HAZARDOUS WASTE

MANAGEMENT
ECH3501: LECTURE WEEK 12
Evolution of Hazardous
Waste Management -
Industrial Scheduled
Waste
 Regulations pertaining Hazardous Wastes

●  Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 (Amendment) 2007;
●  Provision in Section 34B, Environmental Quality Act 1974
●  Environmental Quality (Prescribed Conveyance) (Scheduled Wastes) Order 2005;
●  Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal
Facilities) (Amendment) Order 2006;
●  Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and Disposal Facilities)
(Amendment) Regulations 2006;
●  Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 2015;
●  Customs (Prohibition of Exports) Order 1998 (Amendment) 2008; and
●  Customs (Prohibition of Imports) Order 1998 (Amendment) 2008.

Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste)
Regulations 2005 (Amendment 2007)

●  Scheduled waste listed in First schedule consisting of 5 main categories (types)

○  SW1 - metal and metal bearing wastes (10 types); exclude 104 copper slag not
contaminated with pollutants or other scheduled wastes
○  SW2 - waste containing principally inorganic which may contain metals and organic
materials (7 types); exclude SW 204 sludge from pulp and paper industry using virgin pulp,
sludge containing organic matter from agro-based industry (animal slaughtering and food
industry with raw material are from agricultural and animal product)
○  SW3 - Wastes containing principally organic constituents which may contain metals and
inorganic materials (27 types)
○  SW4 - waste which may contain either inorganic or organic constituents (32 types)
○  SW5 - other types (1 type)

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
●  Waste → any substance that is discarded after primary use, worthless, defective
and of no use
●  Classification 1 → Household waste, clinical waste and industrial waste
●  Classification 2 → hazardous or non-hazardous waste according to their functions
of its toxicity, corrosiveness, explosiveness, radio-activeness characteristics
●  DOE → waste falling within the categories listed in the First Scheduled of EQ
(Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 (Amendment 2007) - listed in table below
●  Four basic characteristics of hazardous waste:
○  Ignitable (Flash point < 60oC)
○  Corrosive (dissolves metals, burns the skin or has a pH < 2 or > 12.5)
○  Reactive (unstable or undergoes rapid or violent chemical rxn with water, air
or other materials)
○  Toxic (poisonous or can cause cancer or mutation or death)
First Schedule
SW1 Metal and metal-bearing
wastes
SW2 Waste containing principally
inorganic constituents which
may contain metals and
organic materials
SW3 Waste containing principally
organic constituents which
may contain metal and
inorganic materials
Arsenic; lead acid batteries; batteries containing Cd, Ni,
Hg, Li; dust, slag, dross or ash containing heavy metals, or
copper processing, galvanic sludge, waste from electrical
and electronic assemblies
Asbestos wastes in sludges, dust or fibre forms, waste
catalysts, immobilized schedule wastes, sludges
containing one or several metals, waste gypsum, spent
inorganic acids, sludge containing fluoride
Spent organic acids (pH < 2); flux waste containing organic
acids, solvents or compounds of ammonium chloride;
adhesive containing organic solvents, press cake from
pretreatment of glycerol soap lye, spent lubricant and
hydraulic oil, spent mineral oil-water emulsion, oil tanker
sludges, waste containing formaldehyde, rubber or latex
waste or sludges, non-halogenated organic solvents,
uncured resins, organic phosphorus, thermal fluids (e.g.
ethylene glycol)
First Schedule
SW4 Wastes which may contain Spent alkalis containing heavy metals, spent alkalis with
either inorganic or organic pH > 11.5; discarded drug containing psychotropic
constituents substances, toxic, harmful, carcinogenic, mutagenic or
teratogenic; pathogenic, clinical or quarantined wastes/
materials; clinker, slag and ash from schedule waste
incinerator; waste containing dioxins or furans; disposed
containers containing chemicals, pesticides, mineral oil or
schedule wastes; spent activated carbon (except from
water treatment or food industry); wastes containing
cyanide; sludge/waste of inks, paint, dye; spent of di-
isocyanates, leachate from scheduled waste landfill,
mixture of schedule wastes; mixture of schedule and non-
scheduled wastes; pesticides, herbicides and biocides,
obsolete laboratory chemicals; peroxides

SW5 Other wastes Any residues from treatment or recovery of schedule

wastes
Characteristics of hazardous waste

Ignitability Combustible, flammable and sustain SW303 - Adhesive or glue containing organic
combustion solvents excluding polymeric materials

Liquid with flash point less than 60oC SW233 - Waste of non-halogenated organic
solvents

Capable under STP of causing fire SW325 - uncured resin waste containing organic
through friction solvents

It is an ignitable compressed gas SW416 - waste of paints of inks, paints, pigments,

lacquer, dye or varnish

It is an oxidizer SW432 - waste containing of or contaminated with

peroxides
Characteristics of hazardous waste

Corrosivity Acidic or alkaline with pH < 2; or > SW206 - spent inorganic acid
12.5

Corrodes steel at a rate greater than SW201 - spent organic acids with pH < 2
6.35 mm per year @ 55oC
SW401 - spent alkalis containing heavy metals

SW402 - spent alkalis with pH > 11.5

Characteristics of hazardous waste
Reactivity Waste is normally unstable and readily undergoes violent SW317 - spent organometallic
changes without detonating compounds including tetraethyl,
tetramethyl lead and organotin
compounds

Waste reacts violently with water SW431 - waste from manufacturing

or processing or used of explosives
Waste form potentially explosive mixtures with water

Waste when mixed with water generates toxic gasses or

vapours

Cyanide or sulfide-bearing waste that, when exposed to pH

btw 2 and 12.5 can generate toxic gas, vapors or fumes in
quantity sufficient to present danger

Capable to cause detonation or explosive reaction

subjected to a strong initiating source

Readily capable of detonation or explosive decomposition

or reaction at STP
Characteristics of hazardous waste
Toxicity Toxicity characteristic if it exceeds specified
concentrations of certain metals and organic
compounds as listed by reference in the
regulations
The waste or its extract has any of the
contaminants listed in the Guidelines for The
Application of Special Management of
Scheduled Waste
SW101 Waste containing arsenic or its
compound
SW104 Dust, slag, dross or ash containing Al,
Ar, Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, V, Be, An, St, Te, Th
or Se excluding slag from Fe and steel factory
SW109 Waste containing Hg or its compound
SW320 Waste containing formaldehyde
SW407 Waste containing dioxins or furans
Characteristics of hazardous waste
Infectious or pathogenic Any waste which consists wholly or
partly of human or animal tissue, blood
or other body fluids, excretion, drugs
Other pharmaceutical products, swabs
or dressings, syringes, needles, etc.
being waste which unless rendered
safe may prove hazardous to any
person coming into contact with it
SW403 Discarded drugs
containing psychotropic
substances or containing
substances that are toxic,
harmful, carcinogenic,
mutagenic or teratogenic
SW405 Waste arising from the
preparation and production of
pharmaceutical product
SOURCES AND GENERATION OF HAZARDOUS
WASTES IN MALAYSIA
●  Generation of scheduled waste (SW) increase tremendously throughout the years
○  1987: SW generated was 400,000 tons without specific institution to manage it
○  2008: increased to 1,000,000 tons
○  2010: 1.88 million tons
○  2015: 2.9 million tons, manufacturing industry was largest contributor; 25,500 tons medical waste
○  2020: 4.01 million tons; 33,800 tons are medical wastes
●  Sources can come from but not limited to
○  Health sectors - medical wastes such as disposable items contaminated with biological agents,
expired drugs, chemical wastes, radioactive dyes and sharp wastes, e-waste
○  Industrial and manufacturing sector - mainly chemical materials and toxic solid waste, e-waste
○  Water and wastewater treatment plants - sludge containing metals
○  Agricultural sectors - pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
○  Commercial - used lubricant oils, e-wastes (malfunctioned electric and electronic units)
○  Household products - fluorescent light, toxic paints, pesticides, batteries, solvents, e-waste, etc.
Statistic by DOE Malaysia, 2017
Statistic by DOE Malaysia, 2017
Statistic by
DOE
Malaysia,
2017
Statistic by DOE Malaysia, 2017
Percentage of
Hazardous
waste from
MSW (2013)

HHW: 1.3%
Waste components
generated,
discarded and
disposed from
Malaysian
households 2013
●  Aerosol can highest amount followed by
e-waste
●  Ewaste: As at 2019, 54 mill tons
worldwide
●  In Malaysia, as at 2013 already significant,
no published value to date
●  Recycling rate for e-waste increased on in
Johor and N9 (2015-2018)
HHW composition
for different classes
and locations
●  High income produced higher waste
●  Urban area generally produce high
HHW especially aerosol cans, e-waste
and batteries
Details and condition of household solid waste
MANAGEMENT AND STORAGE OF
HAZARDOUS WASTE
●  Management of HHW also follows EQ (Scheduled Waste) Regulations 2005
○  Regulation 3 - notification of generation of SW
○  Regulation 4 - disposal of SW
○  Regulation 5 - Treatment of SW
○  Regulation 6 - Recovery of material or products from SW
○  Regulation 7 - Application for special management of SW
○  Regulation 8 - Responsibility of waste generator
○  Regulation 9 - Storage of SW
○  Regulation 10 - Labelling of SW
○  Regulation 11 - Inventory of SW
○  Regulation 14 - Spill or accidental discharge

Regulation 3 - Notification of generation of
SW
●  Waste generator shall notify the DG within 30 days from date of generation of SW
of new categories and quantities
●  Notification shall include info provided as in Second Schedule which consists of
○  Identification of premise
○  Production data
○  Waste data
 Regulation 4 - Disposal of SW
●  Scheduled wastes shall be disposed of at prescribed premises only
●  SW shall, as far as is practicable, be rendered innocuous prior to disposal

Regulation 5 - Treatment of SW
●  SW shall be treated at prescribed premises or at on-site treatment facilities only
●  Residual from treatment of SW shall be treated or disposed of at prescribed
premises

 Regulation 6 - Recovery of material or product from SW
●  Recovery of material or product from SW shall be done at prescribed premises or at
onsite recovery facilities
●  Residuals from recovery of material or product from SW shall be treated or disposed
of at prescribed premises

Regulation 7 - Application for special management of SW

●  Waste generator may apply DG to have SW they generate excluded from being
treated, disposed of or recovered in premises or facilities other than at the
prescribed premises or on-site treatment or recovery facilities
●  Application as in above, shall be accompanied by fee of RM300
●  DG can grant with a written approval either with or without conditions
Regulation 8 - Responsibility of waste
generator
●  Every WG shall ensure that SW generated be properly stored, treated on-ste,
recovered on-site for material or product from such SW or delivered to and
received at prescribed premises for treatment, disposal or recovery
●  Every WG shall ensure that the SW that are subjected to movement or transfer be
packaged, labelled and transported in accordance with the guidelines prescribed
by the DG
Regulation 9 - Storage of SW
●  SW shall be stored in containers which are compatible with the respective SW, durable
to prevent spillage or leakage of SW
●  Incompatible SW shall be stored in separate containers, and shall be placed in separate
secondary containment areas
●  Containers containing SW shall always be closed during storage except when it is
necessary to add or remove the SW
●  Areas for storage shall be designed, constructed and maintained adequately in
according to guideline
●  May store SW < 180 days if < 20 metric tons (above which require special application)
●  > 20 metric ton required application to the DG
Regulation 10 - Labelling of SW
●  Date of generation, name, address and phone number of waste generator on each
container
●  Labelled types applicable to them as specified in Third Schedule and marked with SW code

Flammable
Explosive; liquids/solids/ Oxidizing Toxic Corrosive
Self-reactive gas/aerosol; gas/liquid/
substances
phosphoric solid
and mixtures;
and Organic liquid/solid; emit
peroxides flammable gas
when contact
with water
Regulation 13 - transportation of SW

●  Only licensed contractors are allowed to transport and treat or disposed of SW

following the Seventh Schedule
●  Selection of transportation routes, avoid densely populated areas, water
catchment areas and other environmentally sensitive areas
●  All employees attended SW training program

 Regulation 11 - WG shall keep an inventory of SW
●  WG shall keep accurate and up-to-date inventory in accordance to the Fifth
Schedule of categories and quantities of SW being generated, treated and
disposed of and of materials or product recovered for a period up to three years
from date of SW generated

Regulation 14 - Spill or accidental discharge

●  In the event of spillage or accidental discharge of SW, contractor responsible for the waste
shall inform immediately the DG
●  Contractor shall contain, cleanse or abate the spill or discharge to recover the substance
●  WG shall provide technical expertise and supporting assistance for the clean-up operations
●  Contractor shall undertake studies to determine impact of spillage on environment over a
period of time determined by DG
Guidelines for Packaging, Labelling and
Storage of Schedule Waste in Malaysia
●  EQ (SW) Regulations 2005 requires HW to be properly packaged, labelled and
stored by the WG
●  They are stored temporarily at their premises pending further treatment or
disposal and must be managed according to approved stated Regulations
●  Suitable locations for storage area, selection of suitable storage containers and use
of good practices to manage the containers to prevent leakage or spillage
●  This guideline by DOE is used for this purpose starting January 2014

 Site selection and design criteria for storage of SW
●  Selection criteria of storage area - on-site storage
○  Proper designated area within the WG premises, away from manufacturing/
processing area and employee activities area
○  Located away from heat sources
○  Areas with no flood potential or close to edge of hill or slopes
●  Selection criteria of storage area - off-site storage
○  Site should comply with requirement specified in the Guidelines for Siting and
Zoning of Industrial and Residential Areas, published by DOE
○  Facility should be within an industrial area
○  Must be at NON flood prone Area
●  Storage Design Criteria
○  Designed, constructed and maintained adequately accordance to criterias to
prevent spillage and leakage
○  Adequate space to store ALL SW generated or managed by the premise -- 25%
extra storage capacity than maximum amt WG and duration of no more than
180 days
 Site selection and design criteria for storage of SW
●  Storage Design Criteria (cont’d)
○  Entire storage area must be fenced up, restricted area with signage “DANGER” and “SCHEDULED
WASTE STORAGE” clearly
○  Floor of storage area and loading and unloading must be covered with concrete or any suitable
lining material, free of cracks and gas
○  Must be sheltered or roofed or covered with suitable covering materials
○  Entire storage area myst be surrounded by a concrete dike or any equivalent struction designed
to contain spillage or leakage. Capacity should be 110% of the largest container stored in the
storage area
○  Dike area should be graded to a sump
○  Manage to prevent rain water or surface water from entering the storage area
○  Surface water run-off must be channelled to a proper draining
○  Separate compartments for different groups of incompatible wastes (4th Schedule, Regulation 2)
○  Design to provide adequate emergency escape route
○  Equipped with fire fighting and other emergency response equipment, spill kit complying to Fire
and Rescue Department of Malaysia
 Selection of Containers
●  In normal practice, SW are stored in Bunghole drum (steel/plastic), open top
drum (steel/[;astic) with cover and clamp, intermediate bulk container;
corrugated box/carton box; flexible intermediate bulk containers (FIBCs) /
jumbo bags / bulk bags / PP big bags
●  Quantity of SW to estimate the appropriate size and strength of containers to
avoid spillage
●  Containers should be free from any damage such as tear or hole
●  Assign specific containers for specific waste will allow reusage without
washing/cleaning
●  Containers containing residue of chemicals/SW which are not compatible to
waste to be stored should be properly rinsed prior to use. Solution generated
should be contained and characterized prior to treatment or disposal at sites
approved by DOE
●  Suggestion of packaging according to waste types and characteristic is clearly
listed in the guideline
 Labelling of containers
●  SW should be labelled in accordance to 3rd Schedule of EQ (SW)
Regulations 2005 and marked with SW code as specified in the 1st
Schedule
●  Characteristic labels (Third Schedule) shall be a square set at an angle of
45 degress and not less than 10 x 10 cm except size container or package
is small
●  The colors also should be accordance to British Standard BS381C “colors
for specific purposes”
●  Text explaining the symbol shall be place on the lower half of the
container
●  Information to be included in the label for SW containers - date SW
generated; name, address, telephone number of SW generator. No
person is allowed to alter the ID, labels and markings
●  If SW is causing two or more hazard, ALL hazards must be clearly
identified and labelled accordingly
Management of Containers
●  Maximum 4 drums
or 1 bag per
standard pallet
●  Stacking of pallet
without crate - no
more than 2 tiers;
with crate not
more than 3 tiers
Waste oil ●  In rows two pallets
wide
●  Drums be stored
Crate storage (no more than 3 tiers)
vertically not
horizontally
No Crate storage (no more than 2 tiers)
Management of Containers

Example of storage area layout

Packaging for transportations

Secured with plastic wrapping

WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
●  Wastes remained after waste minimization and reuse must be detoxified and
neutralized
●  Many treatment technologie available to accomplish this objective
○  Biological treatment
○  Chemical treatment - neutralization, oxidation, precipitation, reduction
○  Physical/Chemical treatment - carbon adsorption, distillation, ion-exchange,
electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, solvent extraction
○  Incineration
○  Stabilization/Solidification
 Biological Treatment
●  Anaerobic, reductive dehalogenation of compounds such
as halogenated pesticides such as chlorinated pesticides is
required for biodegradation
●  Feasibility of biodegradation is a factor of DO, oxidation-
reduction potential, temperature, pH, availability of other
compounds, salinity, PM, competing organisms, and
concentration of compounds and organisms.
●  Compounds physical and chemical characteristics such as
solubility, volatility, hydrophobicity, and octanol water
partition coefficient also contribute to compound
availability in solution, thus biodegradation
●  Conventional biological treatment such as activated
sludge and trickling filters have been used to treat HW by
extending mean cell residence time from to 3-6 since
months from 4-15 days. Trickling filters loading rates at
much lower than municipal WW

Chemical Treatment
●  Employed whether as sole treatment procedure or used to reduce the hazard of
waste prior to transport, incineration, or landfilled
●  Chemical treatment does not make a toxic chemical disappear from matrix
(wastewater, sludge, etc) but can only convert it to another form
●  Thus, the treatment must produce a less toxic material than the starting material
●  The reagents for such reactions can also be hazardous
●  Chemical methods includes complexation, neutralization, oxidation, precipitation
and reduction
●  Optimum method criteria: fast, quantitative, inexpensive, leave no residual
reagent
 Chemical Treatment - Neutralization

●  Solutions are neutralized with

solution based on its pH
●  Acidic SW will be added with basic
solution such as NaOH or slaked
lime
●  Basic SW will be generally
neutralized with sulfuric or
hydrochloric acids
●  Good treatment practise requires
final pH to be between 6 and 8 to
protect natural biota
 Chemical Treatment - Oxidation
●  Cyanide is most common SW to be treated via oxidation
○  Oxidizer is Cl gas at high pH > 10 to avoid HCN gas generation
○  Ozone can be used as oxidizer working at similar pH but must be generated at site
○  Ozone can be used for wide range of cyanide containing waste such as copper, zinc and brass plating
solutions, cyanide salt heating baths, passivating solution
○  Cyanide above 1% oxidation method is not desirable
○  Electrolytic cyanide use anodic electrolysis at high temperature where CN react with O2 to produce CO2
and N2 → for concentrated spent stripping solution, alkaline descalers (50,000 - 100,000 mg/L CN)

●  Organic compounds in wastewater can

be treated via oxidation for dilute
solution but expensive as compared to
biological methods
○  E.g. Wet air, H2O2, pemanganate,
chlorine dioxide, Cl and ozone oxidation
Chemical Treatment - Precipitation
●  Often method used to remove metal from
plating rinse water
●  Solution pH is increased using lime or
caustic, reducing the solubility of metal
and the metal hydroxide precipitates
●  Optimum pH differs between metal,
solution with mixed metals cannot be
precipitated using one pH values
 Chemical Treatment - Reduction
●  Hexavalent chromium used in
plating solutions must be reduced
to trivalent chromium before it will
precipitate
●  Sulfur dioxide or sodium bisulfite is
usually used
●  Acid is added to control pH between
2 and 3 to speed up the reaction
Physical/Chemical Treatment - Carbon Adsorption
●  Objective of physical treatment is to separate HW from aqueous solution or gas so that it is
further concentrated for further treatment or recovery
●  Adsorbent activated carbon, molecular sieve, silica gel and activated alumina are commonly
used
●  If the compound has no commercial recovery values, they are normally incinerated
●  Carbon system for recovery of vapor from degreasers and for polishing wastewater effluent
has been used in commercial applications over 20 years
Physical/Chemical Treatment - Distillation
●  To separate more volatile materials from less volatile materials
●  4 types of distillation may be used: batch, fractionation, steam stripping and thin
film evaporation
○  Batch distillation - wastes with high solid concentrations
○  Fractionation - multiple components with minimum amount of solid
○  Air stripping - highly volatile and low concentration of organic compound (e.g. Removal
of VOC from groundwater)
○  Steam stripping - gasses of lower volatility or or higher concentration (> 100 ppm) (e.g.
Aqueous waste contaminated with chlorinated HC, xylenes, acetone, methyl ethyl
ketone, methanol, pentachlorophenol)
●  Evaporation
○  Rising film evaporators - evaporative heating surface covered with wastewater film
○  Flash evaporators - similar configuration but plating solution is continually circulated
○  Submerged tube design - heating coils are submerged in wastewater
○  Atmospheric evaporators do not recover the distillate for reuse
Physical/Chemical Treatment - Ion Exchange
●  Metal and ionized organic chemicals can be
recovered using this method
●  How it works
○  Waste stream containing ion to be removed is passed
through a bed of resin
○  Resin is selected to remove either cations or anions
○  Ions of like charge are removed from the resin surface in
exchange for ions in solution
○  Typically, either H2 or Na is exchanged for cations (metal)
in solution
○  When bed becomes saturated with exchanged ions, it is
●  A prefilter is required to remove suspended
shut down material, organic contaminants and oil that will
○  Resin is regenerated by passing concentrated solution foul the resin
containing original ion (H2 or Na) back through the bed ●  Suitable for chemical recovery with dilute
concentration (<1000 mg/L)
○  Exchanged pollutant is forced off the bed in a
●  Successful in recovering plating chemicals from
concentrated form that may be recycled acid-copper, acid-zinc, Ni, Co, Cr plating bath
 Physical/Chemical Treatment - Electrodialysis
●  Use membrane to selectively retain or transmit specific molecules
●  Membranes are thin sheets of ion exchange resin reinforced by a synthetic fibre backing
○  Anion membranes are alternated with cation membranes in stacks of cells in series
●  How it works
○  Electrical potential is applied across membrane to provide motive for for ion migration (the setting will
determine the degree of purification achieved)

○  Cation membranes permit passage of only positively charged ions, anion only
of negatively charged ions
○  Flow is directed through membrane in two hydraulic circuits - ion depleted
and ion-concentrated
○  The ability to pass the charge is proportional to electrical potential, optimum
is a trade-off between energy requirements and degree of contaminant
removal
●  Separation of waste stream containing 100-500 mg/L salt and
concentrate stream containing up to 10,000 mg/l salt
 Physical/Chemical Treatment - Reverse Osmosis
●  Transport of solvent from concentration solution to dilute
solution across a semipermeable membrane that impedes
passage of solute by increasing pressure above osmotic
pressure on the solution side
●  E.g. metal finishing wastewater: solute is metal, solvent is
pure water
●  Many configuration is possible
●  Driving pressure is 1000 to 5,500 kPa
●  Selected membranes have been demonstrated on Ni, Cu, Zn
and Chrome baths
●  No commercial membrane can tolerate all extreme chemical
factors such as pH, oxidizing agents and aromatic HC

 Physical/Chemical Treatment - Solvent Extraction

●  Contaminant is removed from a waste stream using liquid/liquid extraction if WW is

contacted with a solvent having greater solubility for the target contaminants than the
WW
●  Predominantly used to separate organic materials
●  It is also applied to remove metals if the solvent contains a material that will react with
the metal → liquid ion exchange
●  How it works
○  Solvent and waste stream mix; contaminants soluble in solvent
○  Solvent (call extract) and waste stream (water called raffinate) separated based on gravity
○  Several stages may be required
●  Wide application in ore processing, food, pharmaceutical and petroleum industries

Incineration
●  Chemical decomposed by oxidation at high T > 800oC
●  Primary products from combustion of organic wastes are CO2, H2O, water vapor and inert ash. But
they are multitude of other products also formed.
●  Product of combustion
○  Other than general combustion product, halogenated organic combustion resulted in formation of
halogenated acids, requiring further treatment - most common chlorinated organics → HCl
○  HW containing organic or inorganic sulfur compound, when incinerated produce ethyl mercaptan,
which will then be further oxidized into sulfur dioxide
●  Incineration of solid waste and sludge requires as much as 2-3 times excess air above stoic
equivalent, else incomplete combustion products could result
○  Products include CO, HC, aldehydes, ketones, amines, organic acids, and PAHs
○  A well designed incinerator minimize these products
○  If poorly designed or overloaded incinerator, PICs such as polychlorinated biphenyls decompose into
highly toxic chlorinated dibenzo furans
●  Suspended particles such as mineral oxides and salts and incombustibles are also produced
●  Ash is a hazardous waste as it contains mineral and must be treated prior to land disposal
Incineration - Design considerations
●  Most important factors for proper incinerator design and operation are
combustion temperature, combustion gas residence time, and efficiency of mixing
the waste with air; and auxiliary fuel
●  Chemical and thermal dynamic properties - determine its time/temperature
requirement for destruction that may interfere with incineration or require special
design considerations
○  Elemental composition
○  Net heating value (Higher HV need for solid vs. gas and liquids; high excess air rate if to
sustain combustion without auxiliary fuel - blending is common to achieve NHV > 18.6
MJ/kg)
○  Any special properties (e.g. explosive properties) - blending (max of 30%) is also to limit
net chlorine content of chlorinated hazardous waste
●  HW incinerator must be designed to achieve 99.99% destruction and removal efficiency (DRE)
of the principal organic hazardous components (POHCs) in the waste
Incineration - Types
●  Two technologies dominates (>90% of incinerator facilities):
○  Liquid injection (>90%)
○  rotary kiln (10%);
○  others include fluidized bed and starved air/pyrolysis system
●  Liquid injection incinerators
○  Horizontal, vertical and tangential liquid injectors at 350-700 kPa through atomized nozzle into
the combustion chamber
○  Efficient destruction of liquid HW requires minimizing unevaporated droplets and unreactor
vapor
○  Incinerator size varies from 300,000 - 90 mill J/s of heat release
○  Often use auxiliary fuel such as natural gas or fuel oil as waste is not autogenous
○  Optimized 3Ts (time, temperature and turbulence) to increase destruction efficiencies; typical
values 0.5-2 s, 800-1600oC, high degree of turbulence
○  Additional fuel burners and separate waste injection nozzle can be arrange to achieve the
desired 3Ts depending on configuration
○  Vertical - less ash buildup; tangential - higher heat release and superior mixing
Incineration - Types
●  Rotary Kiln Incinerator
○  Often used as it is versatility in processing solid, liquid and containerized wastes
○  Shell is mounted at an angle to facilitate mixing with circulating air
○  Solid waste and drummed waste are fed by a conveyor system or a ram; liquids and pumpable
sludges are injected through a nozzle
○  Non-combustible metal and other residues are discharged as ash at the end of the kiln
○  Typically 1.5-4 m diameter, 3-10 m length; 2-8 L/D
○  Rotational speed 0.5-2.5 cm/s, depending on kiln edge
○  High L/D, slower speed → waste requiring longer residence time
○  Typically include secondary combustion chambers or after burner for complete destruction of
HW
○  Operating T kiln (800-1600oC); after burner (1000-1600oC); liquid waste is often injected in the
secondary chamber
○  Both chambers are usually equipped with auxiliary fuel firing system for start-up
○  HCl generated is neutralized by lime in the kiln while slightly lowering the alkalinity of the
cement products (utilize cement kiln in cement plants)
 Incinerator - APC
●  Typical equipment include afterburner, liquid scrubber, demister and fine particulate
control device
o Afterburners - control emission of unburned organic by-products by providing additional
combustion volume at elevated temperature
o Scrubbers - physically remove particulate matters, acid gases and residual organics
o Metals are collected in the APCs
o Mist collector - large liquid droplets escape from scrubber
o Electric precipitator - remove fine particulates

●  Scrubber water and residues from other APC are still hazardous and must be treated before
land disposal

 Incinerator - Performance standards
●  There is no clear regulation on the performance standard set by DOE Malaysia so to follow
Good Practises
●  Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents (POHC)
○  DRE for POHC = %mass POHC remove from waste; > 99.99%
○  DRE performance requires sampling and analysis from both waste stream and stack effluent gas
during trial burn
●  Hydrochloric Acid
○  HCl above 1.8 kg/h (1%) in stack gas requires emission control prior to APC equipment
●  Particulates
○  Stack emission is limited to 180 mg per dry standard cubic meter (mg/dscm) corrected to 7% O2
○  Compliance is documented by a trial burn of facility’s waste stream


Stabilization/Solidifications
●  Metals especially cannot be destroyed or detoxified by chemical or physical means
○  Once they are separated from aqueous solution and concentrated in ash or sludge, the hazardous
constituents must be bound up in stable compound meeting leachability standard
●  Definition
○  Stability → degree of resistance of the mixture of HW and additive chemical to leaching in TCLP
test
○  US-EPA → solidification/stabilization refers to chemical treatment process that chemically reduce
the mobility of hazardous constituents
●  Concept
○  Formation of lattice structure and/or chemical bonds that bind the hazardous constituent, limit the
amount of constituent that can be leached when water or mild acid solution come in contact with
the waste matrix
●  Two principle processes: Cement based and lime based
○  Either is added to ash or sludge and waste; and stabilizing agent additive such as silicates
○  Allow to cure to form a solid
○  Applicable to waste containing metal with little/nio organic contaminants, oil or grease
DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
●  Final disposal is land disposal
●  Deep well injection
○  Pumping waste into geologically secure formation
○  Not done in Malaysia thus far
●  Land treatment (land farming)
○  Waste was incorporated with soil material (similar to fertilizer)
○  Microorganisms in the soil degraded the organic fraction of the waste
○  This prohibited in Malaysia due to possible surface run-off and groundwater
contamination
●  Secure Landfill
○  20% HW mass after treatment requires securing in economical fashion thus landfilling is
still major option for the near future
○  Due to the high possibility of leaching of waste into groundwater, siting and construction
of secure landfill is of utmost importance
 DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
●  Landfill siting
○  4 main consideration - air quality,
groundwater quality, surface water quality
and subsurface migration of gases and
leachates
●  Landfill Construction
○  Requires minimum of two or more liners,
a leachate collection system above and
between liners, collect and control surface
run-on and run-off at least water volume
from 24 hours storm, monitoring wells and
a “cap”

 DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
●  Landfill Construction
○  Liners requirement based on US-EPA
regulations as per picture