CELLS

 The smallest structures capable of

maintaining life and reproducing, compose all
living things, from single-celled plants to
multibillion-celled animals.

Anatomy of Generalized Cell

The Nucleus
 -head quarters of the control
center of cell.
 contains the genetic material-
DNA, the blueprint that contains all
the instruction needed for building
the whole body.
 it contains 3 recognizable regions.

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Nuclear Envelope:
 double membrane barrier. It is semipermeable but substances pass through it
much more freely than elsewhere because of its relatively large pores. It is
enclosed a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm.
Nucleoli:
 it contains one or small, dark staining
essentially round bodies. It is the site
where ribosomes are assembled.
Chromatin:
 when a cell is not dividing, its DNA
combined with protein ad forms a loose
network of bumpy threads called
chromatin. When a cell is dividing to form
two daughter, the chromatin threads coil
and condense to form dense rodlike bodies called chromosomes

The plasma Membrane

 is a fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell
contents and separates them from the surrounding
environment
 it is composed of 2 lipid layers arranged tail to tail
in which protein molecules float

Specialization of Plasma membrane

 Microvilli are tiny fingerlike projections that greatly increse the cell surface area
for absorption so that the process occurs more quickly.
 Membrane Junctions vary structurally depending on their roles:
 Tight Junctions are impermeable junctions that bind cells together into
leakproof sheets that prevent substances from passing through
extracellular space between cells

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  Desmosomes are anchoring junctions that prevent cells subjected to
mechanical stress from being pulled apart.
 Gap Junctions commonly seen in the heart and between embryonic cells
function mainly to allow communication.

The Cytoplasm
 It is the site of most cellular activities:
 The three major elements:
* The Cytosol is the semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements.
* The organelles are the metabolic machinery of the cell
* Inclusions are chemical substances that may or may not be present depending
on the specific cell site. This include lipid droplet, glycogen granules, melanin
and mucus
Cytoplasmic Organelles
o Mitochondria are tiny threadlike or sausage –shaped organelles. It produce
energy for cell through cellular respiration. They are the major ATP producers
within the cell.
o Ribosomes are tiny bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins and one variety of RNA
called ribosomal RNA. It is the actual sites of protein synthesis.

o Endoplasmic Reticulum is a system of fluid filled cisterns that coil and twist
through cytoplasm. It functions in transport of materials.
 Rough ER is so called because it is studded with ribosomes and functions
in the synthesis of large amounts of protein for export from the cell
 Smooth ER do not contain ribosomes and function as the site for lipid
synthesis and participate in the detoxification of chemicals. In skeletal
muscles it stores calcium ions.
o Golgi Apparatus appears as a stack of flattened membranous sacs and is the
principal traffic director for cellular protein. It formed a secretory vesicles which
are move to the surface of the cell, the membranes of which then fuse with the cell
membrane where the contents of the vesicles are released to the outside of the
cell.

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 o Lysosomes are membranous bags containing powerful digestive enzymes. It is
capable of digesting worn out or non-usable cell structures and most foreign
substances that enter the cell. It is the cell demolition site
o Peroxisomes are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that
use molecular oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances
o Cytoskeleton acts as a cell’s bones and muscles by furnishing an internal
framework that determines cell shape, supports other organelles and provides the
machinery needed for intracellular transport and various types of cellular
movements
o Microfilament are most involved in cell motility and in producing changes in cell
shape
o Microtubules determine the overall shape of a cell and the distribution of
organelles. They are important in cell division.
o Centrioles are rod shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other. It directs
the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division
o Cilia are whiplike cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface
o Flagella long projection in the cell surface.

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 Eukaryotic Cells

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Cell Physiology
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
TERMINOLOGY
• SOLUTION: is a homogenous mixture of two or more components.
• SOLVENT: the substance present in large amount in a solution. (the disolving
medium)
• SOLUTE: components or substances present in a smaller amounts.
• INTRACELLULAR FLUID: the solution containing small amounts of gases,
nutrients and salts dissolved in the water
• SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY: means that a barrier allows some substances to pass
through it while excluding other. Thus, it allows some substances.

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Passive transport
 It is the kind of movement of materials (region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration) that does not require metabolic energy from the cell but
rely on physical properties of the substance itself

SIMPLE DIFFUSION
* Is the result of the random movement
of molecules. The materials which
move inside the cell membrane are
water solution (ions of a solute is
evenly distributed with water).

OSMOSIS

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 * takes place when some particles move through such a
concentration gradient. (difference in concentration that determines
the movement of water molecules in either direction) when they are
allowed to cross the membrane
 isotonic
 when the concentration inside and outside of the
cell is the same or equal.
 Water molecules can still move in and out of the
cell but in random, hence no osmosis occurs but
the term is dynamic equilibrium.
 hypotonic
 when the concentration of the dissolved
substances is greater inside the cell than outside.
In this manner, water diffuses inside the cell
causing it to swell and if this action continues, cell
will soon burst or cytolyze.
 hypertonic
 when there is greater concentration of
dissolved substances outside the cell than the
inside. In this manner, water moves or diffuses out
of the
cell.

Facilitated diffusion

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  The movement of material across plasma membrane by means of
transport proteins.
 Ions of sodium and potassium (maintain the proper balance of
electrical charges inside and outside the cell) can enter the cell,
move down a concentration gradient.
 This requires 2 types of transport protein:
o Carrier proteins or receptor proteins: changes its shape
after the molecule or ions bind with them and moves or
transport the molecules or ions to across the membrane
o Channel proteins: provide opening or pores across
phospholipid bilayer for molecules or ions to pass.

Active transport
 the material move from an area of lower or lesser concentration to an area of
greater concentration through the membrane and requires cellular energy to
counteract the random motion of the materials that tend to make them diffuse
in opposite direction.
 it requires transport protein. With the use of energy, protein molecules bind
with the ions or molecules or pick up ions from near the plasma membrane,
carry these ions across the membrane, and release them on the other side of
high concentration.

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Bulk or vesicular transport
 Requires an expenditure of energy.
 Macromolecules are entering the cell without crossing the plasma membrane
 Is the movement of larger molecules and fluids into the cell, does not pass
through a membrane but instead the molecules are engulfed and enclosed within
a vesicle.
 There are two types:
Endocytosis:
 material is taken in or bring the particles into cell using an
extension or portion of the plasma membrane. The material is
engulfed and enclosed by the extension
of the membrane.
 two types:
 Phagocytosis: happens in unicellular organisms like
amoeba that ingest food and the larger materials are
enclosed in a vesicle inside the cell, fuses with
lysosome and digested the material to be used by the
cell).
 Pinocytosis: fluid is brought into the cell and also
sometimes require transport proteins when
macromolecules are taken inside the cell.

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 Exocytosis:
o the waste materials (such as indigestible materials) are
transported out of the cell by the infolding parts of the
membrane

CELL DIVISION
CELL CYCLE-
 is a continuous cell growth and division.
 It is generally divided into two major phases: interphase and mitosis.
 The INTERPHASE: has 3 phases: G1, S and G2
 The MITOTIC PHASE: has 4 phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase
 Mitosis is the process in which a new cell nucleus divides into two new nuclei

INTERPHASE
 in between active cell divisions, the cell copies its DNA. The DNA of parent cell
is replicated during this time resulting in two identical DNA molecules which
mean that each cell has two complete cells of identical genetic materials. These
two DNA molecules are found spread throughout the nucleus as thin threads
called CHROMATIN.

The stages of mitosis

EARLY PROPHASE
• Chromosomes condense and become visible

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 • Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes
• Nuclear envelope breaks down
• Centrosomes move toward opposite places
LATE PROPHASE
 Chromosomes continue to condense
 Kinetochores appear at the centromere
 Mitotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores
METAPHASE
 Chromosomes are lined up at the
metaphase plate
 Each sister chromatid is attached to a
spindle fiber originating from opposite
poles

ANAPHASE
 Centromeres split in two sister chromatids (now called
chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles
 Center spindle fibers begin to elongate the cells.

TELOPHASE
 Chromosomes arrived at opposite poles and
begin to decondense
 Nuclear envelope material surrounds each set
of chromosomes
 The mitotic spindle breaks down
 Spindle fibers continue to push poles apart

CYTOKENESIS

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  A contractile ring made of microfilaments forms a cleavage furrow over the
midline of the spindle and it eventually squeezes or pinches the original
cytoplasmic mass into two parts.

MEIOSIS
 Another type of cell division designed to produce gametes or sex cells.
 It has 2 distinct phases, Meiosis 1 And meiosis 2, wherein no DNA replication
happened as the second phase commences.

 PROPHASE 1
 similar to prophase in mitosis and is no longer homologous
chromosomes, undergo pairing or synapsis, they contract, twist around
each other and become visibly double.
 crossing over or exchange of chromatid segments takes place
 nuclear membrane disappears and the spindle a formed between the
centrioles in opposite poles
 METAPHASE I
 the paired chromosomes align on the equatorial plate with their
centromeres attached to the spindle fibers. One centromere per
spindle fiber
 ANAPHASE I
 homologous chromosomes of each pair separate and move to their
respective poles.

 TELOPHASE I
 each pole has haploid number of chromosomes nucleus reorganizes,
chromosome become chromatin and cytoplasmic division occurs then
each daughter chromosome enters interphase.

 Interkinesis
 There is no DNA duplication, maybe brief or very long depending on
the species, or may enter directly to the second meiotic division

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  Prophase II
 Similar to the prophase of mitosis, centrioles divide, chromatin
condenses and nuclear membrane disappears
 Metaphase II
 Haploid chromosomes arranged in bundles of two chromatids gather
at the center prior to separation.
 Anaphase II
 Chromatids of each chromosome separate and moves towards the
poles. In humans, the forty six chromosomes separate from one
another, then the spindle fiber move the chromosomes to opposite
poles of the cell.
 Telophase II
 Chromosomes gather at the poles, become indistinct and reform to a
mass of chromatin, nucleoli reappear, nuclear membrane develops,
the cytosome divides and other cell parts reestablished, then four
daughter cells are formed, each with a haploid number of
chromosomes.

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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• GENES:
• defined as a DNA segment that carries the information for building one protein or
polypeptide chain.
• Component of genetic material which control character traits.
• Located over chromosomes
• CHROMOSOMES
o Contains the Deoxyribonucleic acid ( a blueprint which contains the physical and
chemical characteristics of an organisms) and protein.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS involves two major phases:

• TRANSCRIPTION: when complementary mRNA is made at the DNA gene
• TRANSLATION: when the information carried by mRNA molecules is decoded and
used to assemble proteins.

BODY TISSUES
• Group of cells that are similar in structure and function
• The four primary tissue types- epithelium (covering), connective (support), muscle
(movement), nervous (control).
Epithelial Tissue
• Is the lining, covering and glandular tissue of the body.
• Epithelial functions include protection, absorption, filtration and secretion.
• Classification of epithelium:

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
• One layer of cells
• Most concerned with absorption, secretion and filtration
• TYPES OF SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
* SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
o It resemble as floor tiles

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 o Is a single layer of thin squamous cells resting on basement
membrane
o Forms the air sacs of lungs, the walls of the capillaries, serous
membranes.
* SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
o One layer of cuboidal cells resting on the basement membrane is
common in glands and their ducts (for example, the salivary and
pancreas), kidney tubules and covers the surface of the ovaries.
* SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
o Made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely together.
o It forms the goblet cells, which forms the lubricating mucus,
lines the entire length of digestive tract from stomach to anus,
line the cavities open to body exterior are called mucosae.

STRATIFIED EPITHELIAL
 Consist of two or more cell layers
 These epithelia function primarily to protect
 CLASSIFICATION OF STRATIFIED
* STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
o Consist of several layers of cells
o The cells at the free edge are squamous cells whereas those
close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or columnar
o It is found on sites that receive a good deal of abuse or
friction such as esophagus and the outer portion of the skin
* STRATIFIED COLUMNAR and STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
o Has just two cell layers with the surface cells being cuboidal
in shape and the surface cells if stratified columnar but its
basal vary in shape and size.
o It is found mainly in the ducts of large glands

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
 Is a highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium that forms the lining of
only few organs- the urinary bladder, the ureters and part of the urethra.

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  Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal or columnar; those are at the surface
vary in appearance.

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 GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
 A gland is consisting of one or more cells that
make and secrete a particular product. This
product is called a SECRETION.
 The two major glands develop from epithelial
sheet are ENDOCRINE and EXOCRINE

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Connects the body parts
• They are primarily involved in protecting, supporting and binding together other
body tissues
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
BONE
o Is sometimes called the osseus tissue, is composed of
bone cells sitting in cavities called lacunae and
surrounded by layers of very hard matrix that contains
calcium salts in addition to large numbers of collagen
fibers
o Its rocklike hardness it has the
ability to protect and support
other body organs

CARTILAGE
o is less hard and more flexible than
bone.

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 o The skeleton of fetus is made of hyaline cartilage.
o Highly compressible fibrocartilage forms the spinal column.
o Elastic cartilage is found where a structure with elasticity is desired such as in the
external ear.

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

o Is also called Dense Fibrous Tissue, has collagen fibers as its main matrix element.
o Crowded between collagen fibers are rows of fibroblasts that forms the building
blocks of fibers
o It forms a strong, ropelike structures such as tendons and ligaments

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

o Are softer and have more cells and fewer fibers than any other connective
tissue type except blood.
o AREOLAR TISSUE: The most widely distributed connective tissue variety
in the body, is a soft, pliable, cobwebby tissue that cushions and protects
the body organs it wraps. It hold the internal organs together and their
proper positions
o ADIPOSE TISSUE: IS COMMONLY CALLED FAT. It forms the
subcutaneous tissue and beneath the skin where it insulates the body and
protects it from bumps and extreme of both heat and cold. It cushions the
eye balls from their sockets
o RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Consist of delicate network of
interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells which resembles
fibroblast.
 It forms the stroma (mattress) or internal framework, which can
support many free blood cells (lymphocytes) in lymph nodes, the
spleen and bone marrow.
BLOOD
 Or called the vascular tissue because it consists of blood cells surrounded by
nonliving, fluid matrix called blood plasma.
 The fibers of blood are soluble proteins molecules that become visible only
during blood clotting

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MUSCLE TISSUE
 Are highly specialized to contract or shorten to produce movement

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

SKELETAL
 Is packaged by connective tissue sheets into
organs
 Can be controlled voluntarily forms the flesh of
the body
 The cells are long, cylindrical, multinucleate and
have obvious striations.- are often called
muscle fibers

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 CARDIAC
 Found only in the heart
 It act as a pump and propels blood through the blood vessels.
 It is uninucleated, relatively short, branching cells that fit tightly together at
junctions called intercalated disks

SMOOTH
 No striations are visible
 The individual cells have a single nucleus and
are spindle-shaped.
 It is found in the walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, uterus and blood vessels

NERVOUS TISSUE
 Made up of neurons
 It receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses from one part f the body to
another, thus, irritability and conductivity are
their two major functions.

TISSUE REPAIR
• When tissue injury occurs, it stimulates the body’s inflammatory and immune
response.
• Inflammation is generalized body response that attempts to prevent further injury.
• Tissue repair occurs in two ways:

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 • REGENERATION: the replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of
cells
• FIBROSIS: involves repair by dense connective tissue by the formations of
scar tissue. Which occurs depends on (1) the type of damaged and (2) the
severity of injury.
• Tissue injury sets a series events into motion:
• The capillaries become permeable. This allows the fluid rich in clotting proteins
and other substances to seep into the injured area from the bloodstream. Then
leaked clotting protein construct a clot which stops the loss of blood ,holds the
edges of the wound together.
• Granulation tissue. It is a delicate pink tissue composed largely of new capillaries
that grow into the damaged area from undamaged blood vessels nearby. These
capillaries are fragile and bleed freely as when a scab is picked away from the
skin wound
• The surface epithelium regenerates. As the surface epithelium begins to
regenerate, it makes its way across the granulation tissue just beneath the scab.
The scab soon detaches and final result is a fully regenerated surface that covers
underlying area of fibrosis

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