Medieval Muslim Thinkers On Foreign Language Pedagogy: The Case of Ibn Khaldun

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LINGUA-2492; No. of Pages 10
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Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx
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Medieval Muslim thinkers on foreign language pedagogy:

The case of Ibn Khaldun
Antar Abdellah a,b,1[4_TD$IF], Abdelbaset Haridy c,*
a
Taibah University, Saudi Arabia
b
South Valley University, Egypt
c
University of New Mexico, Department of Language, Literacy, and Sociocultural Studies, Hokona Hall, MSC05 3040,
Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
Received 25 February 2016; received in revised form 17 February 2017; accepted 2 May 2017
Abstract
Throughout history, language teaching in the West has depended on traditional methods that relied primarily on the teacher as the
source of information for language and culture. These methods were mainly confined to the teaching/learning of grammar and structure,
and/or imitating native speakers of the language being learned/taught. It was not until the 19th century, from a Western point of view, that
linguists and pedagogues started to form the concept of a foreign language teaching method/approach. However, this article takes a
different stand: it claims that seeds of modern methods of teaching foreign languages and language acquisition theories have their origins in
the writings of medieval Muslim thinkers about teaching Arabic as a foreign language across the Muslim Empire. To support this argument,
a qualitative content analysis was used to draw evidence from the medieval Muslim thinker Ibn Khaldun's history book, Al Muqqadimah [The
Muqqadimah/The Introduction]. Findings of this study indicate that a number of teaching methods, similar to contemporary ones, were
developed by medieval Muslim thinkers. Implications for the teaching of languages to non-native speakers are also provided.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Foreign languages; TAFL; Teaching Arabic; Medieval Islam; Education
1. Introduction
The traditional account of the history of foreign language teaching methods in the West reports that the grammar
translation method has prevailed in educational settings since the time of the Greeks and Romans. Across this history,
there were different attempts to change this method and develop new techniques for teaching (Griffiths and Parr, 2001).
However, the biggest turning point in Western language teaching pedagogy was witnessed in the late 19th century and
the beginnings of the 20th century (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). It was not until then that new approaches, methods and
techniques came into being. In fact, the very idea of differentiating between a theoretical basis called an ‘‘approach’’, a
clear design called a ‘‘method’’, and practical steps called ‘‘techniques’’, originated with the Reform movement of that time
(Howatt and Widdowson, 1984).
Nevertheless, this Western point of view neglects the very early and important impact of Arabic Muslim thinkers on the
advancement of foreign language teaching methodology throughout the medieval world. Proficiency and literacy in
* Corresponding author[5_TD$IF].
E-mail addresses: antar20@aim.com (A. Abdellah), Baset@unm.edu, haridyb@gmail.com (A. Haridy).
1
Professor of Foreign Language Pedagogy and Applied Linguistics.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.05.001
0024-3841/Published by Elsevier B.V.
Please cite this article in press as: Abdellah, A., Haridy, A., Medieval Muslim thinkers on foreign language pedagogy:
The case of Ibn Khaldun. Lingua (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.05.001
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2 A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx
Arabic, the language of science and civilization in the medieval ages (alternatively called Dark Ages in Europe), was in
great demand by non-Arabs who lived within the Islamic Empire, or who came in contact with Arab scholars in different
branches of science (Menocal, 1985; Osman, [6_TD$IF]2003). Arabic script was also widely used by European artists for decorative
purposes (Mack, 2002). There was great demand by Muslims and non-Muslims alike to teach Arabic to children as well as
adults in the newly conquered lands. In fact, the teaching of Arabic was part and parcel of teaching the new religion, Islam,
and its related sciences (Menocal, 1985).
2. Arab/Islamic education in medieval Europe
Lewis (2003) notes that Muslims were in the forefront of human civilization and achievement during the medieval
European ages. Ragep (2001) states that ‘‘nothing in Europe could hold a candle to what was going on in the Islamic world
until about 1600’’. Algebra, algorithm, alchemy, alcohol, alkali, nadir, zenith, coffee, and lemon: these words all derive from
Arabic, reflecting Islam's contributions to the West. In fact, many Western writers, such as Sir Walter Scott, showed
tremendous respect for the Muslims and their civilization and provided insight into the debt Western culture owes to the
Islamic civilization (Deeb, 2014).
According to Bibbs (1999), it was the Muslim expansion into Spain in A.D.1085 that created a new world view and new
learning previously unknown in Europe, such as the technology of paper-making. Muslim scholars also contributed with a
vast number of empirical studies in the natural sciences. These studies were developed by generations of scholars whose
approaches neither belonged to nor were confined by the narrow view of the Catholic Church articulated by St. Augustine
of Hippo.
This brilliance in science, according to Hinkle (2009) and Menocal (1985), gave the Arabic language, the language of
science at that time, prestigious standing in the European medieval ages. In certain Islamic territories, according to
Gallego (2003), the fact that ‘‘Christians had Arabic as their written and spoken language by the eleventh century is
attested in the Arabic documentary evidence produced by the Mozarab community of Toledo (Spain)’’ (p. 113). Arabic was
not only the language of Muslims at that time, but it also became the language of the non-native elite, the educated, and
the language of prestige. In many cases, an excellent knowledge of Arabic allowed non-native Arabic speakers to hold
important offices in Christian kingdoms, as secretaries and courtiers (Gallego, 2003). This led later to the spread of both
Arabic authentic and translated texts throughout Europe.
According to Spade (2013), many non-native speakers who learned Arabic started to translate Arabic texts into other
languages. John of Spain (Johannes Hispanus), for example, translated, among other things, Avicenna's (Ibn Sina, 980--
1037) Logic from Arabic into Latin. Another example is Gundissalinus who translated Avicenna's Metaphysics and some
of his other works into Latin, as well as writings by the Islamic philosophers Al-Farabi (c. 870--950) and Al-Ghazali (1058--
1111). Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187) also translated Al-Kindi's (d. 873) On the Intellect and other works.
Corriente (1997) states that these translations were accompanied by an Arabization process that began at the end of
the eleventh century. Consequently, Arabic gradually replaced Romance languages and Berber as spoken languages.
Arabic mono-lingualism prevailed in Muslim Spain from the end of the eleventh century according to some historians, or
the thirteenth century according to others, until the end of the 17th century. Gallego (2003) notes that ‘‘during these times,
the pride in having a good knowledge of classical Arabic was a prevalent notion in Muslim Andalusian scholarship. And a
good way to prove one's linguistic command was, no doubt, making a linguistic correction to a real Arab’’ (p. 123). Arabic
proficiency was also one of the qualities that one would highlight in his/her biography.
3. Arab/Muslim thinkers and their philosophy of education
Many Arab and Muslim thinkers showed deep insight into the philosophy of Islamic education. Some of these are Ibn
Suhnun (817--870), Al-Farabi (d. 950), Avicenna (980--1037), Al-Jahiz (776--868) and AlGhazli (1058--1111). Most wrote
extensively on education and the roles of both learners and teachers. Though few of them talked about teaching Arabic as
a foreign or a second language to non-Arabs, their contributions have been acknowledged by many successor scholars
(Günther, 2006).
Ibn Sahnun, the ninth-century Arab jurist and chief judge (qaDi) of the Malikites, wrote on the ethics of teachers and
learners, developed the outline of a sound language curriculum, and set rules for developing the character of the learners
(Brockopp, 2011; Günther, 2006; Ismail and Abdullah, 2013). Ibn Sahnun was the very first Muslim scholar to write a
handbook for teachers entitled Rules of Conduct for Teachers (Adab al-mu_allimin) in which he talked about issues that
elementary school teachers might encounter in their classes (Günther, 2006).
Another scholar and pedagogue, Al-Jahiz, was more interested in informing teachers about how to foster in learners
the deduction and reasoning method rather than memorization of texts (Günther, 2006). His book, entitled The Book of
Teachers (Kitab al-Mu_allimin), deals from a literary-philosophical point of view with questions of learning and teaching.
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A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx 3
Al-Jahiz criticized the low status of school teachers. In his writings, he used to ‘‘champion them and stress their
superiority over all other categories of educators and tutors’’ (Günther, 2006, p. 372). He not only contributed to the
development and enrichment of the Islamic philosophy of education and to theorizing that supported teaching functional
grammar to young learners; he also presented a theory of evolution long before Darwin (Bayrakdar, 1983). Out of more
than a hundred and twenty writings of Al-Jahiz (Arifin, 2015), about forty exist today (Bakalla, 1984).
Another outstanding scholar was Al-Farabi, a philosopher, logician, doctor, and musician. Rescher (1962) states that
‘‘Arabs call him the ‘second teacher’, i.e., the successor of Aristotle, the first teacher (p. 11). Al-Farabi advocated the
student-centered approach in teaching, and focused on demonstration (his very book is called The Demonstration) rather
than just instructing students. He also believed that education must be for all, and if education is to be available to all, the
method of teaching should, in turn, be adapted according to the group it is intended for (Al-Talbi, 1993).
While Avicenna is well known as a medical scholar, his views on education are no less important than his views on
medicine. In his writings, he advised teachers to combine the teaching of reading and writing and stressed the importance
of employing Arabic poetry in the curriculum (Günther, 2006). He encouraged teachers to make the classroom joyful for
the students (Abassi and Arezoo, 2014). He also encouraged teaching students to read poetry for pleasure, which
involves teaching them to free themselves to attend to the poem as much as teaching them about the poem (Azadpur and
Silvers, 2005, pp. 37--38).
Al-Ghazali, on the other hand, focused on providing guidance rather than correction when teaching young learners. He
specified detailed roles for students and teachers. Günther (2006) states that Al-Ghazali ‘‘devoted the first chapter of The
Revival to the excellence of knowledge, teaching, and learning’’ (Fadl al-ilm wa-ltalim wa-l-ta-allum), and provided a great
catalog of detailed advice on the duties and proper behavior of both the students and the teachers, entitled Rules of
Conduct for the Student and Teacher (Adab al-muta-allim wa-l-mu-allim) (p. 382). These are but examples of the
intellectual history of medieval Muslim thinkers on education.
4. Abdulrahman Ibn Khaldun
The scholar we investigate here, however, is quite different from those mentioned above. Abdulrahman Ibn Khaldun
(1332--1406) was a historian, a sociologist and a philosopher (Osman, 2003). Boulakia (1971) states that Ibn Khaldun's
given name was Abdulrahman, and his ethnic denomination was Al-Hadrami. He witnessed the last days of the
Andalusian Empire, lived in Morocco, visited Egypt and the Orient and had numerous students in all these parts. He is
considered an eye-witness of the historical, political, social and educational changes that happened in a very rich, as well
as very important, era in Muslim and world history (Alatas, 2006).
Ibn Khaldun is well known for his lengthy introduction in his history book, called Al Muqaddimah [The Muqaddimah/The
Introduction]. This introduction has long been celebrated in both the Arab and Western world because it is seen to contain
the seeds of the modern science of sociology. It lays out the basis for studying human communities and suggests a theory
for human architecture represented in the term asabiya or group feeling (Sidani, 2008). Toynbee (1972) asserts that Ibn
Khaldun has ‘‘conceived and formulated a philosophy of history which is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has
ever been created by any mind in any time or place’’ (p. 321). Thus, several Western scholars have recognized Ibn
Khaldun as the founder of sociology (Gasset, 1976;[1_TD$IF] Maunier, 1913; Von Kremer, 1879).
The Muqaddimah was ‘‘an attempt to explain the different events in history through a cause and effect relationship and
to derive scientifically the principles that lie behind the rise and fall of a ruling dynasty or state (dawlah) or civilization
(umran)’’ (Chapra, 2008, pp. 838--839). Simon (1978) states that the Muqaddimah ‘‘by far surpasses everything that had
been said about human culture until the time of Ibn Khaldun; and it is of equal rank with modern works that are concerned
with similar problems’’ (p. 11). It is also celebrated for its handling of the roles of the historian and how to observe
objectivity in recording and commenting on historical events.
However, apart from these two broad themes of sociology and history, scattered throughout the text are allusions to
important observations about linguistics and language description, as well as to language teaching. This article investigates
some of these observations and historical allusions to the pedagogy of Arabic as a foreign language teaching.
5. Method
Using qualitative methodology, this study analyzed selected extracts from Ibn Khaldun's Muqqadimah. The extracts
were selected from the sixth part of the Muqaddimah, which deals with education and instruction methods at the time of Ibn
Khaldun. These extracts are thought to fall within two categories. The first is the actual practices of teaching and learning
Arabic by native and non-native speakers of Arabic at the time of Ibn Khadun. The second includes Ibn Khaldun's own
ideas regarding the theories of language and language learning that were either implemented in his time, or those he
wished to be implemented.
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The purpose of our analysis is to explore samples of these early writings on foreign language teaching and learning so
as to document/develop a different perspective on the history of foreign language pedagogy. In order to achieve this goal,
the following procedures are followed:
a. The text of the extract is presented in English translation (Rosenthal's translation of Ibn Khaldun's Muqqadimah, 1969).
b. A commentary on the main ideas presented in the extract is presented with reference to the historical, social or linguistic
background of the text for better understanding of the details of the text.
c. Relating Ibn Khadun's ideas to modern theories, approaches, methods and techniques in language teaching or
learning is attempted by comparing the similarities between the extract and the practices of modern science.
d. A conclusion regarding the pedagogical implications for foreign language teaching is presented.
6. Actual practices of teaching Arabic as a foreign language (AFL)
6.1. Content-based instruction

The Maghribi method is to restrict the education of children to instruction in the Qur’an and to practice, during the
course (of instruction), in Qur’an orthography and its problems and the differences among Qur’an experts on this
score. The (Maghribis) do not bring up any other subjects in their classes, such as traditions, jurisprudence, poetry, or
Arabic philology, until the pupil is skilled in (the Qur’an), or drops out before becoming skilled in it. In the latter case, it
means, as a rule, that he will not learn anything. This is the method the urban population in the Maghrib and the native
Berber Qur’an teachers who follow their (urban compatriots), use in educating their children up to the age of
manhood. They use it also with old people who study the Qur’an after part of their life has passed. Consequently,
(Maghribis) know the orthography of the Qur’an, and know it by heart, better than any other (Muslim group). [part 6,
ch. 38].
In this extract, Ibn Khaldun mentions some practices of teaching Arabic to children, as well as adults, in one area of the
Arab world which is Morocco (Maghrib). He explains that the Moroccans used the Quran as the sole text of study. Learners
would study the Quran's religious content and form, that is, its meaning and orthography. Mastering the text (Quran) would
then mean mastering the language. This trend is nowadays called content-based instruction (CBI) in which the content is
the central point in the language teaching practice. Content, within language teaching methodology, is interpreted as the
use of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language teaching/learning (Stoller, 2008). It is clear, though, that
this approach differs from CBI in being limited to religious content.
According to many scholars (Grabe and Stoller, 1997; Pessoa et al., 2007; Stryker and Leaver, 1997; Vyas and Patel,
2009) content-based instruction has many benefits. Some of these benefits include:
a. CBI exposes learners to a considerable amount of language through stimulating content.

b. CBI enables learners to make greater connections with the language and what they already know. Via contextualized
learning, learners are taught useful language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than as
isolated language fragments.
c. Using CBI enables educators to deliver complex information through real life context. Thus, it makes it easy for learners
to grasp new concepts and leads them to develop intrinsic motivation.
d. In CBI, information is reiterated by strategically delivering information at both the right time and suitable context, which
in turn helps learners to learn out of passion.
e. Flexibility and Adaptability of the CBI-based curriculum can be deployed as per the student's interest.
6.2. Whole language and the language experience approach

The Spanish method is instruction in reading and writing as such. That is what they pay attention to in the instruction (of
children). However, since the Qur’an is the basis and foundation of (all) that and the source of Islam and (all) the
sciences, they make it the basis of instruction, but they do not restrict their instruction of children exclusively to (the
Qur’an). They also bring in (other subjects), mainly poetry and composition, and they give the children an expert
knowledge of Arabic and teach them a good handwriting. They do not stress teaching of the Qur’an more than the other
subjects. In fact, they are more concerned with teaching handwriting than any other subject, until the child reaches
manhood. He then has some experience and knowledge of the Arabic language and poetry. He has an excellent
knowledge of handwriting, and he would have a thorough acquaintance with scholarship in general [part 6, ch. 38].
In this extract, Ibn Khaldun mentions another facet of the actual practices of teaching Arabic especially as a second
language in another part of the Arab world, namely Muslim Spain. He explains that the Spanish had a different method of
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teaching than those that were used in the other parts of the Arab world (mainly Morocco, where Ibn Khaldun spent most of
his life). The Spanish utilized the integration of reading and writing in a fashion similar to what is called today whole
language learning.
Whole language, sometimes called the language experience approach, is an approach in teaching that embodies both
a philosophy of language development as well as the instructional approaches embedded within that philosophy. It
includes the use of real literature and writing in the context of meaningful, functional, and cooperative experiences in order
to develop students’ motivation and interest in the process of learning (Bergeron, 1990, p. 319). It also is a constructivist
approach to knowledge creation that focuses on making meaning in reading and expressing meaning in writing (Altwerger
et al., 1987).
The emphasis in whole language, according to Bergeron (1990) is on culturally-diverse literature, journal writing, choral
reading, charts, big books and understanding the meaning-making role of phonics, grammar, spelling, capitalization and
punctuation in diverse social contexts. In the previously mentioned extract, Ibn Khaldun shows that students studied, in
addition to the Quran, poetry and extracts from Arabic authentic writings. Teachers combined practice of the reading skill
with practice of writing, whereby students had to imitate the reading materials and follow their model in their writing of text.
Ibn Khaldun seems to favor this method of instruction followed by the Spanish, as it would make the child ‘‘[have] some
experience and knowledge of the Arabic language and poetry [and] an excellent knowledge of handwriting, and he would
have a thorough acquaintance with scholarship in general’’. It seems also natural for the Spanish to integrate reading and
writing in their instruction, because Spain is perceived as a place where Arabic existed mainly as a second language and
was taught to non-native speakers of the language. They needed, above all, to learn language for communication. The
medium, for them, was more important that the content. So the study of the Quran and its sciences for the sake of
language development would not suffice. A general study of Arabic through both Qur’anic and non-Qur’anic writings,
aided by follow-up writing practices, would have been the best methodology to follow.
In following this integration of reading and writing, and relating both skills to authentic materials and experiential
practices, the teaching of Arabic as a foreign language was very similar to present-day communicative, even post-
communicative, trends in language teaching. It is interesting how modern trends in language teaching methodology,
introduced as curricular innovations, resemble other methods used centuries ago in Arabic second language pedagogy. In
this regard, Decoo (2001) argues that language learning is one of the few disciplines that are ignorant of its own past (p. 18).
7. Ibn Khaldun's views on language learning and teaching
7.1. Scaffolding; the best technique of teaching

It should be known that the teaching of scientific subjects to students is effective only when it proceeds gradually
and little by little. At first, (the teacher) presents (the student) with the principal problems within each chapter of a
given discipline. He acquaints him with them by commenting on them in a summary fashion. In the course of doing
so, he observes the student's intellectual potential and his preparedness for understanding the material that will
come his way until the end of the discipline under consideration (is reached). In the process, (the student) acquires
the habit of the science (he studies). However, that habit will be an approximate and weak one. The most it can do is
to enable the student to understand the discipline (he studies) and to know its problems.
In this extract, Ibn Khaldun makes it clear that students need gradual repetition. Starting from an overall view of the
subject matter, something that echoes the Gestalt stand (Wertheimer, 1923), moving to the details of the mental image,
and finishing with a recalled comprehensive view of the subject matter (Bell, 1991; Parrish, 1928). In suggesting this as a
successful technique in teaching, Ibn Khaldun is also echoing the instructional scaffolding technique.
Scaffolding was introduced primarily as an aid to young children's oral language acquisition. This is naturally relevant
to the old Arab tradition of oral instruction. Although the term started with Bruner in the 1970s (Puntambekar and
Hubscher, 2005), it reached its fame with Vygotsky's ZPD model within the concept of an expert assisting a novice or an
apprentice (Chaiklin, 2003; Wells, 1999).
ZPD (zone of proximal development) is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she
can do with help, or ‘‘scaffolding’’. It is a concept introduced by Vygotsky (1896--1934), who stated that a child follows and
internalizes an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
Vygotsky and some other educators believe that the role of education is to give children experiences that are within their
zones of proximal development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning (Berk and Winsler, 1995).
Scaffolding, in this sense, is a temporary framework that is constructed by the teacher to provide support and access to
meaning by the learner (Gibbons, 2002; Sims et al., 2002).
We notice that Ibn Khaldun focuses on the development of the habit of learning, reaching mastery of the subject matter
through this three-fold process of repetition (Present, acquaint, observe). Saye and Brush (2002) identify two levels of
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Table 1
The steps within the process of scaffolding.
Ibn Khaldun's steps Modern scaffolding steps Modern scaffolding steps

Group scaffolding One-on-one
- Pose principal problems, provide summary, evaluate - Know your students. - Motivate the student.
aptitude (Gestalt overview). - Model explicitly. - Sit side by side as you explain.
- Provide detailed commentaries and explanations. Nurture struggling. reader's development - Focus on the need.
- Give another overview: all secrets revealed and - Teach within the ZPD. - Give the student feedback
nothing is still complicated or vague. Learners’ independence (Robb, 2003).
(Gibbons, 2002; Walqui, 2006).
instructional scaffolding; the soft and the hard. The soft level would be used when need arises among students in the
classroom, especially with a hard piece of information or language structure (Van Lier, 1994). The hard or embedded
scaffolding is planned in advance for special students when the teacher knows they need assistance. It would become as
a type of remedial teaching (Kao et al., 1996). Ibn Khaldun points out that not all students need the three-fold repetition
process; as some of them may be able to get it by fewer repetitions (Table 1).
7.2. Language as a habit; audio-lingual method

It should be known that all languages are habits similar to crafts (techniques). They are habits (located) in the tongue
and serve the purpose of expressing ideas. The good or inadequate (character of such expression) depends on the
perfection or deficiency of the habit. This does not apply to individual words but to word combinations. A speaker
who possesses a perfect (linguistic) habit and is thus able to combine individual words so as to express the ideas he
wants to express, and who is able to observe the form of composition that makes his speech conform to the
requirements of the situation, is as well qualified as is (humanly) possible to convey to the listener what he wants to
convey. This is what is meant by eloquence.
Habits result only from repeated action. An action is done first (once). Thus, it contributes an attribute to the
essence. With repetition it becomes a condition, which is an attribute that is not firmly established. After more
repetition, it becomes a habit, that is, a firmly established attribute. [part 6, ch. 45].
Ibn Khaldun's stand in this extract is similar to that of the tenants of the audio-lingual method. Within the audio-lingual
method, language teaching and learning was seen as habit formation (Howatt and Widdowson, 1984), whereby a learner
develops a response to a stimulus in presence of reinforcement. The Audio-lingual method was basically developed by
the merging of two very broad theories in language and psychology. Bloomfield's structuralism marked the theory of
language where language is no longer what is coded in dictionaries or grammar books. Rather, language, in the structural
view, is what the native speakers of the language say.
The theory of learning, on the other hand, was the ambitious results of Connectionist psychologists, headed by Pavlov
and Thorndike. The successful animal-based experiments of connectionism were like a spark for the emerging audio-
lingual method that took drill, accordingly, as the main language teaching activity. Mimicry-memorization was the name of
the game (Kumaravadivelu, 2006).
It is interesting how Ibn Khaldun describes the process of habit formation through repetitions, and how this description
is fully applicable to the drill activities within the audio-lingual method. Repetition, in Ibn Khaldun's views, contributes to
forming a condition, which leads to forming a raw form of attribute that finally leads to a habit formation (or an established
attribute); thus making the learner use the language naturally in a mode similar to its native speakers. Thus, in the broad
sense, the three stages of habit formation are: repetition, condition and then attribute. With guided repetition and gradual
learning action, a preliminary attribute becomes ‘‘habit’’, that is, a firmly established attribute. Ibn Kaldun's description of
habit formation may well represent the theory of language learning.
The theory of language, on the other hand, would be his emphasis that language habits ‘‘exist in the tongue’’; that is; it
is natural with all human beings. Moreover, in regards to the Arabic linguistic branches, he gave the priority to learning
grammar over learning rhetoric, literature, and lexicography (Hadad, 2011). This may ring a bell regarding Chomsky's
universal grammar, where all languages of the world are learnable to the human mind based on universal rules that govern
the underlying system of human languages.
It is surprising how Ibn Khaldun emphasizes that habit is relevant to word strings, not to individual words, thus focusing
on the holistic view where language is not parts that are grouped together, but rather a whole view of a living organism. In
fact, he sees learning as the acquisition of a ‘habitus’ (malaka), which he views as a ‘‘stable quality resulting from a
repeated action until its form has taken final shape’’ (Cheddadi, 2005, p. 12). The formation of this faculty/malaka
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necessitates that the language teacher avoids complexity and focus on gradual presentation of language to learners,
moving from part to whole, simple to complicated, and general to specific.
There is also the reference to the communicative situation where the learner should ‘‘conform his speech to the
requirements of the situation’’. It is not just linguistic competence, whereby the learner is ‘‘able to combine individual words
so as to express the ideas he wants to express’’, but also communicative competence, that pays equal attention to ‘‘the form
of composition’’ and the communicative contextual meaning, ‘‘the requirements of the situation’’ (Kumaravadivelu, 2006).
7.3. Teach the language, not about the language

The habit of the language is different from Arabic philology and can dispense with it in (the process of) instruction.
The reason for this is that Arabic philology is merely a knowledge of the rules and forms of this habit. It is the
knowledge of a quality, and not a quality itself. It is not the habit itself. Rather, it is comparable to a person who has a
theoretical knowledge of a craft but does not know how to exercise it in practice. . .. But if he were challenged to do
something like the (things he talks about) with his own hands, he would in no way be able to.
The same applies to the relationship between knowledge of the rules governing the vowel endings and the
(linguistic) habit itself. Knowledge of the rules is a knowledge of how to use them, but it is not the actual use of them.
Therefore, we find that many outstanding grammarians and skilled Arab philologists who have a comprehensive
knowledge of those rules make many mistakes and commit many solecisms when they are asked to write one or
two lines to a colleague or friend, or to write a complaint concerning some injustice or anything else they might want
to say. They cannot put (the words) together and express what they want to say in a way that corresponds to the
ways of the Arabic language. [part 6, ch. 49].
In this extract, Ibn Khaldun clearly differentiates between knowing a language and knowing about a language. He
explains that knowing a language refers to the skills of using this language through actual practice ‘‘writing letters, or
complaints to express different needs’’. This actual practice, through interaction with native Arabic speakers, according to
(Mohammad, 2012), led many non-Arabs, especially the younger generations, to master Arabic as if it was their native
language. Later, those non-Arabs contributed to the advancement of
Knowing about the language, on the contrary, is knowledge of the system of the language without necessarily being
able to functionalize this system in communicative interaction. Knowing about a language entails knowing about the
peculiarities of its grammar and sound systems, knowing about the different case endings and their rules, and knowing
about how words should be grouped together to form a string of meaningful language utterance. The difference between
the two (knowing a language and knowing about a language) is the object of many recent discussions in language
teaching methodology. The basic cause behind this difference is the concept of ‘‘habit’’.
Using the language, for Ibn Khaldun, is a habit that needs to be developed until it is full-fledged habit, a complete
attribute of the person. Knowing about the language, on the other hand, is not a habit; it is mere theoretical knowledge.
Even some of the great scholars in linguistics (philology) will make mistakes in the actual practice of using the language, if
it has not been fully developed into an attribute.
With the reform movement in the last quarter of the 19th century, scholars decided that it was not linguistic study that
we seek to teach to our children (knowing about the language). Rather, it was the different language skills that ensure
successful and meaningful communication. Ibn Khaldun gives the examples of a tailoring student and a carpentry student
who both know well about the technicalities of each craft, but otherwise cannot put this knowledge into action. Moulton's
(1961:63) slogans compile the descriptive and methodological features of this position:
a. Language is speech, not writing.

b. A language is what its native speaker's say, not what someone thinks they ought to say.
c. Languages are different.
d. A language is a set of habits.
e. Teach the language, not about the language.
7.4. Non-natives as better language teachers

As for the Spaniards, their varied curriculum with its great amount of instruction in poetry, composition, and Arabic
philology gave them, from their early years on, a habit providing for a better acquaintance with the Arabic language.
They were less proficient in all the other (religious) sciences, because they were little familiar with study of the
Qur’an and the traditions that are the basis and foundation of the (religious) sciences. Thus, they were people who
knew how to write and who had a literary education that was either excellent or deficient, depending on the
secondary education they received after their childhood education. [part 6, ch. 38].
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It is a remarkable fact that, with few exceptions, most Muslim scholars both in the religious and in the intellectual
sciences have been non-Arabs. When a scholar is of Arab origin, he is non-Arab in language and upbringing and
has non-Arab teachers. This is so in spite of the fact that Islam is an Arabic religion, and its founder was an Arab.
[part 6, ch. 42].
In this extract, Ibn Khaldun differentiates between native and non-native teachers of Arabic as a foreign language. He
points out that non-native (Spanish) teachers of Arabic were very proficient in the Arabic language, although their
knowledge about other sciences of religion may not have been as profound. Native teachers, however, may have
provided better language models, not necessarily better language teachers. Ibn Khaldun indicates that the prominent
figures in the history of Arabic language study -- in addition to other religious sciences -- were non-Arabs.
In this distinction, Ibn Khaldun seems aware of the mental processing strategies followed by native and non-native
teachers of the language. Bailey (2006) explains that natives are not much concerned about explaining grammar and
focus more on meaning and communication. Non-natives, on the other hand, are keener on explaining every bit of
grammar and pronunciation.
Amin (2001 in Bailey) states that ‘‘the native speaker of English is such a powerful construct, one so embedded in myth,
that it is daunting to attempt to disentangle fact from fable’’ (p. 90). Medgyes (2001) shows that non-native-speaking teachers
tend to focus on accuracy, including attention to grammar rules. They emphasize the printed word and formal registers and
often teach items in isolation. Non-native speakers use more of the students’ first language and resort to translation more
often during lessons. They also assign more homework than do their native speaking counterparts (p. 435).
Native speakers, on the other hand, adopt a more flexible approach, are more innovative and less empathetic, attend to
perceived needs, have unrealistic expectations, are frequently more casual, and are sometimes less committed to
teaching. In contrast, non-native speaking teachers adopt a more guided approach, are more cautious, are more
empathetic to the students, attend to real needs, and have realistic expectations. It appears they are also stricter and more
committed to teaching.
In a study carried out by Medgyes (2001) on native and non-native teachers of English, students/respondents listed six
areas where non-native speaking teachers were better equipped than most native speakers: They can (1) provide a better
learner model; (2) teach language-learnings strategies; (3) supply more information about the English language; (4) better
anticipate and prevent language difficulties; (5) be more sensitive to their students; and (6) benefit from their ability to use
their students’ mother tongue (p. 436).
8. Implications
Speculating that the past creates the future: This qualitative content analysis suggests that most of modern day theories
of foreign language teaching existed long ago in the teaching of Arabic during the medieval Islamic age. An example of
that is scaffolding, that was revived within modern theories and was presented as a totally new concept. Speculating on
past language teaching/learning theories and techniques shows that many contemporary theories have been presented
as new, while, in reality, they had already been developed centuries before, had blossomed and then died.
The use of different teaching methods: Learners are different in the way they receive, conceptualize, and reproduce
knowledge. They also learn using different learning styles. Educators in medieval Islam acknowledged these
differences and used various methods to satisfy this variety. Modern language teachers should do their best to
understand and address different learning styles of their students.
Emphasis on teaching the language communicatively: Educators of foreign languages should focus on teaching the
skills of using the foreign language through actual practice ‘‘writing letters, or complaints to express different needs’’.
The ultimate goal of an educator should be helping learners practice and acquire the ability to communicate with the
language being learned in a communicatively real situation.
The use of scaffolding: medieval Muslim educators believed that the best teaching environment is where both the
learner and educator can take the responsibility of learning (Abu Amsha, 2014). One of the teacher's responsibilities is
to know the weaknesses of his/her students and provide remedies whenever necessary.
Non-native teachers are also capable: They possess the ability of knowing what difficulties non-native learners face in
the process of learning the foreign language. They provide a better learner model and they could better anticipate and
prevent language difficulties.
9. Conclusion
This qualitative content analysis documents that medieval Muslim thinkers paid great attention to pedagogy in general
and to the teaching of Arabic as a foreign language specifically. In their writings, Ibn Jenni, Al Jahiz, Al Do’adli, Aljurjani,
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Ibn IsHaq, Ibn Elsekkeet, Ibn Khaldun, and other Muslim thinkers did not prescribe a method that fits all students. Rather,
as was illustrated in Ibn Khaldun's The Introduction, they tried to investigate the ways their students learn in different
contexts in the vast Islamic Empire and came up with a variety of methods that address different learning styles.
The pedagogical/educational heritage that medieval Muslim thinkers left behind, most of which is still hidden in the
Arab traditional sources, could be of a great benefit to modern educators and theorizers. For a long time, the contributions
of medieval Muslim thinkers to the theory and practice of foreign language teaching were neglected by the Western
mainstream. It is time for this important reserve of pedagogical wisdom to be revived and celebrated[2_TD$IF].
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Prof. Lois Meyer, at the University of New Mexico, USA, for her invaluable comments
and feedback on an earlier version of this article. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their careful reading
of our manuscript and their many insightful comments. The authors also thank Taibah University represented in the
Deanery of Scientific Research for funding this project.
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Medieval Muslim Thinkers On Foreign Language Pedagogy: The Case of Ibn Khaldun

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Medieval Muslim thinkers on foreign language pedagogy:

Keywords: Foreign languages; TAFL; Teaching Arabic; Medieval Islam; Education

2 A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx

2. Arab/Islamic education in medieval Europe

3. Arab/Muslim thinkers and their philosophy of education

A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx 3

4. Abdulrahman Ibn Khaldun

4 A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx

6. Actual practices of teaching Arabic as a foreign language (AFL)

6.1. Content-based instruction

a. CBI exposes learners to a considerable amount of language through stimulating content.

6.2. Whole language and the language experience approach

A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx 5

7. Ibn Khaldun's views on language learning and teaching

7.1. Scaffolding; the best technique of teaching

6 A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx

Ibn Khaldun's steps Modern scaffolding steps Modern scaffolding steps

7.2. Language as a habit; audio-lingual method

A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx 7

7.3. Teach the language, not about the language

a. Language is speech, not writing.

7.4. Non-natives as better language teachers

8 A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx

A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx 9

10 A. Abdellah, A. Haridy / Lingua xxx (2017) xxx--xxx

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