CCE502: Mobile Communications

Lecture 2: Cellular concepts

P R E PA RED BY
DR . R E HA M SA MI R
DR . S HE R IF HE KA L

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 Cellular concepts
Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between
two moving units, called mobile stations (MSs), or between one
mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a land unit.

A service provider must be able to

◦ Locate and track a caller.
◦ Assign a channel to the call.
◦ Transfer the channel from base station to base station as the caller
moves out of range.

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 Cellular concepts
Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cells.
Each cell contains an antenna and is controlled by a solar or AC powered
network station called the base station (BS).
Each base station is controlled by a switching office, called a mobile
switching center (MSC).

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Cellular concepts

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MSC
◦ Coordinates communication between all BSs and the telephone central office.

◦ Responsible for connecting calls, recording call information, and billing.

Cell size is not fixed and can be increased or decreased depending on the
population of the area.

High-density areas require, smaller cells to meet traffic demands than do

low-density areas.

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Cell size is optimized to prevent the interference of adjacent cell
signals.
The transmission power of each cell is kept low to prevent its signal
from interfering with those of other cells.
Transmitting
◦ The caller enters a phone number and presses the send button.
◦ The mobile station scans the band, seeking a setup channel with a strong
signal then sends the data (phone number) to the closest BS using that
channel.
◦ The base station relays the data to the MSC.

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Transmitting
◦ The MSC sends the data on to the telephone central office.

◦ If the called party is available, a connection is made and the result is

relayed back to the MSC.

◦ At this point, the MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call, and a
connection is established.

◦ The MS automatically adjusts its tuning to the new channel, and

communication can begin.

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Receiving
◦ When a mobile phone is called, the telephone central office sends the
number to the MSC.

◦ The MSC searches for the location of the mobile station by sending
query signals to each cell in a process called paging.

◦ Once the mobile station is found, the MSC transmits a ringing signal.

◦ When the mobile station answers, assigns a voice channel to the call,
allowing voice communication to begin.

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 Cell Shape
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint.
Footprint is determined from field measurements or propagation prediction
models.
Although the real footprint is amorphous in nature, a regular cell shape is
needed for system design.
While it might seem natural to choose a circle to represent the coverage
area of a base station, adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map
without creating overlapping regions.

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 Cell Shape
The hexagonal cell shape is a simplistic model of the radio coverage for
each base station.

For hexagonal cell shape, base station transmitters are depicted as either
being in the center of the cell (center-excited cells) or on three of the six
cell vertices (corner-excited cells).

Omni-directional antennas are used in center-excited cells and sectored

directional antennas are used in corner-excited cells.

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 Types of Cells
Macrocells
◦ Macrocells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas.
Microcells
◦ Microcells are small cells used for densely populated areas.
Femtocell
◦ Femtocell is a small low power cellular base station called access point base station
designed to improve cellular reception inside a home or office building.
Selective Cells
◦ Selective cells are cells with a particular shape and coverage.
Umbrella Cells
◦ Very small cells produces a number of handovers, in order to solve this problem, the
concept of umbrella cells is introduced.
◦ Umbrella cell covers several microcells and if the speed of the mobile is too high, the
mobile is handed off to the umbrella cell.
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 Forward Communication and Reverse
Communication

The channel used to carry traffic from the mobile user to a base
station is called the reverse channel (Uplink).

The channel used to convey traffic to the mobile user from a base
station is called the forward channel (Downlink).

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 Duplex Mode
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) mode
◦ In frequency division duplexing , a band of spectrum is used for uplink
and another band is used for downlink separated by a gap.

◦ FDD provides simultaneous radio transmission channels for the

subscriber and the base station, so that they both may constantly transmit
while simultaneously receiving signals from one another.

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 Duplex Mode
Time Division Duplex (TDD) mode
◦ In time division duplexing , a single block of spectrum is used for uplink and
downlink, but only transmits on the uplink or the downlink at one time.

◦ In TDD, it is possible to share a single radio channel in time, so that a portion

of the time is used to transmit from the base station to the mobile, and the
remaining time is used to transmit from the mobile to the base station.

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 Frequency Reuse

Traditional Frequency Reuse with reuse ratio 1 Traditional Frequency Reuse with reuse ratio 3

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 Frequency Reuse
“Allocating stations different channels in a region of the country, and then
reallocates those same channels to different stations in a completely different
part of the country”.
Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels
available to the entire system.
Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the
interference between base stations and the mobile users under their control is
minimized.
By spacing base stations and their channel groups, the available channels are
distributed throughout the geographic region.

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 Frequency Reuse
Cellular radio systems operate in an interference-limited environment, the
available channels may be reused as many times as necessary, as long as the
interference between co-channel stations is kept below acceptable levels.
Additional radio capacity with no additional increase in radio spectrum can be
achieved by frequency reuse principle.
Frequency reuse or frequency planning is the process of using the same radio
frequencies on radio transmitter sites within a geographic area that are
separated by sufficient distance to cause minimal interference with each other.

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 Figure Frequency reuse patterns

Cells labeled with the same number use the same group of channels.

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 Frequency Reuse
Cluster: A Group of N cells that use the complete set of
available frequencies.
Each cell within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total
Cluster
available channels in the system. Cluster
B
Total number of duplex channels in the system: B G C
C = MNk = MS G C A
A F D
where F D E
E B
M: Number of clusters within the system G C
A
N: Cluster Size F D
E
K: Number of channels per cell
Cluster
S: Number of available physical duplex channels per cluster

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 Frequency Reuse
Example:
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular
telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full
duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of channels
available per cell if a system uses
(a) 4-cell reuse,
(b) 7-cell reuse, and
(c) 12-cell reuse.

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 Frequency Reuse
Solution:
Given:
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simplex channels
= 50 kHz/duplex channel.
Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels.
(a) For N= 4,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/4 = 165 channels.
(b) For N=7,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/7 ≈ 95 channels.
(c) For N = 12,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/12 = 55 channels.
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 Frequency Reuse
Example:

A certain city has an area of 1300 square miles and is covered by a cellular system
using a seven cell reuse pattern. Each cell has a radius of 4 miles and the city has
40 MHz spectrum with a full duplex channel bandwidth of 60KHz. Find:

(a) The number of clusters in the service area.

(b) The number of cells in the service area.

(b) The number of channels per cell.

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 Frequency Reuse
Solution:
(a) Radius of a cell = 4 miles,
Area covered by cell = 3.14*(16)=50.24 square miles.
For 7 cell reuse pattern, area covered by cluster = 7*50.24 = 351.68
square miles.
So, we need 1300/351.68 = 3.7 clusters which is 4 clusters.
(b) No. of cells required to cover 1300 square miles is 4*7 = 28 cells.
(b) Available frequency = 40MHz
Channel bandwidth = 60 KHz No. of channels available =
40MHz/60KHz = 666.
Then no. of channels per cell = 666/7= 95 channels per cell.
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 Frequency Reuse
Locating Co-channel Cells :
◦ Co-channel cells are cells that use the same set of frequencies.
◦ Number of Cells per Cluster (Cluster Size):
N = i2+ij+j2,
Where i, j are inter cell distance along cell centers and they are non-
negative integers.
◦ To find nearest co-channel neighbor of a given cell
◦ Move i cells along any chain of hexagons.
◦ Turn 600 counter clockwise and move j cells.

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 Frequency Reuse
Locating Co-channel Cells :

i=3, j=2, N=19

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handover is the process of maintaining a mobile user’s active
connections as it changes its point of attachment (POA).

For Example:
◦ During a conversation, the mobile station may move from one cell to
another.

◦ When it does, the signal may become weak. To solve this problem, the
MSC monitors the level of the signal every few seconds.

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 Handoff (Handover)
For Example:
◦ If the strength of the signal diminishes, the MSC seeks a new cell that
can better accommodate the communication.

◦ The MSC then changes the channel carrying the call (hands the signal
off from the old channel to a new one).

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handovers can be categorized as imperative (forced) and alternative
(non-forced) handovers.
◦ Handovers due to low link quality are imperative; because the handover
process has to be done fast in order to keep on-going connections.

◦ Handovers, which are used to provide a user with better performance or to

meet a particular preference, can be considered as alternative handovers. E.g.,
a user might require more bandwidth to speed up a data transfer, or need a
cheaper network to reduce the service cost.

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Types:
◦ Factor A: Technologies Involved

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Types:
◦ Factor A: Technologies Involved
◦ Horizontal Handoff
◦ Handoff process of a mobile station between cells supporting the same technology.
For example, between two neighboring base stations of a cellular network.

◦ Vertical Handoff
◦ Handoff process of a mobile station between cells supporting different
technologies. For example, between 2G and 3G cells and between 3G and WLAN
cells.

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Types:
◦ Factor B: Number of Connections Involved

Hard Handoff Soft Handoff

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Types:
◦ Factor B: Number of Connections Involved
◦ Hard Handoff
◦ Handoff that involves the mobile station only communicates with only one POA
(base station) at any given time.

◦ When mobile user moves from one cell to another, communication must first be
broken with the previous POA before communication can be established with the
new one.

◦ Hard handoff is known as Break Before Make.

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Types:
◦ Factor B: Number of Connections Involved
◦ Soft Handoff

◦ Handoff that involves the mobile station can communicate with two POAs at the
same time when moving between them.

◦ When mobile user moves from one cell to another, a mobile station may continue
with the new POA before breaking off from the old one.

◦ Soft handoff is known as Make Before Break.

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Types:
◦ Factor C: Handoff Control
◦ Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
◦ Network takes its own signal strength measurements and makes the handoff decision.

◦ Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO)

◦ Mobile station takes its own signal strength measurements and makes the handoff decision.

◦ Network-Assisted Handoff (NAHO)

◦ The handoff process is distributed. The network makes measurements, the mobile station makes the decision.

◦ Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

◦ The handoff process is distributed. The mobile station makes measurements, the network makes the decision.

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Strategies:
◦ Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests
when allocating unused channels in a cell site.

◦ Handoffs must be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible.

◦ System designers must specify an optimum signal level at which to initiate a

handoff.

◦ A particular signal level is specified as the minimum usable signal for acceptable
voice quality at the base station receiver, a slightly stronger signal level is used as a
threshold at which a handoff is made.
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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Strategies:
◦ This margin is given by:

∆= 𝑃𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑓𝑓 − 𝑃𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

◦ This margin cannot be too large or too small.

◦ If  is too large  unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur
(processing load).

◦ If  is too small  there may be insufficient time to complete a handoff before a

call is lost due to weak signal conditions.

◦ Therefore, is chosen carefully to meet these conflicting requirements.

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 Handoff (Handover)
-80 dBm
Handoff Strategies: -90 dBm
-100 dBm

-80 dBm

-90 dBm
-100 dBm

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 Handoff (Handover)
Handoff Strategies:
◦ Improper handoff means that a handoff is not made, so the call is dropped.

◦ This dropped call event can happen when there is an excessive delay by the
MSC in assigning a handoff, or when the threshold is set too small for the
handoff time in the system.

◦ Excessive delays may occur during high traffic conditions at the MSC or
due to the fact that no channels are available on any of the nearby base
stations.

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 Roaming
Roaming means that, a user can have access to communication or can be
reached where there is coverage.

A service provider usually has limited coverage. When a mobile station

enters another network of neighboring service providers, it can be allowed
to use the services of this service provider through a roaming contract.

Roaming gives a service also for users traveling outside the area of their
“home” operator.

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0G: MTS Mobile telephone System
System Description
Introduced in the late 40’s, by AT&T.
High power transmitter, at high elevation. Not existing
First time to introduce the mobility.
Analog System FM; 120KHz BW enhanced to 30KHz….Max 12CH
No coverage continuity.
Initially half duplex system; upgraded to a full duplex one in 1950.
Very limited capacity and low quality

Washington Call
Baltimore
dropped
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 1G:AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone Service
System Description
The first introduction of the cellular concept.
Freq reuse concept When you are far-enough away you can re-use the channel
Many Cells with low power; instead of few cells with high power.
Analog based system (FM). Not existing
Low quality.
Introducing the Handover concept.
Ch #1 Ch #2 Ch #3 Ch #1

Reuse Distance
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1G:AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone Service

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 First Generation (1G)
The first generation was designed for voice communication using
analog signals.

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 First Generation (1G)
AMPS
◦ Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is an analog cellular phone
system in North America.

◦ The system uses two separate analog channels, one for forward (base
station to mobile station) communication and one for reverse (mobile
station to base station) communication.

◦ AMPS operates in the 800-MHz band.

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 First Generation (1G)
AMPS “Bands”
◦ The band between 824 and 849 MHz carries reverse communication; the
band between 869 and 894 MHz carries forward communication.

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 First Generation (1G)
AMPS “Bands”
◦ Each band is divided into 832 channels.

◦ Two providers can share an area, which means 416 channels in each cell
for each provider. Out of these 416, 21 channels are used for control,
which leaves 395 channels.

◦ AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7 (only one-seventh of these 395

traffic channels are actually available in a cell).

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 First Generation (1G)
AMPS “Transmission”
◦ AMPS uses, FM and FSK for modulation. Voice channels are modulated using FM,
and control channels use FSK to create 30-kHz analog signals.

◦ AMPS uses FDMA to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-kHZ channels.

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Thank You

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