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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Review Questions
3.1 What are the three types of static stresses to which materials are subjected?
Answer. tensile, compressive, and shear.
3.2 State Hooke's law.
Answer. Hooke's Law defines the stress-strain relationship for an elastic material:  = E,
where E = a constant of proportionality called the modulus of elasticity.
3.3 What is the difference between engineering stress and true stress in a tensile test?
Answer. Engineering stress divides the load (force) on the test specimen by the original area;
whereas true stress divides the load by the instantaneous area which decreases as the
specimen stretches.
3.4 Define tensile strength of a material.
Answer. The tensile strength is the maximum load experienced during the tensile test
divided by the original area.
3.5 Define yield strength of a material.
Answer. The yield strength is the stress at which the material begins to plastically deform. It
is usually measured as the 0.2% offset value, which is the point where the stress-strain curve
for the material intersects a line that is parallel to the straight-line portion of the curve but
offset from it by 0.2%.
3.6 Why cannot a direct conversion be made between the ductility measures of elongation and
reduction in area using the assumption of constant volume?
Answer. Because of necking that occurs in the test specimen.
3.7 What is work hardening?
Answer. Work hardening, also called strain hardening, is the increase in strength that occurs
in metals when they are strained.
3.8 Under what circumstances does the strength coefficient have the same value as the yield
strength?
Answer. When the material is perfectly plastic and does not strain harden.
3.9 How does the change in cross-sectional area of a test specimen in a compression test differ
from its counterpart in a tensile test specimen?
Answer. In a compression test, the specimen cross-sectional area increases as the test
progresses; while in a tensile test, the cross-sectional area decreases.
3.10 What is the complicating factor that occurs in a compression test that might be considered
analogous to necking in a tensile test?
Answer. Barreling of the test specimen due to friction at the interfaces with the testing
machine platens.

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3.11 Tensile testing is not appropriate for hard brittle materials such as ceramics. What is the test
commonly used to determine the strength properties of such materials?
Answer. A three-point bending test is commonly used to test the strength of brittle materials.
The test provides a measure called the transverse rupture strength for these materials.
3.12 How is the shear modulus of elasticity G related to the tensile modulus of elasticity E, on
average?
Answer. G = 0.4 E, on average.
3.13 How is shear strength S related to tensile strength TS, on average?
Answer. S = 0.7 TS, on average.
3.14 What is hardness, and how is it generally tested?
Answer. Hardness is defined as the resistance to indentation of a material. It is tested by
pressing a hard object (sphere, diamond point) into the test material and measuring the size
(depth, area) of the indentation.
3.15 Why are different hardness tests and scales required?
Answer. Different hardness tests and scales are required because different materials possess
widely differing hardnesses. A test whose measuring range is suited to very hard materials is
not sensitive for testing very soft materials.
3.16 Define the recrystallization temperature for a metal.
Answer. The recrystallization temperature is the temperature at which a metal recrystallizes
(forms new grains) rather than work hardens when deformed.
3.17 Define viscosity of a fluid.
Answer. Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a fluid material; the thicker the fluid, the
greater the viscosity.
3.18 What is the defining characteristic of a Newtonian fluid?
Answer. A Newtonian fluid is one for which viscosity is a constant property at a given
temperature. Most liquids (water, oils) are Newtonian fluids.
3.19 What is viscoelasticity, as a material property?
Answer. Viscoelasticity refers to the property most commonly exhibited by polymers that
defines the strain of the material as a function of stress and temperature over time. It is a
combination of viscosity and elasticity.

Problems
Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in an Appendix at the back of the book.
Strength and Ductility in Tension
3.1 (A) (SI Units) A tensile test specimen has a gage length = 50 mm and its cross-sectional area
= 100 mm2. The specimen yields at 48,000 N, and the corresponding gage length = 50.23
mm. This is the 0.2 percent yield point. The maximum load of 87,000 N is reached at a gage
length = 64.2 mm. Determine (a) yield strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, and (c) tensile
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strength. (d) If fracture occurs at a gage length of 67.3 mm, determine the percent
elongation. (e) If the specimen necked to an area = 53 mm2, determine the percent
reduction in area.
Solution: (a) Y = 48,000/100 = 480 MPa
(b) s = E e. Subtracting the 0.2% offset, e = (50.23  50.0)/50.0  0.002 = 0.0026
E = s/e = 480/0.0026 = 184.6  103 MPa
(c) TS = 87,000/100 = 870 MPa
(d) EL = (67.3  50)/50 = 17.3/50 = 0.346 = 34.6%
(e) AR = (100  53)/100 = 0.47 = 47%
3.2 (USCS Units) A tensile test specimen has a gage length = 2.0 in and diameter = 0.798 in.
Yielding occurs at a load of 31,000 lb. The corresponding gage length = 2.0083 in, which is
the 0.2 percent yield point. The maximum load of 58,000 lb is reached at a gage length =
2.47 in. Determine (a) yield strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, and (c) tensile strength. (d) If
fracture occurs at a gage length of 2.62 in, determine the percent elongation. (e) If the
specimen necked to an area = 0.36 in2, determine the percent reduction in area.
Solution: (a) Area A = π(0.798)2/4 = 0.50 in2.
Yield strength Y = 31,000/0.50 = 62,000 lb/in2
(b) s = E e. Subtracting the 0.2% offset, e = (2.0083  2.0)/2.0  0.002 = 0.00215. This is
the elastic strain to calculate modulus of elasticity.
E = s/e = 62,000/0.00215 = 28.84  106 lb/in2
(c) TS = 58,000/0.5 = 116,000 lb/in2
(d) EL = (2.62  2.0)/2.0 = 0.62/2.0 = 0.31 = 31%
(e) AR = (0.5  0.36)/0.5 = 0.28 = 28%
3.3 (SI Units) During a tensile test in which the starting gage length = 100.0 mm and
cross-sectional area = 150 mm2. During testing, the following force and gage length data are
collected: (1) 17,790 N at 100.2 mm, (2) 23,040 N at 103.5 mm, (3) 27,370 N at 110.5 mm,
(4) 28,910 N at 122.0 mm, (5) 27,400 N at 130.0 mm, and (6) 20,460 N at 135.1 mm. The
final data point (6) occurred immediately prior to failure. Yielding occurred at a load of
19,390 N (0.2% offset value), and the maximum load (4) was 28,960 N. (a) Plot the
engineering stress strain curve. Determine (b) yield strength, (c) modulus of elasticity, (d)
tensile strength, and (e) percent elongation.
Solution: (a) Student exercise.
(b) Yield strength = load at yielding divided by original area: Y =19,390/150 = 129.3 MPa
(c) The first data point (1) occurred prior to yielding. Modulus of elasticity E = s/e
Engineering strain e = (100.2  100)/100 = 0.002; engineering stress = 17,790/150 = 118.6
MPa. E = 118.6/0.002 = 59,300 MPa
(d) Tensile strength = maximum load divided by Ao: TS = 28,960/150 = 193.1 MPa
(e) Percent elongation EL = (135.10 – 100)/100 = 0.351 = 35.1%
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Flow Curve
3.4 (A) (SI Units) In the previous problem, determine the strength coefficient and the strain-
hardening exponent in the flow curve equation.
Solution: Starting volume of test specimen V = LoAo = 100(150) = 15,000 mm3.
Select two data points that occur after yielding but before necking. Necking occurs after
the maximum load is reached. The two points selected are (2) and (4): (2) F = 23,040 N
and L = 103.5 mm; and (4) F = 28,910 N and L = 122.0 mm.
(2) A = V/L = 15,000/103.5 = 144.93 mm2
True stress  = 23,040/144.93 = 159.0 MPa. True strain  = ln(103.5/100) = 0.0344
(4) A = 15,000/122.0 = 122.95 mm2
True stress  = 28,910/122.95 = 235.1 MPa. True strain  = ln(122.0/100) = 0.1989
Substituting these values into the flow curve equation,
(2) 159.0 = K(0.0344)n and (4) 235.1 = K(0.1989)n
235.1/159.0 = (0.1989/0.0344)n
1.479 = (5.782)n
ln(1.479) = n ln(5.782) 0.3914 = 1.7547 n n = 0.223
Substituting this value with the data back into the flow curve equation to obtain the value
of the strength coefficient K:
K = 159.0/(0.0344).223 = 337.1 MPa
K = 235.1/(0.1989).223 = 337.2 MPa
The flow curve equation is  = 337.15 0.223
3.5 (SI Units) In a tensile test on a steel specimen, true strain = 0.12 at a stress of 250 MPa.
When true stress = 350 MPa, true strain = 0.26. Determine the strength coefficient and the
strain-hardening exponent in the flow curve equation.
Solution: Two equations: (1) 250 = K(0.12)n and (2) 350 = K(0.26)n
350/250 = (0.26/0.12)n 1.4 = (2.1667)n
n ln(2.1667) = ln(1.4) 0.7732 n = 0.3365 n = 0.435
Substituting this value with the data back into the flow curve equation to obtain the value
of the strength coefficient K:
(1) K = 250/(0.12).435 = 629 MPa
Check: (2) K = 350/(0.26).435 = 629 MPa
The flow curve equation is:  = 6290.435
3.6 (USCS Units) During a tensile test, a metal has a true strain = 0.08 at a true stress = 35,000
lb/in2. Later, at a true stress = 55,000 lb/in2, true strain = 0.24. Determine the strength
coefficient and strain-hardening exponent in the flow curve equation.
Solution: (1) 35,000 = K(0.08)n and (2) 55,000 = K(0.24)n
55,000/35,000 = (0.24/0.08)n 1.5714 = (3.0)n
n ln(3.0) = ln(1.5714)
1.0986 n = 0.452 n = 0.4114
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Substituting this value with the data back into the flow curve equation to obtain the value
of the strength coefficient K:
(1) K = 35,000/(0.08)0.4114 = 98,932 lb/in2
Check: (2) K = 55,000/(0.24)0.4114 = 98,937 lb/in2
Averaging the calculated values of K, the flow curve equation is:  = 98,9350.4114
3.7 (SI Units) A tensile test specimen begins to neck at a true strain = 0.20 and true stress = 244
MPa. Without knowing any more about the test, determine the strength coefficient and the
strain-hardening exponent in the flow curve equation?
Solution: Assume that n =  when necking starts, then n = 0.20
Using this value in the flow curve equation, K = 244/(0.20).20 = 337 MPa
The flow curve equation is:  = 3370.20
3.8 (SI Units) A tensile test provides the following flow curve parameters: strain-hardening
exponent = 0.25 and strength coefficient = 500 MPa. Determine (a) flow stress at a true
strain = 1.0 and (b) true strain at a flow stress = 500 MPa.
Solution: (a) Yf = 500(1.0).25 = 500 MPa
(b)  = (500/500)1/.25 = (1.0)4.0 = 1.00
3.9 (A) (USCS Units) The flow curve for a certain metal has a strain-hardening exponent = 0.20
and its strength coefficient = 26,000 lb/in2. Determine (a) flow stress at a true strain = 0.15
and (b) true strain at a flow stress = 20,000 lb/in2. (c) What is the likely metal in this
problem?
Solution: (a) Yf = 26,000(0.15).20 = 17,791 lb/in2
(b)  = (20,000/26,000)1/.20 = (0.7692)5.0 = 0.269
(c) The flow curve parameters indicate that the metal is probably annealed pure aluminum,
according to Table 3.4.
3.10 (SI Units) Given that the flow curve strain-hardening exponent = 0.30 and strength
coefficient = 500 MPa, determine the tensile strength for the metal. Note that tensile strength
is an engineering stress.
Solution: Tensile strength occurs at maximum value of load, and necking begins
immediately thereafter. At necking,  = n, and true stress  = 500(0.30)0.30 = 348.4 MPa.
Given that n = 0.30 and  = n, then  = 0.30 at this value of true stress.
From Equation (3.7),  = 0.30 = ln(Lf/Lo), then Lf/Lo = exp(0.30) = 1.3499
Tensile strength TS is an engineering stress defined by Equation (3.2): e = (LfLo)/Lo =
Lf/Lo1
Thus, e = 1.3499 – 1 = 0.3499
From Equation (3.9),  = s(1 + e). Rearranging, s = /(1+e) = 348.4/(1+0.3499) = 258.1
MPa
Therefore, TS = 258.1 MPa

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Compression
3.11 (SI Units) The flow curve for austenitic stainless steel has the following parameters: strength
coefficient = 1200 MPa and strain-hardening exponent = 0.40. A cylindrical specimen of
starting cross-sectional area = 1000 mm2 and height = 75 mm is compressed to a height of 60
mm. Determine the force required to achieve this compression, assuming that the cross
section increases uniformly.
Solution: For h = 60 mm,  = ln(75/60) = ln(1.25) = 0.223
Yf = 1200(0.223).40 = 658.6 MPa
Starting volume V = 75(1000) = 75,000 mm3
At h = 60 mm, A = V/L = 75,000/60 = 1250 mm2
F = YfA = 658.6 (1250) = 823,250 N
3.12 (A) (SI Units) The following flow curve parameters were obtained for a metal alloy in a
tensile test: strength coefficient = 550 MPa and strain-hardening exponent = 0.25. The same
metal is now tested in a compression test in which the starting height of the specimen = 50
mm and its diameter = 30 mm. Assuming that the cross section increases uniformly,
determine the load required to compress the specimen to a height of (a) 45 mm and (b) 35
mm.
Solution: The starting volume of test specimen V = hDo2/4 = 50(30)2/4 = 35343 mm3
(a) At h = 45 mm,  = ln(50/45) = ln(1.1111) = 0.1054
Yf = 550(0.1054).25 = 313.4 MPa
A = V/L = 35343/45 = 785.4 mm2
F = YfA =313.4(785.4) = 246,144 N
(b) At h = 35 mm,  = ln(50/35) = ln(1.4286) = 0.3567
Yf = 550(0.3567).25 = 425.0 MPa
A = V/L = 35343/35 = 1009.8 mm2
F = YfA = 425.0(1009.8) = 429,165 N
3.13 (USCS Units) In a compression test, a steel test specimen (E = 30  106 lb/in2) has a starting
height = 2.0 in and diameter = 1.5 in. The metal yields (0.2% offset) at a load = 140,000 lb.
At a load of 260,000 lb, the height has been reduced to 1.6 in. Determine (a) yield strength
and (b) flow curve parameters (strength coefficient and strain-hardening exponent). Assume
that the cross-sectional area increases uniformly during the test.
Solution: (a) Starting volume of test specimen V = hD2/4 = 2(1.5)2/4 = 3.534 in3.
Ao = Do/4 = (1.5)2/4 = 1.767 in2
Y = 140,000/1.767 = 79,224 lb/in2
(b) Elastic strain at Y = 79,224 lb/in2 is e = Y/E = 79,224/30,000,000 = 0.00264
Strain including offset = 0.00264 + 0.002 = 0.00464
Height h at strain = 0.00464 is h = 2.0(1 - 0.00464) = 1.9907 in.
Area A = 3.534/1.9907 = 1.775 in2.
True strain  = 140,000/1.775 = 78,862 lb/in2.
At F = 260,000 lb, A = 3.534/1.6 = 2.209 in2.
True stress  = 260,000/2.209 = 117,714 lb/in2.
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True strain  = ln(2.0/1.6) = 0.223

Given the two points: (1)  = 78,862 lb/in2 at  = 0.00464, and (2)  = 117,714 lb/in2 at  =
0.223.
117,714/78,862 = (0.223/0.00464)n
1.493 = (48.06)n
ln(1.493) = n ln(48.06)
0.4006 = 3.872 n n = 0.103
K = 117,714/(0.223)0.103 = 137,389 lb/in2.
The flow curve equation is:  = 137,389 .103
Bending and Shear
3.14 (A) (SI Units) A bending test is used on an experimental cemented carbide material. Based
on previous testing of the material, its transverse rupture strength = 1000 MPa, what is the
anticipated load at which the specimen is likely to fail, given that its width = 15 mm,
thickness = 7.5 mm, and length = 50 mm?
Solution: F = (TRS)(bt2)/1.5L = 1000(15  7.52)/(1.5  50) = 11,250 N
3.15 (SI Units) A torsion test specimen has a radius = 25 mm, wall thickness = 3 mm, and gage
length = 50 mm. In testing, a torque of 900 N-m results in an angular deflection = 0.3.
Determine (a) the shear stress, (b) shear strain, and (c) shear modulus, assuming the
specimen had not yet yielded. (d) If failure of the specimen occurs at a torque = 1200 N-m
and a corresponding angular deflection = 10, what is the shear strength of the metal?
Solution: (a)  = T/(2R2t) = (900  1000)/(2(25)2(3)) = 76.39 MPa
(b)  = R/L,  = 0.3(2/360) = 0.005236 radians
 = 25(0.005236)/50 = 0.002618
(c)  = G, G = / = 76.39/0.002618 = 29,179 MPa
(d) S = (1200(103))/(2(25)2(3)) = 101.86 MPa
3.16 (USCS Units) A torque of 6000 ft-lb is applied in a torsion test on a thin-walled tubular
specimen whose radius = 1.5 in, wall thickness = 0.125 in, and gage length = 2.0 in. This
causes an angular deflection = 1. Determine (a) shear stress, (b) shear strain, and (c) shear
modulus, assuming the specimen had not yet yielded. (d) If the specimen fails at a torque =
8000 ft-lb and an angular deflection = 20, calculate the shear strength of the metal.
Solution: (a) Shear stress  = T/(2R2t) = (6000  12)/(2(1.5)2(0.125)) = 40,744 lb/in2
(b) Converting 1 to radians,  = 1(2/360) = 0.01745 rad.
Shear strain  = R/L = 1.5(0.01745)/2.0 = 0.01309
(c) Shear modulus G = / = 40,744/0.01309 = 3.11 x 106 lb/in2
(d) Cross-sectional area of tube A = 2Rt = 2(1.5)(0.125) = 1.1781 in2
Shear strength S = T/A = (8000  12)/1.1781 = 81,487 lb/in2

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Hardness
3.17 (A) (SI/USCS Units) In a Brinell hardness test, a 1500-kg load is pressed into a specimen
using a 10-mm-diameter hardened steel ball. The resulting indentation has a diameter = 3.2
mm. (a) Determine the Brinell hardness number for the metal. (b) If the specimen is steel,
estimate the tensile strength of the steel.
Solution: (a) HB = 2(1500)/(10(10  (102  3.22).5) = 3000/(10  0.5258) = 182 BHN
(b) The estimating formula is: TS = 500(HB).
For a tested hardness of HB = 182, TS = 500(182) = 91,000 lb/in2
3.18 One of the inspectors in the quality control department has frequently used the Brinell and
Rockwell hardness tests, for which equipment is available in the company. He claims that
the Rockwell hardness test is based on the same principle as the Brinell test, which is that
hardness is measured as the applied load divided by the area of the impression made by an
indentor. Is he correct? If not, how is the Rockwell test different?
Solution: No, the inspector’s claim is not correct. Not all hardness tests are based on the
applied load divided by area. The Rockwell hardness test measures the depth of indentation
of a cone or small-diameter ball resulting from an applied load.
3.19 (USCS Units) A batch of annealed steel has just been received from the vendor. It is
supposed to have a tensile strength in the range 60,000 to 70,000 lb/in2. A Brinell hardness
test in the receiving department yields a value of HB = 118. (a) Does the steel meet the
specification on tensile strength? (b) Estimate the yield strength of the material.
Solution: (a) TS = 500(HB) = 500(118) = 59,000 lb/in2. This lies outside the specified
range of 60,000 to 70,000 lb/in2. However, from a legal standpoint, it is unlikely that the
batch can be rejected on the basis of its measured Brinell hardness number without using an
actual tensile test to measure TS. The formula for converting from Brinell hardness number
to tensile strength is only an approximating equation.
(b) Based on Table 3.2 in the text, the ratio of Y to TS for low carbon steel = 25,000/45,000
= 0.555.
Using this ratio, estimate the yield strength to be Y = 0.555(59,000) = 32,700 lb/in2.
Viscosity of Fluids
3.20 (A) (SI Units) Two flat plates are separated by a gap of 4 mm and move relative to each
other at a velocity of 5 m/s. The space between them is occupied by a fluid of unknown
viscosity. The motion of the plates is resisted by a shear stress of 10 Pa due to the viscosity
of the fluid. Assuming that the velocity gradient of the fluid is constant, determine the
coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
Solution: Shear rate = (5 m/s  1000 mm/m)/(4 mm) = 1250 s-1
 = (10N/m2)/(1250 s-1) = 0.008 N-s/m2 = 0.008 Pa-s
3.21 (USCS Units) Two parallel surfaces move relative to each other at a velocity of 25 in/sec and
are separated by a gap of 0.5 in. The gap is filled by a fluid of unknown viscosity. The
relative motion is resisted by a shear stress of 0.3 lb/in2 due to the viscosity of the fluid. If the
velocity gradient in the space between the surfaces is constant, determine the viscosity of the
fluid.
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Solution: Shear rate = (25 in/sec)/(0.5 in) = 50 sec-1

 = (0.3 lb/in2)/(50 sec-1) = 0.0006 lb-sec/in2
3.22 (SI Units) A 125.0-mm-diameter shaft rotates inside a stationary bushing whose inside
diameter = 125.6 mm and length = 50.0 mm. In the clearance between the shaft and the
bushing is a lubricating oil whose viscosity = 0.14 Pa-s. The shaft rotates at a velocity of 400
rev/min; this speed and the action of the oil are sufficient to keep the shaft centered inside the
bushing. Determine the magnitude of the torque due to viscosity that acts to resist the
rotation of the shaft.
Solution: Bushing internal bearing area A = (125.6)2  50/4 = 19729.6 mm2 =
19729.2(10-6) m2
d = (125.6  125)/2 = 0.3 mm
v = (125 mm/rev)(400 rev/min)(1 min/60 sec) = 2618.0 mm/s
Shear rate = 2618/0.3 = 8726.6 s-1
 = (0.14)(8726.6) = 1221.7 Pa = 1221.7 N/mm2
Force on surface between shaft and bushing = (1221.7 N/mm2)(19729.2(10-6)) = 24.1 N
Torque T = 24.1 N  125/2 mm = 1506.4 N-mm = 1.506 N-m

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