, Kanada
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 45
1.2
2.3 Position of the lowest shed
1
A concentration of electrical field and divergence at
0.8
Etanmax
Numerical calculation of electromagnetic field in the Zbog svega nabrojanog, pokazala se potreba za teh-
system of conductor shields, as a base for currant den- nolo{kim rje{enjima koja }e eliminisati ili bar ubla`iti
sity and power loss calculation, was the main problem ove pojave. Logi~an put za smanjenje efekta blizine i
the designer of these system to be confronted. elektrodinami~kih sila bio bi pove}anje udaljenosti iz-
me|u provodnika. Me|utim, zbog izuzetno velike ja~i-
With the aim to develop a fast, efficient and, at the ne polja, udaljenosti koje elimini{u medjusobni uticaj
same time sufficiently accurate software pacage for provodnika su neprihvatljivo velike uslijed ograni~e-
electromagnetic parametars of shielded conductors nosti dimenzija samog postrojenja.
calculation, this paper discuss the methods of numer-
ical field in such systems. Ideja za rje{enje ovog problema sastoji se u upotrebi
elektromagnetnih zaklona, tzv. elektromagnetnih ekra-
na, koji uz dodatne gubitke elimini{u ili umanjuju me-
1. UVOD
|usobni uticaj provodnika. Uvo|enjem ekrana i njiho-
Dana{nja tendencija u proizvodnji generatora, koja ide vim pravilnim dimenzionisanjem, uticaji efekta blizine i
u pravcu proizvodnje ma{ina izuzetno velikih snaga po elektromagnetnih sila se mogu gotovo potpuno elimini-
jedinici zapremine, diktira da se i u drugim oblastima sati, ili svesti na dopu{tenu mjeru uz prihvatljiv iznos
elektrotehnike, koje se bave proizvodnjom prate}ih dodatnih gubitaka u ekranima.
postrojenja i uredjaja, pronalaze nova rje{enja i novi
Na sljede}im slikama su principijelno prikazani neki od
postupci projektovanja. Element postrojenja elektrane
ekraniziranih provodnika (koji se susre}u u praksi) i pu-
koji se ovdje analizira jeste sistem provodnika koji os-
tevi zatvaranja induciranih vrtlo`nih struja .
tvaruje vezu izmedju generatora i blok transformatora.
Prilikom projektovanja i izrade generatorskih sabirnica
javlja se niz problema koji uslovljavaju primjenu ne{to
druga~ijih postupaka i rje{enja u odnosu na klasi~ne
provodnike. Konstrukcija generatorskih sabirnica je
ote`ana iz sljede}ih razloga:
• zbog konstruktivno ograni~enog naponskog nivoa
samog generatora, struje koje teku ovim provodni- Slika 1. Provodnik sa neprekidnim kratkospojenim ekranima
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 51
Za svaki od provodnika i ekrana mo`e se postaviti slje-
de}i rubni problem:
Odrediti elektromagnetno polje u oblasti:
G = {( r ,ϕ ) a 1 ≤ r ≤ a 2 , 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2 π }
(1)
Slika 2. Provodnik sa sekcioniranim ekranima
u kojoj to polje zadovoljava jedna~inu:
r r
∆ H − jωµσ ⋅ H = 0 (2)
i rubne uslove:
r r
Slika 3. Ekranizirani provodnik sa strujno ograni~avaju}im H 1 = H ( r = R u ,ϕ )
reaktorima (3)
r r
2. PRORA^UN ELEKTROMAGNETSKOG H 2 = H ( r = R v ,ϕ )
(4)
POLJA SISTEMA EKRANIZIRANIH
PROVODNIKA
gdje su: Ru i Rv unutra{nji i vanjski polupre~nik provod-
Sistem u kojem je potrebno izra~unati elektromagnet- nika.
sko polje prikazan je na slici 4.
Na osnovu rje{enja Dirichletovog problema,tj. na os-
novu polja koje sada poznajemo, u mogu}nosti smo
A B C
da odredimo i gustinu struje u svakoj ta~ki na osnovu
Maxwellove jedna~ine za rotor magnetskog polja:
r r 1 ∂ r
J = rot H = ( Hϕ ⋅ r ) ⋅ 1z
r ∂r (5)
D D
Z=Z(r,ϕ)
a2
a1 koja zadovoljava jedna~inu:
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Z ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Z ⎞
⎜r ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ − jk 2 Z = 0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂ϕ ⎜⎝ ∂ϕ ⎟⎠ (6)
G = {( r ,ϕ ) a 1 ≤ r ≤ a 2 , 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2 π }
i uslov periodi~nosti:
∂Z
= £ Z , Z = Z ( r , ϕ ,t )
∂t (11)
Slika 6. Diskretizacija oblasti prora~una
u cilindru :
Uvodi se takodje i podjela po vremenu ”t” na segmen-
Q = G ⋅ Θ; Θ = { t 0 ≤ t ≤ T } tu: 0≤t≤T, koji se dijeli na odredjeni broj jednakih dije-
lova:
pri ~emu je zadovoljen po~etni uslov:
T
Z(r,ϕ,0)=Z0(r,ϕ) (12) t n = nτ ; τ = , n = 1,...,N 3
N3 (20)
grani~ni uslovi:
Svaki od intervala ovako definisane podjele se, zbog
lokalne jednoargumentacije dodatno dijeli na odred-
Z r =a 2 = Ψ 1 ( ϕ ) = U 1 + jV 1
(13) jen broj podintervala podjelom:
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 53
Po{to ove jedna~ine rje{avamo numeri~ki, to moramo n={0, 1, 2, ..., N3} (32)
sve DIFERENCIJALNE operatore aproksimirati DIFE-
RENCNIM {to dajemo u sljede}em prikazu: dalje zadovoljava rubne uslove:
( y mλ +a − y mλ ) − ( y mλ − y mλ −1 )
L 1Z : Λ 1Z = r = a 1 ⇒ y 0 λ = U 1 + jV 1 (33)
r m2 l 2 (24)
r = a 2 ⇒ y N 2 λ = U 2 + jV 2
1 (34)
L 2 Z :Λ 2 Z = ⋅
rm ∆ m
uslov periodi~nosti po perimetru:
⎡ y m +1λ − y mλ y mλ − y m −1λ ⎤
⋅ ⎢r 1 ⋅ −r 1 ⋅ ⎥−
⎢ m+ ∆m m− ∆m ⎥ 1 1
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ n+ n+
− jq 1 y mλ y mo = 2 y mN2
(25) 1 (35)
54 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
i po~etni uslov: s +1 s +1 s
⎛ n+ 1 ⎞ ⎛ n+ 1 ⎞ ⎛ n+ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ y mλ
2
⎟ = α λ ⎜ y mλ2−1 ⎟ + β λ ⎜ y mλ2+1 ⎟ +γλ
0
= Z 0 ( r m ,ϕ λ ,0 ) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
ym λ (36) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(42)
gdje su svi operatori ve} prethodno definisani.
gdje je ”s” broj iteracije. Koeficijenti u jedna~ini (39)
Na osnovu gore definisanog numeri~kog problema vi- prora~unavaju se na svih ”s” iteracija jedan put i pre-
dimo da }e za rje{avanje na{eg problema biti potreb- ra~unavaju se na sljede}em nivou po vremenu. Uslovi
no rije{iti kompleksni sistem linernih jedna~ina sa veli- okon~anja iteracija imaju oblik:
kim brojem kompleksnih nepoznatih, za {to nam stoji
na raspolaganju nekoliko standardnih metoda nume-
ri~ke analize. Mo`emo, dakle, primijeniti neki od itera- y λs +max
1
− y λmax
max
≤ ε , ε = 10 −4
tivnih metoda, kao {to je na primjer Gaus-Seidel. (43)
Medjutim, kao {to se lako da zaklju~iti, na{ sistem jed- 2. Formula za rje{enje drugog problema:
na~ina }e biti tridijagonalan pa je ekonomi~nije primi-
jeniti neki od metoda namijenjenih za ovakve sisteme. 1
n+
U ovakvim prilikama obi~no pribjegavamo izvo|enju n +1
ym λ
− y mλ2 1
takozvanih rekurentnih formula pomo}u kojih vr{imo = ⋅
prora~un. τ n +1 rm ∆ m
Na osnovu prethodno definisanog numeri~kog proble- ⎡ y m +1λ − y mλ y mλ − y m −1λ ⎤
ma vidimo da se polazni problem dijeli na dva medju- ⋅ ⎢r 1 ⋅ −r 1 ⋅ ⎥−
⎢ m + ∆ m − ∆m ⎥
sobno neovisna problema koji se i rje{avaju odvojeno ⎣ 2 m 2 ⎦
jedan od drugog. − jq 1 y mλ (44)
1. Formula za rje{enje prvog problema izgleda ovako:
sa ve} prije navedenim grani~nim uslovima.
n+
1 Jedna~inu (44) svodimo na oblik pogodan za METOD
n
y mλ − y m
2
λ ( y mλ +1 − y mλ ) − ( y mλ − y mλ −1 ) REKURENTNIH FORMULA. To smo u mogu}nosti jer je
= matrica sistema tridijagonalna. Taj oblik izgleda ovako:
τ n +1 r m2 l 2 (37)
n +1
y m λ = α m +1 y m +1λ
+ β m +1
pri promjenjivoj t: (45)
6000
150
1 30
4000
2
2000
3
180 0
210 330
y λs +max
1
− y λmax
max
≤ ε , ε = 10 −4
240 300
270
1 - faza A
2 - faza B
3 - faza C
6. LITERATURA
240 300 [1] Z. Haznadar, @. [tih, Elektromagnetizam 1 i 2,
[kolska knjiga Zzgreb, 1997.
270
1 - vanjski obim [2] B. Popovi}, Elektromagnetika, Gra|evinska knjiga
2 - srednja linija Beograd, 1990.
3 - unutarnji obim
[3] P. Hammond, J. K. Sykulski, Engineering Electro-
Slika 9. Polarni dijagram intenziteta magnetskog polja po
obimu vanjskog provodnika magnetism, Physical Processes and Computation,
Oxford Science Publications, Oxford, 1995.
180 0
3 2
210 330
240 300
270 Izudin Kapetanovi} ro|en je 1. septembra 1953. godi-
1 - vanjski obim ne u Tuzli. Diplomirao je 1976. godine, a magistrirao
2 - srednja linija 1985. godine na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu Univerzi-
3 - unutarnji obim
teta u Sarajevu. U toku 1985/86 godine obavio je do-
Slika 10. Polarni dijagram intenziteta magnetskog polja po datni postdiplomski studij na Technische Hochschule
obimu srednjeg provodnika
Ilmenau (Njema~ka). U ovom periodu aktivno se bavi
nau~nim radom u oblasti numeri~kog prora~una elek-
Ovakva ta~nost je dovoljna za ve}inu in`enjerskih pro- tromagnetnih i temperaturnih 3-d polja, metodom ko-
ra~una u praksi. Potrebno je napomenuti da prezento- na~nih elemenata. U ovoj oblasti je i doktorirao 1988.
vani algoritam dozvoljava i ve}e ta~nosti, ali sa ve}im godine. Na Fakultetu elektrotehnike i ma{instva Uni-
stepenom diskretizacije oblasti prora~una, {to pove- verziteta u Tuzli pro{ao je sva znanja od asistenta do
}ava vrijeme trajanja prora~una. redovnog profesora. Do sada je objavio preko 60
nau~nih i stru~nih radova. Objavio je i nekoliko knjiga
iz oblasti elektrotehnike.
5. ZAKLJU^AK
U periodu od 1986. do 1988. godine obavljao je du-
Prora~un magnetskog polja u unutra{njosti svakog od `nost prodekana, a od 1988. do 1998. godine du`nost
provodnika i ekrana predstavlja osnovu za sljede}e dekana Fakulteta elektrotehnike i ma{instva Univerzi-
prora~une i analize: teta u Tuzli.
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 57
Danas je u zvanju redovnog profesora na Fakulteta Doktorsku disertaciju odbranio je 1998. godine na Fa-
elektrotehnike i ma{instva Univerziteta u Tuzli i Fakulte- kultetu elektrotehnike i ma{instva u Tuzli.
ta za saobra}aj i komunikacije Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Danas je u zvanju docenta na Fakultetu elektrotehnike
i ma{instva u Tuzli.
Vlado Mad`arevi} ro|en je u Tuzli 09. 09. 1953. godi- Jasmin Smaji} ro|en je 23. 08. 1971. godine u Tuzli,
ne. Osnovno i srednje obrazovanje zavr{io je u Tuzli. gdje je zavr{io osnovnu i srednju elektrotehni~ku
Godine 1972. upisao je Elektrotehni~ki fakultet u Sara- {kolu. Na Fakultetu elektrotehnike i ma{instva u Tuzli
jevu kao redovni student - smjer elektroenergetski. diplomirao je 04. 05. 1996. godine. Odmah po
Diplomirao je 13. 07. 1976. godine. Nakon izbora u zavr{etku studija izabran je za saradnika u zvanju asis-
zvanje asistenta-pripravnika 20. 06. 1977. godine pre- tenta na Fakultetu elektrotehnike i ma{instva u Tuzli.
{ao je na Elektrotehni~ki fakultet u Tuzli. U zvanje asis- Poslijediplomski magistarski studij zavr{io je na Fakul-
tenta izabran je 23. 03. 1979. godine. tetu elektrotehnike i ra~unarstva Sveu~ili{ta u Zagrebu
Magistarski rad uspje{no je odbranio 26. 11. 1987. go- sa usmjerenjem na podru~ja Teorije elektromagnet-
dine na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu u Sarajevu. Godine skih polja i CAD. Magistarski rad pod nazivom ”Anal-
1989. obavio je specijalizaciju na Fakultetu elektroteh- iza magnetskih rasipanja malih energetskih transfor-
nike u Brnu, ^SSR, na Katedri za elektri~ne ma{ine, iz matora” odbranio je 01. 12. 1998. godine. Danas radi
oblasti reluktantnih sinhronih ma{ina. Do sada je obja- na Fakultetu elektrotehnike i ma{instva Univerziteta u
vio preko 20 nau~nih i stru~nih radova. Tuzli u zvanju vi{eg asistenta.
58 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
8. LITERATURA:
[1] K. Sokolija: ”O nekim bitnim pitanjima vezanim
za dizajn kompozitnih visokonaponskih izolatora”,
Bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika br. 2, Sarajevo,
decembar 1997. Omeragi} Amra je ro|ena 1970. godine u Rudom.
Diplomirala je 1996. godine na Elektrotehni~kom fa-
[2] K. Sokolija sa saradnicima: ”Kompozitni izolatori
kultetu Univerziteta u Sarajevu – smjer Elektroenerge-
u prijenosnoj i distributivnoj mre`i EP BiH”, Studija,
tika. Zaposlena je od novembra 1996. godine u JP
ETF Sarajevo, novembar 1998.
Elektroprivreda Bosne i Hercegovine, ”Elektroprenos”
[3] A. Schütz, P. Besold: ”Reliability and economic – Sarajevo. U~estvovala je, kao saradnik, na izradi
advantages of silicone rubber insulators”, Internati- studije ”Kompozitni izolatori u prijenosnoj i distributiv-
onal Colloquium on Insulator Technologies, Sarajevo, noj mre`i JP Elektroprivreda Bosne i Hercegovine”.
September, 1998. Podru~je njenog stru~nog rada su kompozitni izolatori.
66 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
Abstract
2. RJE[ENJE JEDNAD@BI VODA
This paper presents the base recursive convolution
use in calculating of the transition occurrence on over- Bez ula`enja u problematiku rje{avanja ovdje }e se
head transmission lines and underground cables, tak- napisati jednad`be voda i njihovo rje{enje izra`eno u
ing into account the frequency dependency. The frekvencijskoj domeni preko modalnih veli~ina po~et-
mathematical interpretation is shown as well. The fol- nog kraja k i prijemnog kraja m, [1] i [2]:
lowing article gives the analyses of suitability and
effects of the recursive convolution application, used
in the analysis of the electromagnetic transition occur-
rence on transmission systems.
1. UVOD
Rje{avanje diferencijalnih jednad`bi koje opisuju pro-
izvoljni prijenosni sistem relativno je jednostavno u
frekvencijskoj domeni, dok je za vremensku domenu
neophodno uzeti stanovita pojednostavljenja da bi se Slika 1. Vod kao ~etveropol
uop}e do{lo do rje{enja. Ali sa aspekta simuliranja
elektromagnetskih prijelaznih pojava nedvojbeno je
dVx ( ω )
vremenska domena u prednosti nad frekvencijskom. = Z ( ω )I ( ω )
dx (1)
Naime, modeliranje sklopnih operacija kao {to je zat-
varanje prekida~a u odre|enom trenutku, ili prekida-
nje kruga kada struja prolazi kroz nulu, ili zatvaranje dIx ( ω )
= Y ( ω )V ( ω )
kada napon dosti`e neku vrijednost i sl., u vremenskoj dx (2)
domeni jednostavno je i vjerodostojno, jer su sve prom-
jenljive veli~ine predstavljene kao funkcije vremena, dok Y ' ( ω )V m ' ( ω ) + I m ' ( ω ) = F m ' ( ω ) = A ' ( ω ) F k ' ( ω )
modeliranje tih operacija u frekvencijskoj domeni ima
niz pote{ko}a usljed ~injenice da se vrijeme kao veli~i- (3)
na ne pojavljuje eksplicitno u toj domeni. Druga pred-
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 67
Y ' ( ω )V k ' ( ω ) − I k ' ( ω ) = B k ' ( ω ) = A ' ( ω ) B m ' ( ω ) kcije frekvencije; kombinacija tih dvaju funkcija
x(t)=f(t)*y(t) naziva se konvolucijom koja je definirana
(4) preko konvolucionih integrala.
f ( t ) * y ( t ) ⇔ F ( t )Y ( t ) (10)
∞
Y c '( t ) *V m '( t ) + i m '( t ) = f m ( t ) = a '( t ) * f k '( t ) x ( t ) = ∫ exp { − a ( u − τ ) } y ( t − u ) du
(5) τ (11)
3. KONVOLUCIJA u = v + ∆t (14)
Neka su f(t) i y(t) vremenske funkcije, a F(ω)i Y(ω) nji-
hove odgovaraju}e Fourier-ove transformacije - fun- ima se
68 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
∞ y(t1-v)=c+mv (20)
∫ exp { − a ( u − τ ) } y ( t − u ) du =
τ + ∆t gdje je
∞
= ∫ exp { − a ( v + ∆t − τ ) } y ( t − ∆t − v ) dv =
y ( t 1 + ∆t ) − y ( t 1 )
τ m=
∞ ∆t (21)
= exp { − a∆t } ∫ exp { − a ( v − τ ) } y ( t − ∆t − v ) dv
τ (15) c = y (t1) (22)
Uspore|uju}i jednad`be (15) i (12), uz napomenu da Zamjenom izraza y(t1-v) u jednad`bu (19) integral mo-
su u i v pomo}ne promjenjive integracije, dobija se : `e biti izra~unat na sljede}i na~in:
∆t ∆t
∞
∫ exp { − av } y ( t 1 − v ) dv = ∫ exp { − av } y ( c + mv ) dv
∫ exp { − a ( u − τ ) } y ( t − u ) du = exp { − a∆t }x(t - ∆t) (16) 0 0
τ + ∆t
∆t ∆t
= ∫ c exp { − av }dv + ∫ mv exp { − av } dv
Uvr{tavaju}i ovaj rezultat u jednad`bu (13) dobija se 0 0
`eljena rakurzivna formula: c ∆t
= − exp { − av } 0∆t − m / a 2 ( av + 1) exp { − av }
a 0
x ( t ) = exp { − a∆t }x ( t − ∆t ) +
= ( 1 − exp { − a∆t }) + m/a 2 [1 − exp { − a∆t }(1 + a∆t) ]
c
τ + ∆t a
+ ∫ exp { − a ( u − τ ) } y ( t − u ) du (23)
τ (17)
Uvr{tavaju}i jednad`be (21) i (22) u (23) dobija se:
Gornja jednad`ba predstavlja osnovu za numeri~ko
ra~unanje konvolucije u vremenskoj domeni, jer ra~u- ∆t
nanje narednog koraka funkcije x(t) oslanja se na ve}
poznatu vrijednost, izra~unatu u prethodnom koraku,
∫ exp { − av } y ( t 1 − v ) dv =
0
x(t-∆t).
= 1/a - 1/a 2 ∆t ( 1 − exp { − a∆t })y( t 1 − ∆t ) +
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
3.2. Izra~unavanje integrala u jednom + ⎢− + ( 1 − exp { − a∆t }) y ( t 1 − ∆t ) ⎥
⎣ a a 2 ∆t ⎦
vremenskom intervalu ∆t (24)
dobija se,
x(t)=gx (t-∆t)+ dy (t-τ)+qy(t-τ-∆t) (25)
y ( t 1 − ∆t ) − ( t 1 ) 4. EFIKASNOST I APLIKATIVNOST
y (t1 −v ) ≅ y (t1 )+ v , za v ∈ [0 , ∆t ] REKURZIVNE KONVOLUCIJE
∆t
Za ra~unanje frekventnog odziva prijenosnih linija u
vremenskoj domeni neophodno je sprovesti ra~una-
odnosno nje konvolucije u vremenskoj domeni. To zahtijeva
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 69
mnogo kompjuterskog vremena. Za ilustraciju, oko skih vodova, Disertacija, Elektrotehni~ki fakultet sve-
70% ukupnog ra~unarskog vremena valne analize ka- u~ili{ta u Zagrebu, 1991
bela tro{i se za ra~unanje konvolucije, [2]; prema to-
[3] W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T.
me, imperativ je reducirati potro{nju vremena za ra~u-
Vetterling, NUMERICAL RECIPES - The Art of Scien-
nanje konvolucije.
tific Computing, Cambridge University Press, 1983
Analizom i usporedbom utro{ka ra~unarskog vremena
za ra~unanje prijelazne pojave na prijenosnoj liniji za
isti primjer izra~unat razli~itim metodama simuliranja
(razlika se odnosi na na~in ra~unanja konvolucije), evi-
dentna je prednost kori{tenja rekurzivne konvolucije,
Tabela I.
Kompjutersko vrijeme
Metod
(sekundi)
Fazna konvolucija 24
Modalna konvolucija 12
5. ZAKLJU^AK
Rekurzivna konvolucija pogodna je za numeri~ko ra-
~unanje, a temelji se na pretpostavci da se jedna od
podintegralnih funkcija mo`e aproksimirati eksponen-
cijalnim funkcijama. Konvolucija x(t) dobija se rakurziv-
no kori{tenjem konvolucije iz prethodnog koraka, tj.
x(t-∆t).
Proces ra~unanja konvolucije veoma je kratak, {to re-
zultira zna~ajnim u{tedama kompjuterskog vremena u
analizi elektromagnetnih prijelaznih pojava na nad- Rasim Ga~anovi} ro|en je 16. januara 1950. u Saraje-
zemnim vodovima i podzemnim kabelima. vu (Bosna i Hercegovina). Stupanj diplomiranog in`e-
Kori{tenjem rekurzivne formule za konvoluciju izbjega- njera i magistra elektrotehni~kih znanosti postigao je
vaju se neta~nosti (zarubljivanja) koje su inherentne sa 1974. i 1980. na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu Univerzite-
numeri~kom integracijom. Ova ~injenica je bitna po- ta u Sarajevu. Stupanj doktora elektrotehni~kih zna-
sebno za ta~nost ra~unanja dugotrajnih prijelaznih nosti postigao je 1991. na Zagreba~kom Sveu~ili{tu u
procesa. Zagrebu (Hrvatska). Od 1974. do 1986. zaposlen je u
Institutu za saobra}aj IPS-a Sarajevo, kada prelazi u
IRCE (Istra`iva~ko razvojni centar za elektroenergeti-
6. LITERATURA ku) Energoinvest Sarajevo. Od {kolske 1990./91. radi
na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu Sveu~ili{ta u Osijeku, a
[1] A. Ametani, An.Approximate Method for Calcu-
od {kolske 1993./94. na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu
lating Transmission Line Transiets, El. En. Japan,
Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Polje njegovog zanimanja je
Vol. 96, No.6, 1976
modeliranje elemenata elektroenergetskih sistema,
[2] R. Ga~anovi}, Prilog modeliranju utjecaja frek- elektromagnetna kompatibilnost elektroenergetskog
vencijske ovisnosti parametara voda na rasprosti- sistema. Do sada ima objavljenih vi{e od dvadeset
ranje elektromagnetnog vala uzdu` elektroenerget- stru~nih i nau~nih radova iz oblasti elektrotehnike.
70 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
Slika 1. (a) Hronolo{ka satna optere}enja; (b) Kriva trajanja optere}enja (KTO);
(c) Normalizovana KTO; (d) Tipi~na ”invertovana” KTO
gdje je
N -broj dana u posmatranom periodu 2.2.2 Blok dijagram programa
fo- faktor optere}enja dobiven prora~unom integrala
funkcije (1) u granicama 0 do 1 tj. : Program se startuje nakon unosa podataka, pokreta-
njem makroa ”GodKTO.KTO”, a njegov blok dijagram
je dat na Slici 2.
a(0) b(0) c (0) d (0) e(0)
f 0( 0 ) = + + + +
6 5 4 3 2 (6) 2.3 Rezultati
Energija W dobivena formulom (5) se poredi sa stvar- Izlazni rezultati su smje{teni na Excel-ovoj radnoj stra-
nom energijom WS, koja se dobije zbrajanjem svih nici ”Rezultati”. To su: 6 ta~aka polinoma (vrijeme i
srednjih satnih optere}enja za N dana kao snaga u relativnim jedinicama), koeficijenti polinoma
a, b, c, d, e, f, energija dobijena prora~unom W, fak-
N ⋅24
tor optere}enja fo, stvarna energija WS, apsolutna
Ws = ∑ Pi , tj. ra~una se apsolutna pogre{ka: pogre{ka ∆W, maksimalno optere}enje Pmax, minimal-
i =1
no optere}enje Pmin, te konstantna i varijabilna energi-
ja Wconst i Wvar. Tako|e, kao izlazni rezultat se pojavlju-
∆W(0)=WS-W(0). je i graf, koji predstavlja normalizovanu krivu trajanja
optere}enja u relativnim vrijednostima.
Uvodi se petlja kojom se ponavlja prora~un koeficije-
nata a(k),b(k), c(k), d(k), e(k), (k=0 do M) promjenom vri- Izgled izlaznih rezultata, za mjese~nu KTO (januar
jednosti y1(k)...., y5(k) za δ (δ se mijenja ovisno od prib- 1997- konzum JP EP BiH), dat je u Tabeli I i II, dok je
li`enja rezultata, u programu je uzeto 8 vrijednosti za δ njen grafik dat na slici 3.
da bi se postigla {to ve}a brzina prora~una; δ>0 uko- [to se ti~e drugog dijela programa, on se pokre}e ako
liko je ∆W>0, i δ<0, ukoliko je ∆W<0. [to se ti~e y0(k), izaberemo opciju ”OK” dijalo{kog okvira, koji se po-
koje predstavlja maksimalno optere}enje, to optere}e- javljuje nakon crtanja grafika. Nakon unosa optere}e-
nje se mijenja za δ/10 tako da je razlika izme|u kra- nja, na ekranu se kao rezultat pojavljuje dijalo{ki okvir
jnjeg i po~etnog maksimalnog optere}enja manja od u kome je ispisano trajanje tog optere}enja (sati, mi-
1. Postupak se ponavlja sve dok ne bude zadovoljen nuta, sekundi). Postupak se ponavlja sve dok ne iza-
uslov I∆WI<0.1, ~ime se, npr. kod godi{njih KTO dobi- beremo negativnu opciju.
je relativna pogre{ka reda ±10–7 %.
U na{em primjeru, koji posmatra januar 1997. (744 sa-
Konstantnu i varijabilnu energiju ra~unamo po pozna- ta), ako unesemo npr. optere}enje 300 MW, na ekranu
tim formulama: se pojavljuje vrijeme trajanja tog optere}enja (565 sa-
ti, 4 minuta i 38 sekundi).
Wconst=Pmin⋅N⋅24
Wvar=W-Wconst (7)
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 73
a b c d e f
Pmax Wvar
Wconst, (MWh)
(MW) (MWh) (MW)
Tabela II
Koeficijenti polinoma i neki parametri KTO (januar 1997.)
KTO (r.j.)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0. 80 1.00
3. ZAKLJU^CI
Pogram za aproksimaciju KTO polinomom petog ste-
pena, koji je razvijen u Direkciji za nau~noistra`iva~ki
rad, je primjenjiv u praksi za izradu sedmi~nih, mjese~-
nih, sezonskih i godi{njih KTO, te odre|ivanja karakte-
ristika potro{nje u budu}nosti. Prednosti ove metode
u odnosu na predstavljanje KTO sa tri pravca su opisi-
vanje KTO jednozna~nom funkcijom, {to je metodolo-
gija koja se u svijetu naj~e{}e koristi. Tako|e, program
pru`a novu mogu}nost za prora~un vremena trajanja
Slika 2. Blok dijagram programa pojedinih optere}enja i grafi~kog prikaza normalizova-
ne krive trajanja optere}enja.
Po{to je ura|en u Windows okru`enju veoma je jed-
nostavan za primjenu, uz trajanje rada programa od 2-
vr(r.j.) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 3 minuta (du`ina vremenskog perioda koji se razmatra
nema zna~ajnijeg uticaja na du`inu rada programa).
P(r.j.) 1 0.89 0.82 0.71 0.54 0.44
Rezultati programa (koeficijenti polinoma) mogu se di-
rektno koristiti i kao ulazni podaci za LOADSY modul
Tabela I programskog paketa WASP, [3], odnosno za dalje pro-
Ta~ke normalizovane KTO za januar 1997.godine ra~une kod planiranja razvoja EES-a.
74 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
4. LITERATURA
[1] T.Kova~ina, A.Imamovi}: Karakteristike potro{nje
el.energije u BiH u 1996.godini, JP EP BiH, Direkcija
za NIR, Sarajevo 1997
[3] Wien Automatic System Planning Package Edina Dedovi} ro|ena je 1970.g. u Fo~i. Diplomirala je
(WASP), A Computer Code for Power Generating na Elektrotehni~kom faukultetu u Sarajevu u januaru
System Expansion Planing, Version 3.0, User(s Ma- 1996.g.
nual, IAEA, Vienna, 1996.g. Trenutno je zaposlena u Direkciji za nau~no istra`iva~-
ki rad, JP Elektroprivreda BiH, a prije toga je radila u
[4] B. P. Demidovi~ i suradnici: Zadaci i rije{eni prim- Federalnom ministarstvu energije, rudarstva i industri-
jeri iz vi{e matematike sa primjenom na tehni~ke je. Ima objavljenih vi{e stru~nih radova iz oblasti ana-
nauke, Tehni~ka knjiga Zagreb, 1978.g. lize EES-a.
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 75
Specifi~ni otpor elektrolita, na ovim dubinama, mogao S obzirom da je potrebna neuporedivo manja za{titna
se mjeriti klasi~nom U-I metodom sa jakim izvorom ili struja za spojne naftovode (izolovane), nego za neizo-
sa mjerenjem potencijala (odnosno padova napona) lovane bu{otine, regulacionim otporima treba obezbi-
na definisanim ta~kama (u funkciji rastojanja krajnjih jediti kriterije za{tite raznorodnih objekata. Specifi~na
sondi). Kao krajnje sonde kori{tene su bu{otine za vo- gustina za{titne struje bu{otina je 5 mA/m2, a naftovo-
du (malog prelaznog otpora), a kao mjerne sonde ko- da 0,1 mA/m2 [2]
ri{tene su referentne Cu/CuSO4 elektrode. Tako je iz- Na kraju, nije potrebno napominjati da se mora voditi
bjegnut problem sa velikim prelaznim otporom. ra~una da se radi o eksploziono ugro`enim prostorima.
Nivo podzemne vode, sa uzimanjem uzoraka radi he-
mijske analize, vr{en je na postoje}im vodenim bu{o- 5. PRORA^UN
tinama. S obzirom da se radi o istom podzemnom je-
zeru, ovaj nivo oscilira 1 - 2 m. Prora~un je ra|en na bazi iskustveno definisanih vri-
jednosti specifi~ne potrebe za{titne struje i to:
• za naftne bu{otine 3 - 5 mA/m2
3. OGRANI^ENJA KOD PROJEKTA • za izolovane naftovode 0,1 mA/m2
Sljede}i podaci su imali dominantan uticaj na projek- Prelazni otpor jednog lanca anodnog le`i{ta je ra~unat
tno rje{enje [1]: po formuli [3]:
• dozvoljena udaljenost anodnog le`i{ta od objekta
za{tite i od susjednih objekata;
ρ 2l 4t + 3l ,
• nivo podzemne vode; R= ln
• mogu}nosti grupisanja izvora; 2 πl d 4t + l
• polo`aj dina (trenutni i u budu}nosti);
• optimalna distribucija kablovske instalacije;
gdje je:
• vijek trajanja objekta.
ρ - specifi~ni otpor elektrolita u koji se pola`u anode
l - aktivna du`ina anodnog lanca
d - aktivni pre~nik anode
4. SPECIFI^NOSTI PRIMJENE t - dubina instaliranja anodnog le`i{ta
Za razliku od uobi~ajene primjene katodne za{tite
podzemnih plitko ukopanih objekata, u konkretnom Prora~unom za{titne struje, prelaznog otpora anod-
slu~aju trebalo je rje{iti optimalnu raspodjelu za{titne nog le`i{ta i pada napona u kablovima do{lo se do op-
struje, kako u povr{inskom sloju tako i na dubini pre- timalnog i dovoljnog rje{enja ja~ine stanica katodne
ko 2000 m. Specifi~ni otpor sloja pijeska iznad nivoa za{tite 4 x (50 V, 10 A).
podzemne vode (povr{inski sloj do dubine cca 30-50
m) prelazi vrijednost 5000 Ωm (uobi~ajenim metoda- 6. TEHNI^KO RJE[ENJE
ma nije ga mogu}e izmjeriti), dok je izmjerena (na te-
renu i laboratorijski) vrijednost specifi~nog otpora slo- Novi sistem katodne za{tite bu{otina naftnog polja Sa-
ja podzemne vode 5 - 10 Ωm. rir u pustinji Sahara podrazumjeva ekonomsko - teh-
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 77
ni~ki izvodljivo grupisanje 102 bu{otine sirove nafte, [2] A.Muharemovi}: Doprinos analizi uticaja polari-
ali tako da jedna stanica katodne za{tite mo`e maksi- zacionih efekata u optimizaciji i dimenzioniranju
malno {tititi ~etiri bu{otine. Odre|ene su 31 grupa sa sistema katodne za{tite, Sarajevo 1989.
ta~nim definisanjem lokacija stanica katodne za{tite i
[3] Baeckmann W.G. , Schwenk W.: Handbook of cat-
pripadaju}ih anodnih le`i{ta [1].
hodic protection, Esen 1983.
Sistem katodne za{tite jedne grupe bu{otina sa~inja-
[4] BS 7361 Part 1:1991: Cathodic protection - Code of
vaju:
practice for land and marine applications BSI 1991.
• stanica katodne za{tite (CTR);
[5] E.Hot, A. Muharemovi}: Katodna za{tita u funkci-
• anodno le`i{te (Deep Groundbed - DGB);
ji za{tite od korozije, Sarajevo 1983.
• kablovska instalacija (veze CTR - DGB, CTR - WELL);
• izolacione prirubnice sa iskri{tima (Spark Gap);
Sve projektovane stanice katodne za{tite imaju po ~e-
tiri zasebna izlaza karakteristika 50 V, 10A. Svaki izlaz
ima svoju sopstvenu regulaciju vrijednosti za{titne stru-
je. Regulacija se realizira preko promjenjivih otpornika.
Kod lociranja stanica katodne za{tite vodilo se ra~una o
• u~injenom grupisanju proizvodnih bu{otina (Pro-
duction Wells);
• trenutnom i budu}em polo`aju dina;
• racionalizaciji polaganja kablovske instalacije;
• spre~avanju ne`eljene interferencije na sekundar-
ne objekte; Alija Muharemovi} ro|en je 1951. god. u Vi{egradu.
• nivou podzemnih voda. Diplomirao je 1974. god. na Elektrotehni~kom fakulte-
tu Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Magistrirao je 1981. god. i
Anodna le`i{ta (Deep Groundbeds) dimenzionisana doktorirao 1989. god. na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu
su prema rezultatima prora~una. Povezana su sa pozi- Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Od 1974. god. do 1978. god.
tivnim izlazom stanice katodne za{tite. Zbog optimal- radi u @TP Sarajevo, a od 1978. god. do 1989. god. ra-
ne raspodjele za{titne struje, le`i{te je odmaknuto naj- di u Unioninvest Sarajevo. Biran u nau~no-nastavno
manje za 150 m od objekta za{tite. Sastoji se od dva zvanje docenta Univerziteta u Tuzli 1990. god., docen-
ili vi{e anodnih lanaca, paralelno vezanih, uronjenih je- ta Univerziteta u Sarajevu 1994. god. , vanredni profe-
dan ispod drugog u podzemnu vodu. Anodni lanci sor Univerziteta u Sarajevu 1998. god. Obavljao fun-
za{ti}eni su ~itavom svojom du`inom perforiranim kciju pomo}nika ministra za energetiku u Vladi RBiH u
plasti~nim cijevima. Zbog elektrohemijskog ekvivalen- periodu 1990-1996 god. Objavio vi{e stru~nih i nau~-
ta legure, te vrijednosti mogu}eg specifi~nog otpu{ta- nih radova u zemlji i inostranstvu.
nja za{titne struje, odabrani su lanci sa po ~etiri anode
od magnetita na me|usobnom rastojanju od 1 m.
[ema sistema katodne za{tite jedne grupe, te na~in
polaganja anodnih le`i{ta dati su na sljede}im slikama.
7. ZAKLJU^AK
Iz prezentiranog referata vide se sve specifi~nosti pro-
jektovanja katodne za{tite objekata koji se instaliraju
na dubinama do 2000 m, i to u uslovima pustinje.
Svi projektovani elementi moraju biti dovoljno sigurni
(projektovani sa odre|enim faktorom sigurnosti). S
D`email Vlahovljak ro|en je 1951. god u Pljevljima.
obzirom na va`nost objekta koji se {titi, vijek trajanja
Elektrotehni~ki fakultet zavr{io je u Sarajevu 1974.
sistema katodne za{tite treba da odgovara projektova-
god., gdje je i magistrirao 1980. god. Po zavr{enom fa-
nom vijeku eksploatacije bu{otina.
kultetu zaposlio se u IRCE - Laboratorij za niski napon,
Specifi~nosti projektnog rje{enja sistema katodne za{- gdje je radio do 1977. god. kada prelazi u Energopet-
tite o~ituju se kako u mjernim metodama te prora~u- rol - Tehni~ki plinovi. Od 1982. god. vra}a se u IRCE
nima, tako i tehni~ki mogu}em izvodljivom rje{enju na poslove rukovodioca Laboratorije niskog napona, a
prilago|enom i odr`avanju sistema. zatim laboratorijskog kompleksa instituta. Od 1986. do
1991. god. bio je zamjenik direktora instituta, a od
1991. god direktor IRCE-a. Autor je i koautor ve}eg
8. LITERATURA broja nau~nih i stru~nih radova.
[1] Energoinvest Sarajevo: Replacement of deep gro-
und beds in Sarir field Site, Survey Report, Saraje-
vo 1998.
78 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
Irfan Turkovi} ro|en je 1962. god. u Konjicu. Diplomi- Branko Djoki} ro|en je u Sarajevu 1948. god. Diplomi-
rao na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu Univerziteta u Sara- rao je 1972. god. na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu
jevu 1986. god., kada se zaposlio u Energoinvest - Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Poslije zavr{enog fakulteta za-
Energoin`enjering Sarajevo, gdje je radio do kraja poslio se u Energoinvestu - In`enjering za elektro- op-
1987.god. Iste godine prelazi na Elektrotehni~ki fakul- remu, gdje je radio do 1975. god. kada prelazi u Pet-
tet Univerziteta u Sarajevu gdje je izabran u zvanje rolinvest Sarajevo. 1986. god. prelazi u Unioninvest
asistenta na predmetu Elektri~na mjerenja. Postdip- Sarajevo, gdje radi do 1987. god. Od 1988. god. dola-
lomski studij upisao na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu u zi u Energoinvest - In`enjering za elektroenergetiku
Sarajevu 1989.god i polo`io sve ispite. Izrada magis- gdje radi i danas na radnom mjestu rukovodilac pro-
tarskog rada je u toku. Trenutno radi u zvanju asisten- jektnog odjela. Autor je i koautor vi{e radova iz oblas-
ta na Elektrotehni~kom fakultetu i na Ma{inskom fakul- ti elektroenergetike.
tetu u Sarajevu.
Kemo Sokolija
Elektrotehni~ki fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu
Moderni kompozitni materijali proizvode se iz jednos- |enjem. (Na 250 km dugom 30 kV-nom dalekovodu iz-
tavnih smje{a dvaju ili vi{e materijala s ciljem da se os- me|u Lauffena i Frankfurta 1891. koristili su se poseb-
tvare svojstva {to ih ne posjeduje niti jedan od pojedi- no dizajnirani izolatori kako bi se eliminirala pojava pri-
na~nih ~inilaca te smje{e. [ta je tu moderno - mo`e- jeskoka usljed djelovanja zaga|enja i vla`enja iz okol-
mo se zapitati - kad se zna da jo{ Ind`il spominje kom- nog prostora).
binaciju slame i blata kao na~in za dobijanje opeke. Tri Mnogi in`enjeri, {irom svijeta, {to su svoju karijeru za-
klju~na historijska koraka {to su dovela do modernih po~eli u dobu kad su prvi polimerni izolatori za primje-
kompozita bila su komercijalna raspolo`ivost fiber- nu na otvorenom izgledali kao igra~ke, ne mire se lah-
glasnih vlakana 1935., razvoj jakih aramidnih i karbon- ko s ~injenicom da zajedno s njima u mirovinu odlazi i
skih vlakana, u kasnim {ezdesetim i ranim sedamde- porculanski (stakleni) izolator, koji se, mada po prirodi
setim, i obznanjivanje analiti~kih metoda za strukture krhak, ~inio vje~nim, nepoderivim i nezamjenjivim.
na~injene na bazi ovih vlakana.
Da bi ga za{titili od uhode, {to po njemu ska~u}i i isk-
Moderni strukturalni kompoziti, ~esto nazivani napred- lju~uju}i dalekovode ~esto dovodi i do raspada siste-
nim kompozitima, dobijaju se sjedinjavanjem dviju ili ma, smi{ljali su stotinu i jedan {tos: krojili mu suknjice
vi{e komponenata, od kojih jednu predstavljaju ~vrsta, i podsuknjice, navla~ili na njega krila ili presvlake od
duga vlakna; druga je komponenta, kod polimernih ”du{manskog” polimera, presvla~ili ga poluvodi~kom
kompozita, smolasto vezivo ili matrica koja ta vlakna glazurom, prali i umivali. D`aba! Odzvonjava i dob-
dr`i nepokretnim. Vlakna su ~vrsta i tvrda u odnosu na rom, starom porculanskom izolatoru, a naravno i bra-
matricu i u op}em slu~aju imaju razli~ita svojstva u dva tu mu staklenastom: odlaze zajedno u muzeje gdje }e
razli~ita pravca. ^vrsto}a i krutost vlakana su nekoliko se, htjeli ne htjeli, morati podnositi. Ko~eperni mladi}
puta ve}a od vrijednosti {to ih imaju materijali od kojih {to je ve} odavno zamahnu sjekirom, spreman udariti
se izra|uje matrica. Kad se vlakna i matrica sjedine i po poga~i stavljenoj na glavu ostarjelog poglavice, ni-
formiraju kompozit oni oboje zadr`avaju svoje osobe- je jo{ toliko sazrio da to uradi danas. Ve} sutra ga ni-
nosti i oboje izravno utje~u na kona~na svojstva kom- ko ne}e zaustaviti. Da li je to ba{ tako? Premda, ovis-
pozita. no o tvrdnjama i pretpostavkama na kojima po~ivaju,
Kod kompozitnih izolatora se gornja kompozicija pro- mogu biti la`ne ili u najmanju ruku zaslu`ivati ozbiljno
{iruje. Ne}emo ba{ imati simfoniju ali }e u ”orkestar debatiranje, legende predstavljaju sveprisutan izvor le-
u}i jo{ jedan instrument” - polimerno ku}i{te {to }e u gitimiteta u svim vremenima i na svim prostorima. Na
jedinstvu s jezgrom ura|enom od smolom vezanih vla- njih ~esto postoji politi~ki, policijski ili kulturni embar-
kana omogu}iti da se dobije sklad koji je kadar ”odsvi- go, tako da se rijetko poduzimaju akcije njihovog ru{e-
rati sve {to se od njega tra`i”. nja. I tako legende `ive. Legenda se mo`e sru{iti jedi-
no ako joj se suprotstavi antilegenda: Polimer je sru{io
U visokonaponskoj izolaciji aparata, {to rade na otvo- legendu o porculanu, ali mu prijeti opasnost da i sam
renom prostoru, u stolje}e {to ga ispra}amo, u{lo se postane legenda: Za{to? ^injenica je da se interakci-
je s tad ve} prisutnim porculanom. U stolje}e koje do- jom izme|u dobre formulacije polimera (miniminirani
lazi ulazimo s porculanom {to zalazi i svoje mjesto ve} njegovi limiti) i dobrog dizajna proizvoda (projektant je
uveliko ustupa kompoziciji jezgre ({tap ili cijev) od u proizvod ”ugradio” prisutne limite), uz uvjet da sam
smolom oja~anih vlakana i ku}i{ta od elastomera {to proces proizvodnje ne dovodi od degradacije materi-
ne da vodi da na njegovoj povr{ini stvori vodljivi film u jala, mogu realizirati proizvodi koji svojim performan-
uvjetima kad ju prekrije sloj zaga|enja. Tako smo da- sama nadma{uju proizvode bazirane na porculanu, ne
nas stigli blizu onog cilja {to su ga jo{ imali in`enjeri zna}i da to automatski vrijedi za sve proizvode bazira-
koji su konstruirali prvi visokonaponski dalekovod: ot- ne na polimernom ku}i{tu. Ta se ~injenica, me|utim,
resti se uhode koji se zove prijeskok prouzro~en zaga- ~esto previ|a, tako da se operiranjem samo s generi~-
Godi{te 3, Januar/Decembar 1998. 81
kim imenom - polimer - uvode mogu}nosti za op}e prezentirani. Zaklju~ke ovog skupa, koji }e uskoro biti
{pekulacije. Nekad ono, naime, slu`i za afirmaciju pro- saop}eni u ~asopisu pari{ke CIGRÉ - ELECTRA i ~a-
izvoda koji to, s obzirom na njihove performanse, ne sopisu INSULATOR NEWS & MARKET REPORT koji
zavre|uju. S druge strane, za one {to su jo{ uvijek izlazi u Kanadi, iznosimo ovdje u cjelosti.
skeptici glede primjene proizvoda baziranih na poli-
mernoj izolaciji dobro do|e ovo generaliziranje: dovo- ZAKLJU^CI
ljni su im podaci o lo{em pona{anju nekog od lo{ih
proizvoda pa da ”doka`u” kako je opravdana njihova Premda su svi izolatori dizajnirani tako da, pod nor-
uzdr`anost. Tako, tek stvorena legenda o polimeru malnim radnim uvjetima, prijesko~ni napon bude ni`i
kao pravom izboru za vanjsku izolaciju elektri~nih apa- od probojnog napona, kod kapastih izolatora mogu}i
rata prijeti da sru{i samu sebe. su proboji zbog:
Da bi se to izbjeglo potrebno je pobje}i od bilo kakvo • Koincidencije visokih elektri~nih polja i visokih me-
mitiziranja. Kako? Formulacije polimera, dizajni proiz- hani~kih naprezanja u predjelu izme|u kape i tu~ka;
voda i procesi proizvodnje {to ih danas koriste proiz- • Pojave vrlo strmih impulsnih napona.
vo|a~i u ovoj oblasti jesu posve razli~iti. Kemijska ana-
liza bilo koja dva materijala razli~itih proizvo|a~a koji Iako su, zahvaljuju}i modernoj tehnologiji proizvodnje
nose isto generi~ko ime (silikon npr.) pokaza}e zna~a- i striktnoj kontroli kvalitete, ovi slu~ajevi rijetki, oni se
jne razlike u njihovom sastavu, a ~esto su daleko od ne mogu potpuno isklju~iti za sve izolatore ove vrste.
toga da se u eksploataciji pona{aju jednako. Dizajn Potpuno su isklju~eni, me|utim, proboji u slu~aju
samog proizvoda i proizvodni proces odnosno uvjeti primjene dizajna dugih {tapnih izolatora i to zahvalju-
{to u njemu vladaju, mogu biti i jestu razli~iti. ju}i ~injenici da su prijesko~ni i probojni put pribli`no
jednaki, na taj na~in, zbog ve}e dielektri~ne ~vrsto}e
Zaklju~ak je jednostavan: proizvodi se razlikuju, tako ~vrstog dielektrika u odnosu na okolni zrak prenaponi
da je svaka generalizacija besmislena. Ista je situacija mogu rezultirati samo prijeskokom. Kao posljedica di-
kad se radi o jo{ jednoj legendi u samoj legendi. Lite- zajna dugog {tapnog izolatora (samo nekoliko arma-
ratura iz ove oblasti je danas puna pri~e o tome kako tura u izolatorskom lancu), ovo rje{enje omogu}uje da
je silikonska guma bolja od etilenpropilen gume, te da se dobiju:
je silikon najbolji polimerni materijal za izradu ku}i{ta.
Koliko ovakve tvrdnje imaju smisla najbolje }e kazati • Bolje performanse u pogledu radio smetnju nego u
~injenica da sadr`aj silikona kao baznog materijala u slu~aju probojivog dizajna lanca kapastih izolatora;
komercijalnim proizvodima razli~itih proizvo|a~a vari- • Bolje pona{anje u uvjetima zaga|enja kod iste du-
ra od 8% do 40%. Koji je to onda materijal najbolji? Ili ljine klizne staze nego u slu~aju lanca kapastih izo-
{ta to onda zna~i silikon? latora;
Performanse jesu ono {to se tra`i, a performanse jesu • Sni`ena masa.
rezultat interakcije izme|u formulacije materijala, dizaj-
na i procesa proizvodnje, pri ~emu se niti jedna od ovih Sve gore spomenute prednosti dizajna dugog {tap-
komponenata ne smije promatrati izdvojena od druge nog izolatora prisutne su bez obzira na to koji je izola-
dvije - u pitanju je optimizacija jednad`be vi{eg reda. cioni materijal u pitanju, tj. i kod primjene porculana
kao materijala za izradu dugih {tapnih izolatora.
Gdje smo mi u svemu tome? Za one koji ne znaju, a i
za one koji su zaboravili: Energoinvest - IRCE je prije Premda se mogu sresti diskutabilni zaklju~ci pojedinih
ravno deset godina bio razvio prototipe kompozitnih autora (uglavnom bazirani na svojedobno publicira-
izolatora s ku}i{tem od silikonske gume. Proizvodnju nim izvje{tajima CIGRE - statistike koje uklju~uju rani-
je zaustavila agresija. je, prve generacije kompozitnih izolatora, kad su ”dje-
~ije bolesti” bile uzrokom za veliki procenat njihovih
JP Elektroprivreda Bosne i Hercegovine je jo{ u ratu kvarova), prema kojima su porculanski dugi {tapni izo-
odva`no donijela odluku: uvoditi kompozitne izolatore. latori superiorniji u odnosu na kompozitne izolatore,
Prije godinu dana prisupili su, u suradnji s Elektroteh- korisnicima se preporu~uje provo|enje komparativnih
ni~kim fakultetom Univerziteta u Sarajevu, izradi Studi- ekonomskih analiza izme|u ova dva rje{enja. Pri tome
je ~iji je rezultat nedavno usvojeni prijedlog Tehni~ke se ne smiju uspore|ivati porculanski izolatori dobre
specifikacije za kompozitne izolatore. Energoinvest, kvalitete s kompozitnim izolatorima lo{e kvalitete.
ELOP - IRCE svoju tre}u generaciju SF6 prekida~a op-
rema, umjesto porculanskim, polimernim ku}i{tem. Dobar izolator mo`e se dobiti u slu~aju perfektne kom-
binacije dizajna dugog {tapnog izolatora i materijala.
U takvom ambijentu, vis-a-vis ove nove visoke i veoma
Pri tome se ne smije zaboraviti proces proizvodnje
elegantne tehnologije 16. i 17. Septembra 1998. god.
(KNOW - HOW).
u Sarajevu, Bosanskohercegova~ki komitet CIGRÉ,
zajedno s Elektrotehni~kim fakultetom Univerziteta u Kori{}enje kompozitnih izolatora u elektroenergetskom
Sarajevu i JP Elektroprivreda Bosne i Hercegovine or- sistemu (EES) mo`e pru`iti niz prednosti, kao {to su:
ganizirao je znanstveni skup pod naslovom ” Internati- • bolje elektri~ke performanse u uvjetima u kojima je
onal Colloquium on Modern Insulator Technologies: materijal ku}i{ta u stanju obnoviti izgubljenu hidro-
Composite Insulators - Why YES - Why NO”. fobi~nost;
Vi{e od 80 doma}ih i stranih stru~njaka sudjelovalo je • dobra svojstva u pogledu elasti~nosti (nisu osjetlji-
u raspravama povodom devet referata koje su skupu vi na savijanje);
82 bosanskohercegova~ka elektrotehnika
• zna~ajno manja masa; • proces oporavka izgubljene hidrofobi~nosti materi-
• lak{a monta`a i transport; jala ku}i{ta.
• ni`i sveukupni tro{kovi nego u slu~aju lanaca ka-
Osnovni problem zbog kojeg ne postoji jedinstven
pastih izolatora, posebice kod vi{ih napona;
pristup izboru le`i u ~injenici da pojedini proizvo|a~i
• ve}a otpornost na udar.
jo{ uvijek mijenjaju dizajn, sastave materijala, na~in
Zahvaljuju}i gore spomenutim prednostima, kompo- pri~vr{}ivanja metalnih armatura i proces proizvodnje.
zitni izolatori mogu pru`iti u~inkovit odgovor na potre-
be {to ih name}e razvoj modernih prijenosnih i distri- Za postizanje u~inkovitih performansi i duge `ivotne
butivnih mre`a u pogledu: dobi kompozitnih izolatora kriti~ni su uvjeti elektri~kih
naprezanja u blizini visokonaponske elektrode. Za
• pove}ane pouzdanosti; sveobuhvatno razumijevanje ovih uvjeta nije dovoljno
• pove}ane u~inkovitosti i ekonomi~nosti; samo poznavanje slike polja u blizini ove elektrode
• boljeg uklapanja u ambijent; kod razli~itih vrsta dizajna, nego i pitanje nestabilnosti
• kompaktiranja dalekovoda / Podizanja naponskog parcijalnog luka {to se na ovom dijelu mo`e pojaviti.
nivoa postoje}ih dalekovoda.
Potrebno je, tako|er, izu~avati pona{anje razli~itih di-
Osnovni nedostatak kompozitnih izolatora sastoji se u zajna u istim pogonskim uvjetima.
mogu}nosti deterioracije njihovih elektri~kih i meha-
ni~kih performansi u procesu njihovog starenja. Posto- Superiorne performanse u odnosu na konvencionalne
ji nekoliko problema vezanih za razvoj pouzdanih kapaste izolatore mogu se posti}i primjenom silikon-
kompozitnih izolatora, podobnih za njihove u~inkovite, skih guma, ali isto tako i primjenom EPDM-a (etilen
sigurne i {iroke primjene u modernim elektroenerget- propilen dien monomer) guma, odnosno guma na ba-
skim sistemima: zi smje{e silikon / EPDM, premda su njihova svojstva
u pogledu hidrofobi~nosti i njezinog oporavka nakon
• razumijevanje mehanizama starenja; izlaganja zaga|enju i posljedi~nim povr{inskim pra`-
• razvoj odgovaraju}ih kvalifikacionih testova, uklju- njenjima razli~ita. Zbog velikih varijacija u performan-
~uju}i procedure starenja koje predstavljaju repre- sama izolatora na~injenim od ”istog” materijala ne
zentaciju njihove degradacije u pogonu, uz uvjet smije se generalizirati; optimalne koli~ine pravih puni-
da su istodobno tehni~ki i ekonomski opravdane; la i aditiva predstavljaju klju~ni ~inilac kad su u pitanju
• ustvr|ivanje korelacije izme|u prirode i stupnja o{- performanse kompozitnih izolatora.
te}enja i sni`enja elektri~ke ~vrsto}e u uvjetima
normalnog radnog napona i prenapona; Preporu~uje se izbor takve duljine klizne staze kompo-
• razvoj odgovaraju}eg testa krhkog prijeloma fiber- zitnih izolatora koja je dovoljna za prevenciju prijesko-
glasnog {tapa u slu~aju dizajna dugog {tapnog ka u ekstremnim pogonskim uvjetima, kad povr{ina ku-
izolatora. }i{ta postane hidrofili~na (brzo talo`enje sloja zaga|e-
Razvoj kompozitnih izolatora danas je uglavnom oslo- nja ili kontinuirana korona pra`njenja u blizini ku}i{ta).
njen na postoje}e pogonsko iskustvo, s obzirom da
Korisnicima se preporu~uje da, kroz primjenu, nastoje
jo{ uvijek nismo kadri adekvatno simulirati:
{to vi{e nau~iti o modernim tehnologijama izolatora, o
• pona{anje kompozitnih izolatora u uvjetima zaga- razli~itim proizvodima i proizvo|a~ima koji su kadri is-
|enja; puniti njihove specifi~ne zahtjeve.