PUBLICATIONS
Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
RESEARCH ARTICLE
10.1002/2016JB013241
Special Section:
Slow Slip Phenomena and
Plate Boundary Processes
Key Points:
• The effect of temperature on the
residual strength of soils with varying
smectite content was investigated
• The shear strength of smectite-rich
soils decreases with decreasing
temperature at slow shearing
velocities
• The temperature effect is influenced
by shear-surface conditions, in which
platy smectite particles are strongly or
weakly oriented
Supporting Information:
• Supporting Information S1
Correspondence to:
T. Shibasaki,
shibasaki@scs.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Citation:
Shibasaki, T., S. Matsuura, and
Y. Hasegawa (2017), Temperature-
dependent residual shear strength
characteristics of smectite-bearing
landslide soils, J. Geophys. Res. Solid
Earth, 122, 1449–1469, doi:10.1002/
2016JB013241.
Received 4 JUN 2016
Accepted 15 JAN 2017
Accepted article online 20 JAN 2017
Published online 8 FEB 2017
©2017. American Geophysical Union.
All Rights Reserved.
SHIBASAKI ET AL.
Temperature-dependent residual shear strength characteristics
of smectite-bearing landslide soils
Tatsuya Shibasaki1 , Sumio Matsuura1 , and Yoichi Hasegawa2
1
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan, 2Japan Conservation Engineers & Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Abstract This paper presents experimental investigations regarding the effect of temperature on the
residual strength of landslide soils at slow-to-moderate shearing velocities. We performed ring-shear tests
on 23 soil samples at temperatures of 6–29°C. The test results show that the shear strength of smectite-rich
soils decreased when temperatures were relatively low. These positive temperature effects (strength losses at
lower temperatures) observed for smectite-bearing soils are typical under relatively slow shearing rates. In
contrast, under relatively high shearing rates, strength was gained as temperature decreased. As rheological
properties of smectite suspensions are sensitive to environmental factors, such as temperature, pH, and
dissolved ions, we inferred that temperature-dependent residual strengths of smectitic soils are also
attributed to their specific rheological properties. Visual and scanning electron microscope observations of
Ca-bentonite suggest that slickensided shear surfaces at slow shearing rates are very shiny and smooth,
whereas those at moderate shearing rates are not glossy and are slightly turbulent, indicating that platy
smectite particles are strongly orientated at slow velocities. The positive temperature effect is probably due
to temperature-dependent microfriction that is mobilized in the parallel directions of the sheet structure of
hydrous smectite particles. On the contrary, the influence of microviscous resistance, which appears in the
vertical directions of the lamination, is assumed to increase at faster velocities. Our results imply that if
slip-surface soils contain high fractions of smectite, decreases in ground temperature can lead to lowered
shear resistance of the slip surface and trigger slow landslide movement.
1. Introduction
Residual shear strength of slip-surface soils is an important index for investigating landslide mechanisms and
evaluating the reactivation potential [Skempton, 1964; Skempton, 1985; Mesri and Shahien, 2003]. It is usually
measured by large-displacement shearing machines under slow shearing velocities and drained conditions.
High-plasticity soils under residual strength conditions often contain well-defined slickensided shearing
planes, where platy clay minerals are highly oriented. Until now, many researchers have studied the residual
shear strength characteristics of soils and found that residual strength levels, which are usually discussed in
terms of frictional coefficient or friction angle, are influenced by various factors. In addition to test conditions
(e.g., normal stresses and shearing rates) [e.g., Skempton, 1985; Stark and Eid, 1994; Tika et al., 1996], effects of
soils properties, such as mineral compositions [e.g., Kenney, 1967; Yamasaki et al., 2000; Tiwari and Marui,
2005; Nakamura et al., 2010], pore fluid chemistry [e.g., Kenney, 1977; Tiwari et al., 2005], index properties [e.g.,
Skempton, 1964; Lupini et al., 1981; Stark and Eid, 1994], and grain shape [Lupini et al., 1981; Li et al., 2013], have
drawn much interest and have been investigated. From a geotechnical point of view, estimation of the residual
strength of slip-surface soils is important; therefore, relationships between the residual friction angle and soil
properties, such as clay fraction and index properties, have been vigorously discussed [Kanji, 1974; Lupini
et al., 1981; Mesri and Cepeda-Diaz, 1986; Collotta et al., 1989; Wesley, 2003]. High-plasticity soils that contain high
clay fraction and swelling clay minerals, i.e., smectite, generally exhibit very low friction angles that are <10°.
Reactivated landslides on clayey slopes generally exhibit slow movement during periods of intense rainfall
and/or snow-melt. In many cases, slip-surface soils of those landslides are enriched in clay and are considered
to be under residual strength conditions. Rises in pore water pressure lead to reductions in effective normal
stress and shear resistance of the slip surface and subsequently induce slope instabilities. This mechanism is
strongly supported by many field data that show clear relationships between landslide displacements and
rises in pore water pressures [e.g., Corominas et al., 2005; Tommasi et al., 2006; Matsuura et al., 2008; Schulz
et al., 2009b]. On the contrary, when we focus on fluctuation factors other than hydrological conditions
(e.g., pore water pressure and soil moisture), it is noted that groundwater chemistry and ground
TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT RESIDUAL STRENGTH 1449
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

temperature conditions also fluctuate on short- or long-term time scales. The influences of these factors on
the slope stability have also drawn interest, and some studies have been conducted.
It is well known that mechanical properties of clays are affected by the chemical characteristics of soils, such as
pH, chemistries of pore fluids, and exchangeable cations in clay minerals. Pore water chemistries (ion concen-
trations and pH) strongly affect the residual strength of soils. An increase in the dissolved ion contents of pore
fluids strengthens clays [Kenney, 1977; Moore, 1991; Di Maio and Fenellif, 1994; Di Maio, 1996; Anson and
Hawkins, 1998; Tiwari et al., 2005; Di Maio et al., 2014]. Moore and Brunsden [1996] and Di Maio et al. [2014]
pointed out that mudslides occurring in marine mudstone areas can be destabilized because of a dilution
of ion concentrations in pore fluids during wet seasons. On the other hand, if we focus on ground temperature,
near-surface grounds are susceptible to seasonal fluctuations in temperature [e.g., Lapham, 1989]. According
to monitored data obtained from landslide sites in Japan [Takeuchi, 1996; Ito et al., 2003; Shibasaki et al., 2016],
seasonal variations in the temperatures of soils and groundwater in boreholes were noted at depths shal-
lower than 10 m. In Busuno-Touge landslide in Japan, monitored ground temperatures showed that there
are annual variations of 20, 7, and 2°C at depths of 1.0, 3.3, and 6.6 m, respectively [Shibasaki et al., 2016].
Particularly for shallow landslides, it is quite likely that substantial portions of the slip surface are affected
by seasonal fluctuations in ground temperature.
With respect to the effect of temperature on mechanical properties of clayey soils, there are many studies that
focus on peak strength. Most of these studies were carried out by using triaxial testing apparatuses [e.g.,
Campanella and Mitchell, 1968; Houston et al., 1985; Towhata et al., 1993; Kuntiwattanakul et al., 1995]. It has
been reported that the effect of temperature on peak shear strength of normally and overconsolidated clays
depends on drainage conditions during both temperature change and shearing stages [Kuntiwattanakul
et al., 1995]. On the contrary, the effect of temperature on the residual strength of soils remains poorly
understood, although related studies were conducted by Bucher [1975] and Shibasaki and Yamasaki [2010].
Bucher [1975] investigated the effect of temperature, ranging from 10 to 60°C, on two low-plasticity soils
(PI = 27, ϕr0 = 12.5° and PI = 30, ϕr0 = 25.6°), and reported no remarkable influences on the residual strength.
Shibasaki and Yamasaki [2010] conducted temperature-change (eventual cooling) ring-shear experiments
on 13 soils and revealed that the strength characteristics of smectite-rich soils are sensitive to temperature.
They found that smectite-rich soils weaken with decreasing temperature under slow shearing velocities.
Smectite is a unique clay mineral that shows a swelling characteristic and an extremely low frictional angle
and therefore often behaves as a geological controlling factor for landsliding, even on very gentle slopes
[e.g., Azañón et al., 2010]. In addition, hydrous smectite sometimes composes tectonic fault gouges. In the
research fields of both soil and rock mechanics, mechanical properties of smectite-bearing soils and fault
gouges have been intensively investigated [e.g., Kenney, 1967; Mesri and Olson, 1970; Saffer et al., 2001;
Saffer and Marone, 2003]. Frictional experiments using large-displacement shearing machines, such as
ring-shear and rotary shear apparatuses, have been conducted on smectite-bearing materials under various
conditions, spanning wide ranges of confining stresses, temperatures, moisture conditions, and shearing
velocities (see the review by Moore and Lockner [2007]). Recently, frictional properties of smectite-bearing
gouges were one of the most popular research topics used to argue velocity-dependent frictional behaviors
and coseismic instabilities of plate-boundary faults [Ujiie et al., 2013; Oohashi et al., 2015; Ikari et al., 2015].
In this paper, we report delicate temperature- and shearing rate-dependent shear behaviors of smectite-
bearing soils. To better understand the thermal influence on the stability and occurring mechanism of
slow-moving landslides, we conducted ring-shear experiments under relatively low normal stresses
(200 kPa in most cases) and slow-to-moderate shearing rate conditions (0.0025–5 mm/min). Based on the
experimental data previously reported by Shibasaki and Yamasaki [2010], we performed additional experi-
ments on landslide soils with varying smectite contents. The purpose of this study is to reveal detailed
temperature-dependent residual shear strength characteristics of smectite-bearing soils.

2. Methods
2.1. Ring Shear Apparatus
We used two ring-shear apparatuses (referred to in this paper as Type I and Type II apparatuses). Schematic
illustrations of both apparatuses are shown in Figure S1 in the supporting information. The Type I ring-shear

SHIBASAKI ET AL. TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT RESIDUAL STRENGTH 1450

 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

apparatus is a conventional displacement-controlled apparatus designed for measuring the drained residual
shear strength of soils. The machinery of this apparatus is fundamentally similar to that developed by Bishop
et al. [1971]. A normal load is applied through a pneumatic system, and normal stress acting on the test
samples is evaluated by deducting the side friction between the upper confining ring and the test specimen
from applied normal load. During shearing tests, the gap between the upper and lower confining rings was
kept slightly open to avoid ring-to-ring friction. We used this apparatus for most of the cooling- and heating-
event tests. Soil leakages from the gap were recognized during shear tests of some soils. In such cases, vertical
displacements continued slowly throughout the test. However, this problem did not seem to influence our
interpretations regarding thermal effects on residual strength, because the soil leakage was not particularly
accelerated during temperature-change events.
The Type II ring-shear apparatus is an improved apparatus designed for both displacement-controlled tests
and shear stress-controlled tests (creep tests). Normal stresses acting on the test sample are measured
directly by a load cell located below the ring-shear box. The normal load on the tested sample and the
gap between the upper and lower confining rings are maintained by a computer-controlled feedback system
that employs two servomotors. We used the Type II apparatus only for one cooling-event test (test on sample
No. 3). The gap between the upper and lower confining rings was kept open by approximately 0.2 mm during
the experiments.
Sizes of test specimens in both apparatuses had outer and inner diameters of 15 and 10 cm, respectively. Test
samples were prepared with the following procedures. Soils with water content higher than the liquid limit
were consolidated by an exclusive-use consolidation apparatus at 80% of the final normal stresses.
Preconsolidated cylindrical specimens were then trimmed to obtain annular samples, 20 mm in height, which
were set in the ring-shear box. Test samples were sheared under normally consolidated conditions after they
were fully consolidated and stabilized at the final normal stresses in the shear box.
2.2. Procedures for the Temperature Change Ring-Shear Test
In this study, soil samples were subjected to temperature-change experiments under residual shear
strength conditions. Temperature conditions of the test specimens were controlled by cooling or heating
water within the shear-box bath. Cooling experiments were performed by using the following two meth-
ods. When cooling tests continued for several hours, crushed ice was added intermittently to the shear-
box bath so that the bath would remain cold throughout the test. When we performed long-term cooling
or heating experiments, temperature-controlled water was circulated from an external bath to the shear-
box bath. Cooled or heated water was sent to the shear-box bath by an electric pump and returned to
the external bath by a siphon system. Exclusive-use cooling equipment and a hot plate were used for con-
trolling water temperature in the external bath. Schematic illustration of experimental system is shown in
Figure S1.
Temperatures of soils were not monitored directly, but temperatures of water in the shear-box bath were
monitored throughout the shearing tests. Sudden changes in temperature would cause delays in the
acclimation of test specimens to the temperature of the surrounding water. Therefore, to compare shear
strength levels precisely at different temperatures, we focused on steady state shear behaviors during stable
temperature conditions.
In this study, most of the experiments were performed at a normal stress of 200 kPa. However, the test on sample
No. 17 was conducted at a normal stress of 50 kPa, because sample leakage from the shearing plane (the gap
between upper and lower confining rings) was significant at high normal stress conditions (100–200 kPa).
Many of the tests were performed at slow shearing velocities ranging from 0.005 to 0.02 mm/min. In order
to investigate the influence of shearing rate on temperature effect, experiments at shearing velocities faster
than 0.1 mm/min were conducted on four soil samples (Nos. 7, 11, 12, and 19). In addition, to reveal
detailed shearing rate-dependent characteristics of soils with high smectite fraction, we thoroughly conducted
both constant-velocity and velocity-stepping ring-shear experiments on Ca-bentonite (No. 7) under room tem-
perature condition and varying shearing velocities (0.0005–500 mm/min).
2.3. Test Samples
Cooling-event tests were performed on a total of 23 soil samples. A list of test samples and information on
their corresponding index properties, grain size distributions, and mineral assemblages are shown in

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Table 1. List of Soil Samples and Their Soil Properties

a
Sample Index Properties Grain Size

No. A-R: Landslide soils Location Geology LL (%) PL (%) PI Analysis Method Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%)
1 A Nagasaki, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Paleogene 162.9 46.3 116.6 I 48 52 0
2 B Nagasaki, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Paleogene 131.2 49.9 81.3 I 32 68 0
3 C Nagasaki, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Paleogene 121.9 41.5 80.4 II 66 27 7
4 D Nagasaki, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Paleogene 185.0 62.4 122.6 I 70 30 0
5 Ca-bentonite 223.6 78.3 145.3 I 24 76 0
6 E Niigata, Japan Tuff, Neogene 144.8 37.7 107.1 II 53 36 11
7 Ca-bentonite 166.5 46.5 120.0 I 12 88 0
8 F Niigata, Japan Tuff, Neogene 175.9 36.3 139.6 II 47 28 25
9 G Akita, Japan Altered andesite, Quaternary 135.7 63.4 72.3 II 52 41 7
10 H Niigata, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Neogene 125.8 41.1 84.7 I 59 41 0
11 I Saga, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Paleogene 124.7 39.7 85.0 II 54 41 5
12 J Hyogo, Japan Tuff, Paleogene 116.0 36.8 79.2 II 42 44 14
13 K Niigata, Japan Mudstone, Neogene 75.3 30.1 45.2 II 42 52 6
14 L Niigata, Japan Mudstone, Neogene 76.1 29.2 46.9 II 53 42 5
15 M Niigata, Japan Mudstone, Neogene 104.7 32.1 72.6 II 48 49 3
16 N Niigata, Japan Mudstone, Neogene 80.5 28.8 51.7 II 39 59 2
17 O Hokkaido, Japan Mudstone, Cretaceous 108.7 21.6 87.1 II 67 30 3
18 P Nagasaki, Japan Tuffaceous mudstone, Paleogene 64.4 32.6 31.8 II 47 49 4
19 Kaolin clay 89.9 33.0 56.9 I 52 48 0
20 Q Tokushima, Japan Pelitic schist, Jurassic 49.1 22.4 26.7 II 51 47 2
21 Pyrophilite clay 50.3 25.5 24.8 I 25 75 0
22 R Niigata, Japan Tuff, Neogene NP II 10 21 69
23 Quartz sand NP II 0 1 99
a
Grain size analysis was conducted by (I) laser diffraction particle size analyzer and (II) JIS A 1204 method (sieve and sedimentation analysis). Clay, silt, and sand
grain sizes are <2 μm, 2–63 μm, and 63–2000 μm, respectively.
b
Mineral compositions were determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. sm: smectite; chl: chlorite; ill(mc): illite(mica); ka: kaolinite; pyro: pyrophillite; qtz: quartz;
crist: cristbalite; fs: feldspar; cal: calcite; pyri: pyrite; volc. glass: volcanic glass. +++: strong reflection; ++: moderate; +: weak; (+): very weak.

Table 1. Sample lists are shown in order of smectite content. In this study, three commercial clays including
Ca-bentonite (Nos. 5 and 7), kaolinite clay (No. 19), and pyrophyllite clay (No. 21) were examined. Ca-
bentonite (No. 7) is a product of Kunimine Industries Co. Ltd (product name: Kunibond). Sample No. 5 is
well-levigated sample of original bentonite (No. 7). Eighteen natural soils collected from landslide sites in
Japan were also investigated. The quantity of sample No. 4 was so small that the test had to be conducted
on a very thin specimen with a thickness of approximately 3 mm. For comparison with clayey soils, two
sandy soils with no plasticity were investigated. Volcanic glass-dominated sandy soil (No. 22) and quartz
sand soil (No. 23) were used in this study. We also attempted experiments on Na-bentonite (an extremely
high-plasticity soil), but sample leakage from the shear box was so significant that we could not perform
the experiments properly.
Physical properties of soils were examined following the standardized methods of the Japan Geotechnical
Society. Analyses of grain-size distributions were conducted by the JIS A 1204 method, which includes siev-
ing and hydrometer analysis. For eight clayey soils, the quantities of which were too small for the JIS
method, the laser diffraction particle analyzer (Shimadzu, SALD3100) was used for analysis. Liquid and plas-
tic limit analyses were performed according to the Casagrande method, which is standardized to the JIS A
1205 method. To investigate mineral assemblages of soils, we used an X-ray diffractometer (JEOL, JDX-3532)
with a Cu(Kα) target, an acceleration voltage of 25 kV, an electric current of 40 mA, and a scanning speed of
2° 2θ/min. Nonoriented bulk powder samples were scanned from 2 to 60° 2θ. To identify the clay minerals,
we extracted the <2 μm fraction by using the settling method, and then smeared the fractions on glass
slides to make oriented samples. The oriented samples were treated with ethylene glycol and subjected
to heating for 1 h at 300 and 550°C. These samples were scanned by the X-ray diffractometer from 2 to
15° 2θ. We also did quantitative evaluation of the smectite fraction (SF) by comparing the 001 spacing peak
areas of unoriented powdered samples. To minimize estimation errors, 20 wt % corundum internal standard
powders were added to all analyzed samples, and relative peak areas with respect to corundum peak height
were evaluated.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Table 1. (Continued)
b
Mineral Compositions

Smectite Fraction (%) sm chl ill (mc) ka pyro qtz crist fs cal pyri volc. glass
64 +++ +
64 +++ +
50 +++ + +
50 +++ (+) +
44 +++
42 +++ (+) (+) ++ + +
36 +++ (+)
31 +++ (+) + ++ + +
28 ++ + + ++
21 ++ (+) (+) (+) + (+)
18 ++ (+) + +
17 ++ + ++
9 ++ + + ++ + +
9 ++ (+) (+) (+) ++ +
7 + + + ++ +
6 + + + ++ ++
4 + + (+) + +
3 (+) + + ++ +
0 +++
0 +++ +++ + +
0 +++ +++
0 + +++
0 +++ +

2.4. Observation and Surface Analysis of Shear Surfaces

Well-defined slickensides were observed on many tested soils. Highly polished and planar shear surfaces,
with striations in the direction of displacement, were typically observed for smectite-rich soils. We recognized
by visual observation that the shear-surface condition differed with shearing velocity. In order to understand
the relationship between shear-surface condition and thermo-mechanical behavior of clay at residual state,
we performed scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations and conducted surface analysis to measure
surface condition indices. In particular, surface roughness and glossiness were noticed in this study.
Surface geometries of shear planes sheared by various shearing rates were evaluated for No. 7 test samples
by a 3-D shape measurement system, which employs a laser focus displacement sensor (Keyence LT-8010)
and a motorized X-Y stage (Sigma-Koki MINI-60XY). Height points on 10,000 meshes covering surface areas
of 2500 μm–2500 μm (X-Y) and 500 μm–500 μm (X-Y) were measured by X-Y area intervals of 25 μm–25 μm
and 5 μm–5 μm, respectively (Figure 1c). For Ca-bentonite (No. 5, well-levigated sample of No. 7), microarea
surface geometries of the planar shear surface were measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM).
Measurements were conducted by tapping mode AFM using Keyence VN-8000. Both shape measurements
were carried out under wet condition, immediately after separating a shear plane.
Glossiness of shear surfaces was also measured by using a Horiba IG-320 Gloss Checkers meter. Glossiness
index, G60, was evaluated by this apparatus for wet shear surfaces formed at various shearing velocities.
The surface area of 12 mm–6 mm was investigated by the measuring angle mode of 60°.

3. Results
3.1. Temperature Change Ring-Shear Experiment
Following the method shown in Figure 2, we conducted cooling-event tests on 23 soil samples (Table 1). As
shown in Figure 2, observed shear behaviors during cooling-event tests were classified into three temperature
effect modes: (1) positive temperature effect (shear weakening via cooling), (2) neutral temperature effect
(no change via cooling), and (3) negative temperature effect (shear strengthening via cooling).
Temperatures and frictional coefficients at both room temperature (averages of T1 and T3) and during
cooling-event tests are compiled in Table 2. The rates of strength change with decreasing temperature

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the test specimen subjected to the ring-shear experiment. (a and b) Size of test specimen. Shear displacement is evaluated along a
center line. One rotation corresponds to a displacement of 392.7 mm. (c) Evaluation method of surface roughness index, increasing rate of surface area, RIA, which is
calculated from 3-D geometrical data of the shear surface.

were also evaluated. The percent decrease in frictional coefficients due to temperature decrease of 1°C was
calculated and is also compiled in Table 2.
Index properties of tested soils were plotted on a plasticity chart (Figure 3). Our samples, except the sandy
soils (Nos. 22 and 23), showed high-plasticity characteristics compared with the two soils examined by
Bucher [1975]. Results of the cooling-event tests are shown in Figure 4. For soils that contained a smectite
fraction (SF) greater than 15% (Nos. 1–12), the frictional coefficient τ r/σ N notably decreased with decreasing
temperature at slow shearing velocities (0.0025–0.02 mm/min). On the contrary, a slight decrease was
observed for soils with a smectite fraction lower than 10% (Nos. 13–18). Weak or negligible increases were
observed for soils without smectite (Nos. 19–23).
To investigate the temperature effect at different shearing velocities, cooling-event tests were performed on
four samples, No. 7 (Ca-bentonite, SF: 36%), No. 12 (SF: 17%), No. 13 (SF: 9%), and No. 19 (kaolin clay, SF: 0%), at
relatively wide shearing rates ranging
from 0.0025 to 5 mm/min (Figure 4).
When we cooled the test specimens
of No. 7 (Ca-bentonite), shear strength
decreased in the slow shearing rate
range of 0.005–0.1 mm/min. In con-
trast, shear strength slightly increased
with decreasing temperature at shear-
ing rates of 0.5 and 5 mm/min. The
relationships between frictional coef-
ficients under two temperature condi-
tions and shearing rate are shown in
Figure 5a. It is clearly indicated that a
positive temperature effect prevails
under slow shearing rates equal to or
less than 0.1 mm/min, whereas a weak
negative temperature effect appears
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of temperature-change (cooling-event) at higher shearing velocities. For the
experiments. Observed temperature-dependent shear behaviors were
other two smectite-bearing soils with
classified into three modes: (1) positive temperature effect (shear weakening
via cooling), (2) neutral temperature effect (no change via cooling), and (3) lower smectite content (Nos. 12 and
negative temperature effect (shear strengthening via cooling). 13), a weak positive temperature

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Table 2. Results of the Temperature-Change (Cooling Event) Ring-Shear Experiment

b c
Temp.-Change Range (°C) τ r/σ N (RT) τ r/σ N (Cooling) Δ(τ r/σ N) (%)/ΔT (1°C)

A B C D
Sample Ring-Shear Shear Rate Temp.
d
No. Apparatus σ N (kPa) (mm/min) (T1 + T3)/2 T2 (τ 1 + τ 3)/2 τ2 (CD)/C/(AB)*100 Effect W (%)

1 I 200 0.005 25.0 9.1 0.104 0.091 0.81 Positive 61.0

0.02 26.1 9.4 0.101 0.087 0.86 Positive
2 I 200 0.005 29.8 10.6 0.093 0.071 1.23 Positive 54.1
3 II 200 0.05 a 21.5 7.3 0.091 0.075 1.23 Positive 52.7
4 I 200 0.02 a 25.1 6.4 0.086 0.076 0.61 Positive 72.1
5 I 200 0.005 27.4 10.0 0.116 0.104 0.62 Positive 94.0
6 I 200 0.02 a 23.6 8.4 0.059 0.046 1.43 Positive 60.5
7 I 200 0.005 27.1 10.8 0.108 0.101 0.40 Positive 70.2
0.02 a 22.0 9.5 0.127 0.117 0.67 Positive
0.1 a 27.0 8.4 0.163 0.152 0.35 Positive
0.5 a 26.7 9.1 0.185 0.199 0.42 Negative
5.0 18.5 8.0 0.206 0.215 0.40 Negative
8 I 200 0.005 26.8 6.6 0.220 0.201 0.43 Positive 67.1
9 I 200 0.005 a 23.7 7.5 0.165 0.161 0.16 Positive 43.8
0.02 23.5 7.6 0.120 0.120 0.03 Neutral
10 I 200 0.005 20.8 8.0 0.068 0.066 0.28 Positive 50.6
11 I 200 0.005 25.4 9.0 0.101 0.096 0.34 Positive 66.7
12 I 200 0.0025 27.3 9.0 0.069 0.058 0.87 Positive 39.2
0.01 26.4 9.8 0.069 0.058 0.99 Positive
0.05 28.4 10.4 0.067 0.067 0.05 Neutral
0.25 25.3 9.4 0.092 0.095 0.08 Negative
13 I 200 0.005 18.4 7.0 0.155 0.151 0.21 Positive 33.4
0.02 20.4 8.3 0.138 0.134 0.26 Positive
0.1 20.7 8.8 0.134 0.134 0.03 Neutral
0.5 21.4 6.6 0.115 0.115 0.01 Neutral
14 I 200 0.005 22.3 6.3 0.148 0.144 0.15 Positive 31.9
0.02 21.0 6.5 0.148 0.147 0.02 Neutral
15 I 200 0.005 a 22.7 6.0 0.118 0.119 0.06 Negative 31.3
16 I 200 0.02 a 23.3 6.4 0.396 0.393 0.05 Neutral 35.1
17 I 50 0.005 19.7 8.7 0.076 0.077 0.13 Negative 80.3
18 I 200 0.02 a 23.6 6.6 0.139 0.138 0.03 Neutral 36.5
19 I 200 0.005 25.8 7.8 0.250 0.257 0.17 Negative 48.0
0.02 a 25.4 8.9 0.335 0.344 0.18 Negative
0.1 25.0 8.5 0.354 0.364 0.17 Negative
0.5 23.5 8.2 0.379 0.387 0.14 Negative
20 I 200 0.02 a 23.3 7.3 0.217 0.224 0.23 Negative 32.6
21 I 200 0.02 a 23.3 6.5 0.455 0.461 0.08 Negative 36.0
22 I 200 0.02 a 24.5 6.1 0.666 0.684 0.15 Negative 29.7
23 I 200 0.02 a 24.0 9.7 0.635 0.642 0.07 Negative 27.7
a
Experimental data previously reported by Shibasaki and Yamasaki [2010].
b
τ r/σ N (RT): Steady state (residual) frictional coefficient at room temperature condition.
c
τ r/σ N(Cooling): Steady state (residual) frictional coefficient during cooling-event test.
d
Water contents of tested soils near the shear plane.

effect was recognized at shearing velocities less than or equal to 0.01 mm/min and 0.02 mm/min,
respectively, whereas this effect tends to disappear with increasing shearing rate. Kaolin clay (No. 19)
showed a weak negative temperature effect at all tested shearing velocities (0.005–0.5 mm/min).

3.2. Effect of Temperature on Residual Strength Parameters

Figure 6a shows the result for the temperature-change ring-shear experiments on a normally consolidated
smectite-rich landslide soil (sample No. 6; SF = 42%). Multistage reducing-load testing was performed at four
normal stress conditions of 200, 150, 100, and 50 kPa and a constant shearing rate of 0.02 mm/min. Effects of
heating and cooling were investigated at each of the normal stresses. Compared with room temperature
conditions, the frictional coefficient τ r/σ N increased when the temperature was near 50°C. On the other hand,
the shear strength decreased when the test specimen was cooled to 7°C. Shear strength envelopes at three tem-
peratures suggest that the residual friction angle dropped with decreasing temperature (Figure 6b). The friction

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

angle changed from 4.5° at 49°C to 2.6°

at 7°C. The cohesions were zero at all
three temperatures. Under the resi-
dual strength condition, the shear
strength of clayey soils sometimes
exhibits nonlinear failure envelopes
and cohesion intercepts may be pre-
sent to some extent, especially at
low normal stresses [e.g., Skempton
and Petley, 1967; Stark and Eid,
1994]. No cohesion observed in our
data is comprehensible because
small or negligible cohesions have
been reported in many literature
reports regarding residual strength
Figure 3. Index properties of tested soils plotted on a plasticity chart. Data of parameters.
clayey soils, sample Nos. 1–21, are shown in this figure. The bentonite line,
PI = 1.01LL-57.8, describes the relationship among index properties of 20 Test results also showed that rhythmic
commercial bentonites [Mizuno et al., 2003]. stress fluctuations, which were also
reported by Toyota et al. [2009] as
“stick-slip behaviors” in mixed kaolin-bentonite soils, appeared under high-temperature conditions
(Figure 6a). The stress behaviors suggest that a gradual increase and sudden drop in shear stress were
repeated at a constant frequency. The amount of displacement in one stick-slip cycle was quite small, i.e.,
in the range of several micrometers. When we cooled the test specimens, shear strength decreased and
stick-slip behavior disappeared (i.e., stable-sliding behavior). Although the mechanism of stick-slip behavior
is not clear at present, this behavior was widely observed for other smectite-bearing soils (sample Nos. 1, 2, 5,
7, 9, 10, and 12) at a shearing velocity of 0.005 mm/min (Figure 4). As pointed out by Toyota et al. [2009] and
Shibasaki and Yamasaki [2010], this phenomenon is not attributed to machinery problems but, rather, due to
inherent soil characteristics.

4. Discussion and Implications

4.1. Effect of Smectite Content on the Degree of Strength Reduction via Cooling
The percentage decreases in the frictional coefficients under temperature decreases of 1°C were plotted
against residual strength levels, plasticity indexes, and smectite fractions (Figure 7). Figure 7a clearly shows
that a positive temperature effect is recognized for clayey soils that show low residual strength levels
(ϕ r < 10°, τ r/σ N < 0.2). This is a typical feature for high-plasticity smectite-bearing soils. It is noticeable that
the degree of strength reduction with decreasing temperature is enhanced with increasing smectite fraction
and increasing plasticity (Figures 7b and 7c). Very weak or negligible negative temperature effects were
observed for sandy soils and cohesive soils poor in smectite.

4.2. Influence of Shearing Rate on the Temperature Effect Mode on Residual Strength of Smectite-Rich
Soils
The effect of temperature on Ca-bentonite (No. 7) was investigated at five shearing rates. The experimental
results, shown in Figure 5a, demonstrate that the mode of the temperature effect (positive, neutral, or negative)
on residual strength depends on shearing rate. A positive temperature effect was characteristically observed at
shearing rates slower than or equal to 0.1 mm/min. In contrast, the temperature effect mode changed from
positive to negative at shearing rates greater than or equal to 0.5 mm/min. Shear strength increased slightly
with decreasing temperature at shearing velocities faster than 0.5 mm/min. A similar behavior was also recog-
nized for other soils with lower smectite contents (Nos. 12 and 13), although with behavior changing at speeds
about an order of magnitude slower than for No. 7. It is noted that these transition points (the upper limits of the
positive temperature effect) at around 0.1–0.5 mm/min almost correspond to the “slow-moderate” landslide
velocity class transition (0.3 mm/min) proposed by International Union of Geological Sciences Working Group
on Landslides [1995]. Although the temperature-change experiments under varying shearing rates were

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

performed on limited samples, this phenomenon (velocity-dependent temperature effect) could be a typical
feature of smectite-bearing soils.

4.3. Influence of Shearing Rate on the Shear-Surface Conditions

The results of the constant-velocity and velocity-stepping ring-shear experiments on Ca-bentonite (No. 7) are
shown in Figure 8. Considering the effect of shearing rate on shear strength levels, this soil clearly shows a
velocity-strengthening behavior (positive shearing rate effect, as classified by Tika et al. [1996]) (Figures 5b
and 5c). This behavior probably exists because shear zone structure and shear-surface conditions are
susceptible to disturbance as shearing rate increases, as suggested by Skempton [1985]; Tika et al. [1996],
and Wang et al. [2010]. Close-up photographs of shear surfaces formed under various shearing velocities
(0.0005–500 mm/min) are shown in Figures 9a–9i. Smooth, glossy slickensided shear surfaces can be recog-
nized by visual observation for test samples sheared at slow shearing rates. Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) images of the shear surfaces at four shearing velocities are shown in Figures 9j–9m. The images clearly
show that the shear surfaces formed at the shearing rates of 5 and 500 mm/min are deeply striated, rough,
and turbulent in comparison to the smooth shear surfaces formed at the shearing rates of 0.0005
and 0.05 mm/min.
To investigate the surface conditions of shear surfaces, roughness index, increasing rate of surface area, RIA,
was evaluated for the samples tested in this study. This index, which was also used for clay surface analysis by
Hisatsune et al. [2009a], can be obtained by dividing the measured surface area by the assumed flat surface
area (Figure 1c). As the roughness of the shear surface increases, high RIA values can be evaluated. Figures 5d
and 5e show that shear surfaces formed under slow shearing rates are characterized by high G60 and low RIA
values, indicating that shiny, smooth shear surfaces are likely to develop under slow shearing rates. Figure 10
shows atomic force microscope (AFM) images of the shear surface of sample No. 5 (well-levigated Ca-
bentonite) sheared at the shearing rate of 0.005 mm/min. Microsurface geometries indicate that platy clay
minerals, i.e., smectite in this case, are highly oriented parallel to the shear surface under such slow shearing
rate conditions. This is quite different from shear surfaces formed under higher shearing velocities (Figure 9).
At higher shearing rates, clay particles adjacent to the shear plane might override each other easily, and
therefore, the preferred orientation might be unlikely to form. This is evidenced by the low G60 and high
RIA values of shear surfaces of Ca-bentonite (Figures 5d and 5e). Our results indicate that the shear-surface
condition is influenced strongly by shearing velocity and is probably related to velocity-strengthening
behavior of smectite-rich soils. We infer that this characteristic is also associated with the regulating mechanism
of the mode of temperature effect on residual strength.

4.4. Mechanism of Temperature-Dependent Residual Strength Characteristics of Smectite-Rich Soils

In this study, temperature-change ring-shear experiments were performed by apparatuses designed for
measuring drained shear strength. Water exchange between the test specimen and the shear-box bath
was possible through both the gap between the upper and lower confining rings and porous ceramics
attached to the loading and base platens. Throughout the experiments, the gap between the upper and
lower confining rings was kept slightly open to avoid ring-to-ring friction and permit drainage. Because of
volume change (shrinking) behavior and excess pore water pressure generation, shear strength was unstable
immediately after the cooling began. However, in many cases, steady state shear strengths during cooling
events were confirmed at least 3 h after the initiation of cooling. According to previous ring-shear studies
reported by Skempton [1985] and Stark and Eid [1994], drained residual strength of clays was measured under
slow shearing rates of 0.002–0.01 and 0.018 mm/min, respectively. In this study, it is also assumed that
drained conditions were achieved in tested cases sheared at slow displacement rates. Shibasaki and
Yamasaki [2010] conducted a long-term (>1 month) cooling experiment on Ca-bentonite at a shearing rate
of 0.02 mm/min and a normal stress of 200 kPa. The temperature condition was slowly changed at a rate of
1°C/d. Their results suggest that shear strength gradually decreased and recovered in accordance with
temperature, indicating that temperature-dependent residual strength characteristics of smectite-bearing
soils are not attributable to the generation of excess pore water pressures within soils but to rheological
properties of constituent hydrous smectite.
The water contents of soils adjacent to the shear surfaces of tested smectite-bearing soils (sample Nos. 1–18)
varied from 31 to 94% (Table 2). These values are slightly higher than the plastic limits of each tested soil.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Figure 4. Results of the cooling-event experiments under residual (steady state) strength conditions. The numbers in parenthesis correspond to the soil samples
listed in Table 1 and are in order of smectite content. Nos. 1–18 soil samples are smectite-bearing clayey soils, whereas Nos. 19–23 soil samples contain no
fraction of smectite.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Figure 4. (Continued)

This implies that they are in a plastic state, based on geotechnical classification. Jefferson and Foss Rogers [1998]
examined the effect of temperature on the liquid limit of clays. They concluded that the liquid limit of smectitic
soils increases with increasing temperature and, compared to kaolin clay, is very sensitive to temperature
conditions. This property seems to match our experimental results showing that temperature condition
influences the mechanical properties of plastic-state smectite-bearing soils. Rheological properties of soil
suspensions are known to be affected by various environmental factors, such as temperature, pH, and
dissolved ions [Brandenburg and Lagaly, 1988; Güven, 1992]. Experimental data reported by Brandenburg and

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Figure 5. Influence of shear rate on residual strength levels and shear-surface conditions of Ca-bentonite (sample No. 7). Frictional coefficients under residual
(steady state) shear strength conditions during (a) temperature-change tests, (b) constant-velocity tests, and (c) velocity-stepping tests. Ring-shear behaviors are
shown in Figures 4 and 8. (d) Glossiness and (e) roughness of shear surfaces at various shear rates. The open circles show surface conditions at the final shear rate in
velocity-stepping experiments. The velocity class is based on the classification by International Union of Geological Sciences Working Group on Landslides [1995].

Lagaly [1988] on Na-bentonite suspensions suggested that the yield stress, i.e., shear stress at extremely slow
shearing rates, decreases with decreasing temperature. Although their water conditions were vastly different
from our ring-shear studies, such behaviors seem to be consistent with the positive temperature effect
under slow shearing conditions.
The essential mechanisms of the temperature-dependent frictional properties of smectite-particles are not
clear at present. Although further studies are needed to understand the detailed mechanisms, experimen-
tal data reported by Hisatsune et al. [2009b] give helpful suggestions for interpreting the temperature-
dependent residual strength characteristics of smectite-bearing soils. Using an atomic force microscope
(AFM), they evaluated the microfriction and microviscosity on the surfaces of Na- and Ca-montmorillonite
particles at varying temperatures (20–60°C) and relative humidities (10–90% RH). They measured the fric-
tion and the phase difference on the surface of preferred oriented smectite particles by using contact-
mode AFM and tapping-mode AFM, respectively. The tapping-mode AFM can evaluate time-dependent
adhesive behaviors between a cantilever sensor and the surface of oriented clay particles. Increases in
phase difference can be interpreted to reflect increasing viscosity of clay surfaces. They revealed that
the particle-scale friction mobilized in the parallel directions of the sheet-structure (lamination) of
smectite particles weakens with decreasing temperature. In contrast, viscosities in the vertical direction
with respect to the lamination increased with decreasing temperature. A conceptual diagram of these
anisotropic behaviors of smectite rheology, deduced from Hisatsune et al. [2009b], is summarized in
Figure 11.
As shown in Figure 5a, the mode of temperature effect on residual strength changes from positive to
negative effect with increasing shearing rate. Considering both the aforementioned concepts, shown in
Figure 11, and the shear-surface conditions observed by SEM and AFM, we can speculate probable reasons
why the mode of temperature effect changes with the shearing rate. The conceptual mechanism is

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

proposed in Figure 12. As stated

above, shear surfaces at slow shear-
ing velocities are very smooth and
highly oriented smectite particles
develop on the surface. Under such
conditions, the dominant microscale
shear mode is friction mobilized in
the parallel direction along the lami-
nation (sheet structure of particles).
The shear strength, which mobilizes
on the net shear-surface area there-
fore is likely to decrease with
decreasing temperature. In contrast,
preferred orientations of platy clay
minerals are immature at shearing
velocities faster than 0.5 mm/min. It
is assumed that some particles adja-
cent to the shear surface are susce-
ptible to disorder. In such cases,
the influence of viscous resistance,
which originates from detachment
and rotation of smectite particles,
increases rather than the influence
of friction along the lamination.
According to AFM experiments by
Hisatsune et al. [2009b], viscous
resistance acting between hydrous
smectite particles can be enhanced
with decreasing temperature. This
microscopic behavior is subsequently
assumed to lead to macroscale
strength gain of smectite-bearing
soils at residual state. These inter-
Figure 6. Effect of cooling and heating on residual shear strength of smectite-
pretations might reasonably explain
rich landslide soil (No. 6). (a) Reducing-load multistage tests performed at four why the mode of temperature effect
normal stresses (200, 150, 100, and 50 kPa) and a shearing rate of 0.02 mm/min. changes from positive to negative
Stick-slip behavior was characteristically observed during the heating test. with increasing velocities. If these
(b) Shear strength envelopes at three temperatures (7, 22, and 49°C).
interpretations are right, it is interest-
ing to note that the shear-surface
conditions, in which fabric anisotropy changes with the shearing rate, relates to the modes of temperature
effect on residual shear strength.
There have been many studies conducted regarding the effect of temperature on peak strength of normally
and overconsolidated clays. It is reported that the effect of temperature on shear strength depends on
drainage conditions under both temperature-change stages and consolidation stages [Kuntiwattanakul et al.,
1995; Cekerevac and Laloui, 2004]. In a residual state, platy clay minerals are preferentially oriented along the
localized shear surface [e.g., Gibo et al., 1987]. As shown in Figure 12, it is important to note that clayey soils in
residual strength conditions are characterized by both fabric and strength anisotropies. A positive temperature
effect in slow shearing rate conditions is a unique feature of smectite-rich soils. It is not recognized for
soils with nonswelling clay minerals, such as kaolin clay (No. 19), pyrophyllite clay (No. 21), and chlorite
and illite-dominated clay (No. 20). Among layer silicate clay minerals, the smectite group exhibits particular
properties, such as swelling/shrinkage behaviors (incorporation and release of water molecules) and cation
exchanges at the interlayer. These properties are probably associated with temperature-dependent shear
strength characteristics of smectite-bearing soils, as well as rheological properties of smectite suspensions.

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Figure 7. Relationships between the percent changes in the frictional coefficient during a temperature decrease of 1°C and
(a) the residual shear strength levels of soils, (b) the plasticity index, and (c) the smectite fraction. Shear strength of
smectite-dominated soils, which exhibit high plasticity and low residual strength, notably decreases with decreasing
temperature under slow shearing velocities.

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Figure 8. Ring-shear behaviors of Ca-bentonite (sample No. 7) at various shearing rates ranging from 0.0005 to 500 mm/min.
(a–h) Constant-velocity tests and (i–k) velocity-stepping tests were performed by Type I ring-shear apparatus under the
room temperature condition and the normal stress of 200 kPa. The arrow indicates that peak strength was not measured
precisely due to long sampling interval (Figures 8f–8h). In order to clarify total ring-shear behaviors, the results from different
cases in the same shearing rate are offset on the axis of shear displacement.

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Figure 9. Shear surfaces of sample No. 7 (Ca-bentonite) sheared at various shear rates (0.0005–500 mm/min). (a–i) Close-up
photographs of shear surfaces. (j–m) SEM secondary electron images of shear surfaces. The arrows indicate shear
directions.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 10.1002/2016JB013241

Figure 10. Surface geometries of shear surfaces of sample No. 5 (well-levigated Ca-bentonite) sheared at the shearing rate of 0.005 mm/min. Platy particles are
highly oriented along the shear surface. Measurements were conducted at (a and b) two locations by contact-mode AFM for wet samples.

To better understand the mechanisms from a microscale point of view, it is necessary to identify the
places where particle-scale displacements actually occur. Other than voids between particles, interlayers
within smectite particles might also be potential sliding planes. Moreover, the sheet layer of smectite
particles is known to exhibit undulation [Güven, 1992; Sato et al., 2001]. It should also be determined
whether the degree of curving can be affected by environmental factors, such as temperature and
confining stresses.
4.5. Implications for Landslide Phenomena
There are many reports, all over the world, about landslides that have smectite-dominated slip-surface soils
[e.g., Gibo et al., 1987; Stark and Eid, 1994; Moore and Brunsden, 1996; Shuzui, 2001; Mayumi et al., 2003;
Hancox, 2008; Azañón et al., 2010; Massey et al., 2013]. Smectite-rich soils show an extremely low residual
frictional angle [e.g., Kenney, 1967], and therefore, landslides with such slip-surface soils can easily become
unstable and are likely to reactivate on very gentle slopes. If our experimental results can be applied to the
behavior of landslides in the field, decreasing ground temperature can lead to destabilization of marginally
stable slopes in smectite-bearing rock areas.
Except for earthquake-induced landslides, most landslides are induced by a rise in pore water pressure dur-
ing intense rainfall and/or snowmelt. However, some researchers have reported uncommon triggers for
landsliding. Schulz et al. [2009a] reported that atmospheric tides can affect the slope stability and correlate
with landslide velocities. A decrease in pore solution concentration (leaching of salts) is also considered to
influence slope instability in marine mudstone areas [Moore and Brunsden, 1996; Di maio and Scaringi,
2016]. Although no attention has been paid to ground temperature as a trigger for landslides, we recently
reported interesting landslides that can be activated by a decrease in ground temperature [Shibasaki et al.,
2016]. In a Neogene marine mudstone area in Japan, some shallow landslides (<5 m in depth) become
active during the cold season from late autumn to early winter. We collected undisturbed slip-surface soils
and investigated the effect of temperature on soil strength. The results of displacement-controlled and
shear stress-controlled box shear experiments demonstrated that loss in soil strength and initiation of slow
shear displacements can be induced easily by decreasing temperature. As further investigated in this study,
these mechanical characteristics are attributed to the hydrous smectite that dominantly composes soil
materials along the slip surface.
Velocities of reactivated landslides occurring on clayey slopes are generally slow. A velocity-strengthening
behavior (positive shearing-rate effect), which is a characteristic of some high-plasticity soils [e.g., Tika
et al., 1996; Wang et al., 2010], is assumed to be one of the plausible reasons for the slow movement.

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Figure 11. A conceptual diagram of the temperature effect on microfriction and microviscosity mobilized on the surface of
hydrous smectite particles. The concept was deduced from the atomic force microscopic (AFM) study performed by
Hisatsune et al. [2009b]. Using contact-mode and tapping-mode AFM against the surface of oriented particles revealed that
friction and viscous resistance change with temperature conditions. They exhibit positive and negative relationships with
temperature, respectively.

Behavioral data of 124 landslides monitored in Japan [Mizuno, 1989] revealed that velocities of reactivated
landslides occurring in argillaceous stone areas are generally slow. Once the landslides occurred, the velocity
does not accelerate to more than 0.1 mm/min in many cases. Velocities ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 mm/min
(from 14 to 140 mm/d), which correspond to the “slow” velocity class [International Union of Geological
Sciences Working Group on Landslides, 1995], are statistically the most frequent.

Figure 12. The proposed conceptual mechanism of the temperature effect on the shear strength of smectite-bearing soils.
The mode of temperature effect (positive, neutral, or negative) depends on shearing velocity. At the particle scale,
smectite particles in the vicinity of the shear surface are strongly oriented and lamination-parallel slips are assumed to be
dominant at slow velocities. A positive temperature effect prevails in such conditions. In contrast, the influence of
microviscous resistance, which appears in the vertical directions of the lamination, is assumed to increase at faster
shearing velocities. A negative temperature effect is attributable to the combined effects of increasing shearing rate and
temperature-dependent viscous behavior, shown in Figure 11.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
Acknowledgments
We thank laboratory staff members of
the Japan Conservation Engineers & Co.,
Ltd., for technical support while the
experiments were being performed.
Tsutomu Sato of the Division of
Sustainable Resources Engineering,
Graduate School of Engineering,
Hokkaido University, is thanked for
technical support on AFM analysis.
Gonghui Wang of the Disaster
Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto
University, is also thanked for his useful
comments on an earlier version of the
manuscript. We also gratefully
acknowledge three anonymous
reviewers for their constructive com-
ments and suggestions that led to
improvements in the manuscript. This
work was financially supported by a
Japan Science for the Promotion of
Science Grant-in-Aid for Challenging
Exploratory Research (26560190)
awarded to Sumio Matsuura. The data
for this paper are available by contact-
ing the corresponding author at the
Slope Conservation Section in the
Geohazards Division of Disaster
Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto
University (contact shibasaki@scs.dpri.
kyoto-u.ac.jp).
SHIBASAKI ET AL.
10.1002/2016JB013241
Test results on Ca-bentonite showed that a positive temperature effect (strength loss with decreasing tem-
perature) prevails under slow shearing velocities equal to or lower than 0.1 mm/min (Figure 5a). As stated
above, Shibasaki et al. [2016] recently reported a shallow, slow-moving landslide that can be activated by a
decrease in ground temperature. According to Matsuura et al. [2003], the maximum velocity that has been
reported for this landslide is 151.9 mm/d (0.11 mm/min). It is notable that this velocity almost corresponds
to the upper limit of the positive temperature effect mode observed for smectite-rich soil (Ca-bentonite).
The combined effect of shearing rate and temperature on shear strength seems to be very suggestive for
the mechanism of such shallow, slow-moving landslides activated in the cold season. If a decrease in ground
temperature can influence slope instability, landslide movement can be limited to slow rates in many cases.
Finally, we point out that our results can also provide new insights on the slope stability problem in geother-
mal areas near active and old volcanoes. In such areas, smectite is distributed widely as a result of hydrother-
mal alteration of host rocks and landslides sometimes occur on gentle slopes. The ground temperature
condition is assumed to change with time (from short to geological time scale), in strong relation with
geothermal activities. There are some reports about the ground temperature conditions of such landslides
in Japan. Depths around slip-surface zones of the Owakudani, Sumikawa, and Manza landslides are exposed
to very high temperature conditions, approximately 100°C [Ando and Okubo, 1966; Ogawauchi et al., 1998;
Yamazaki et al., 2003]. To investigate further long-term stability of such landslides, it is also important to
pay attention to ground temperature conditions.
5. Conclusions
1. The effect of temperature on the residual shear strength was investigated in 23 soil samples under slow-
to-moderate shearing velocities. Observed shear behaviors during cooling-event tests were classified into
three temperature effect modes: (1) positive temperature effect (shear weakening via cooling), (2) neutral
temperature effect (no change via cooling), and (3) negative temperature effect (shear strengthening via
cooling). The test results under slow shearing rate conditions show that the residual shear strength of
smectite-bearing soils clearly exhibited a positive temperature effect. That effect is enhanced with increas-
ing smectite content in soils. Non-smectite-bearing soils and sandy soils are characterized by a weak or
negligible negative temperature effect.
2. Temperature-dependent residual strength of smectite-bearing soils is not attributed to the generation of
excess pore water pressures within soils but to rheological properties of constituent hydrous smectite. The
mode of temperature effect changes with shearing velocities. A positive temperature effect prevails at
slow shearing velocities equal to or slower than 0.1 mm/min. In contrast, a weak negative temperature
effect was recognized at moderate velocities faster than 0.5 mm/min.
3. Shear surfaces at a slow shearing velocity are very shiny and smooth, whereas those at a moderate shearing
rate are not glossy and are slightly turbulent, indicating that smectite particles are strongly oriented at slow
velocities. Shear-surface conditions, at which fabric anisotropy of clay particles changes in accordance with
the shearing velocity, are assumed to play a key role in the temperature effect on the residual strength of
smectite-bearing soils. A positive temperature effect is probably due to a decrease in microfriction, which
mobilizes in the parallel directions of the sheet-structure of smectite particles. At the particle scale, slow
lamination-parallel slips between oriented particles are the dominant shear mode at slow shearing rates.
On the contrary, the influence of microviscous resistance, which appears in the vertical directions of the
sheet structure, is assumed to increase at faster velocities and lower temperatures.
4. Our experimental results imply that if slip-surface soils of dornant landslides comprise high fractions of
smectite, decreases in ground temperature can lead to lowered shear resistance of the slip-surface and
trigger slow landslide movement.
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