Notes Mustafa Allam OL 2020

Physics
Notes O.L
2020
Dr. Mostafa Allam

Physics
Notes
Dr. Mostafa Allam
Table of Contents
Unit 1 General
States of MatterPhysics 1
Unit 2 Thermal
States of MatterPhysics 62
Unit 3 Waves
States of Matter 91
Unit 4 Electricity
States of Matter& Magnetism 114
Unit 5 States ofAtomic

MatterPhysics 157
States of Matter
Physics
O.L
Notes
1
General
Physics
1. General Physics 1
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S.I. Base Units
Length: Cm, m , Km, mile, Inch, yard, feet.

Mass: g, Kg , ton, lb.
Time: sec , min, hour, day.
 Note: Those who are circled are the SI units of their quantities.
To measure the Length
Too Small Moderate Too Large

Ex:(Thickness of a coin) Ex:(Length of a paper) Ex:(Length of a street)
 Micrometer.  Rule.  Measuring tape.
 Screw gauge.  Metre ruler.  GPS.
 Trundle Wheel.
Example of trundle
wheel.
 Vernier caliper
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Physics O.L Mustafa Allam
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The Precautions of the ruler:

 Look perpendicular to the rule to avoid parallax error.
 Always measure from zero.
 Repeat and get average.
 Let the object very close to the rule.
 Use a pointer if needed.
For curved surfaces:

1. By Vernier Caliper.
2. By using two blocks.
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To measure the thickness of a paper

1. Get a micrometer.
2. Check for zero error.
3. Measure thickness of 50 papers.
4. Divide by 50.
5. Avoid air gaps in between.
6. Soft lock.
7. Measure thickness from different positions
8. Repeat and get average. Making multiple measurements
The Volume
Regular Irregular
By Ruler By Measuring cylinder
Ex:(cube= L L L)
Cm3 = mL
Cylinder = πr²h
Area
Sphere = 4/3πr³
Cuboid = L W h
Thickness Measuring volume by displacement
Cube
Cuboid Height (i.e. paper)
Thickness
Wire Diameter
(i.e. Sphere, Cylinder)
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The Measuring Cylinder precautions:

 Look perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error.
 Repeat and get average.
 If there is any curve in the water, measure from
the lowest point of curve (water) or the highest
point (Mercury).
 Place the object gently.
 Put the cylinder on a horizontal bench.
 Using a sinker in case of a floating object like wood.
 Use a small cylinder More accurate
Care That:-
LxL L³
LxW LxWxh
(1/2)bh
Area Volume
𝐛𝟏+𝐛𝟐
( )xL (4/3)∏r³
𝟐
∏r² (Circle)
4∏r² (Sphere) ∏r²h
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Time: is measured by stopwatch, light gate, stop clock.
The time can be measured by:

1. Stop watch 2. Stop clock 3. Light Gate
How to get time of one oscillation

1. Use a stopwatch.
2. Reset to zero.
3. Get the time of 10 oscillations.
4. Divide by 10.
5. Make a mark for easy counting.
6. Repeat and get the average.
 Note:
 Cm x 10 mm
 Note:
0.7 0.76 0.761 0.7614
 If we have many readings,
cm
you can get either the Approx. to the nearest
mm
most repeated or the mean. Centi ÷ 100 X.XX
 min x 60 sec X=digit

Milli ÷ 1000 X.XXX
 hour x 60 x 60 sec ÷100
i.e 8 0.08
÷1000 0.008
Cm x 10 mm
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Mass: measured by balance.
Sensitive Top-pan
Beam Digital
Prefixes:
Prefix Name Value
c centi ×10 ⁻²
m milli ×10 ⁻³
µ micro ×10 ⁻⁶
n nano ×10 ⁻⁹
K kilo ×10 ⁺³
M Mega ×10 ⁺⁶
G Giga ×10 ⁺⁹
T Tera ×10 ⁺¹²
Note that: -
Convert any kilo by (×1000) except kg.
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Density = Mass/Volume
Define Problems & unit Graph Explain

 It is mass Mass = 5 g
per unit Volume = 10 cm3
volume. Density = Which box has
mass/volume. higher mass (Hint =
 It is the both is from same
ratio = 5/10 material, therefore
between same density) .
= 0.5 g/cm3
mass and D = M/V
volume. Slope = density  M= D x V 
V.I Graphs
X Y X Y X Y
x2 X2 X2 X3 X2 /2
A straight line passing
through the origin
Care: Same Material = Same Density
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Remarks on using the micrometer (measure to the nearest 0.01mm)

The correct reading = Horizontal reading + scale/100)
Examples:
How to draw a graph?

1. In any graph the axes should be labelled and have a unit.
2. The scale on each axes must be clear.
3. Points are plotted as crosses (x) or 
4. The graph should cover at least 50% of the graph paper (x & y) axes.
5. A line of best fit or a curve + thin line.
 Note: Re-Set to Zero
before using Stop Watch
Zero Start Measuring

From Zero Ruler
Check The
Zero Error Micrometer & Balance
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Speed
 Note: do not add max speed and
General = D/T ECHO = 2D/ T min speed and divide them by 2.
Average Speed
Total Distance / Total Time (Initial Speed +Final Speed)/2

Not (min + max /2)
Acceleration =  Speed /  Time
For Constant Speed

N.B
Only
 = change= Final-Initial
Speed Rate of moved distance.

Velocity Rate of moved Displacement.
Acceleration
Rate of change of velocity.
Rate = 1/time
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V.I. Graphs
Distance - time graph General Speed-time graph:
A ⇒uniform Acc 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …..

A ⇒uniform slope
A ⇒uniform speed B ⇒uniform Acc > A 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
Conc. steady
B ⇒uniform speed > A C ⇒inc. Acc 3, 7, 12, 20, 32
B ⇒uniform slope > A
C ⇒inc. speed(Accelerating)
C ⇒inc. slope D ⇒dec. Acc 0, 10, 15, 18, 19
D ⇒dec. speed(Decelerating)
D ⇒dec. slope E ⇒ Acc =o or cons speed 8, 8, 8, 8, 8
E ⇒ speed = o
E ⇒ Slope = zero F ⇒Dec. speed 25, 20, 15, 10, 5
At rest, stationary, motionless
Deceleration, Retardation, slowing down.
F ⇒uniform speed but in the
opposite direction.
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Care that: -
Y
Zero Slope
Zero speed at rest
Speed
Zero speed at rest
Acc.
Constant Acc.
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To calculate the Acceleration from (Speed-Time ) graph.
Straight Line Curve
Speed Speed
Time Time
∆ 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
Acc = ∆𝒕
Draw a Tangent at a Given Point
 How to take Gradient (Slope)?
At constant Speed
d
t
Speed
t
Acc
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Slope: -
Decreasing Increasing
Slope Slope
Decreasing
Slope
Increasing
Slope
Note that: -
If he said start from (0,0) it means start the scale
from (0,0) not start the line from (0,0)
To get the Y-axis

To show it is directly
intercept
proportional or not

0,0 0,0 0,0

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 Note: V.V.V.V.I
 We have to use the triangle method.
 The triangle is at least half of the line.
 Preferred to be from the first point to the last point on the line.
 Gradient has no unit.
³
ms = milli sec =10¯ sec = (time).
m/s = meter per sec = (Speed)
d d
t Speed t
Different Speed Constant Speed
Note that: -
Distance Speed
C C
D D
B B
A A
Time Time
Max Speed = B Max Speed = C
Zero Speed = C Max Acceleration = B

Zero Acceleration = C
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Speed-time graph
Area under Slope

The graph Acceleration
OR Dist. Moved
1. How far? 2. Circumference 3. Depth 4. Anything by Meter 5-Height
Example:
∆
Acceleration (A)
∆
Acceleration (B)
Deceleration (C)
+ +
Distance moved ( ) ( )
Or
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Care that: -
Area under the graph
 
Estimate
∆+extra
∆-extra
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Care: -
Ignoring air resistance
All same Acceleration. S
Because a=g=10m/s² (constant) R

Q
Will reach the ground first P
Ball (P) Less Time
Less Average speed
Ground
Ball (S) V.V Ball(P)
N.B
g
g g
Speed g Velocity g
Time Time
At max height the speed =0
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The Force: It is the effect that changes:

 Size.
 Shape. wt
 Volume.
Newton
 Speed.
 Direction. Force
Except: mass, weight
grav.force
(N)
(N)
(N)
2
(Kg) (m / s )
F=m a
∆𝐕
ρ×vol wt/g
∆𝐭
 Example
When m=100kg
Calculate a=????? 100N 300N
F=ma
200=1000×a
a=200/1000
a=0.2m/s²
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gravity Phenomena (No Value / No Unite)
Acceleration due to gravity grave. force gravitational

g=10 m/s2. Fg =wt=mg. potential
energy(gpe)
g
Acceleration due to gravity Free Fall acceleration gravitational field strength
 Note:
2
g is constant and its value is 10 m/s .
 Note: If he said a body is falling freely then the initial speed =0

2
and the acceleration = 10m/s .
(Mass) Constant
g(moon) = 1/6 g(earth)
Moon wt (moon) = 1/6 wt (earth)
No Air
(Acceleration) Constant
Care
F = ma
Fnet = ma
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Mass (M) Weight (W)
1. The amount of the material in the body The force of the gravity acting on the
2. Inertial mass: the property to resist body
the change in motion
Kg Newton
Top- pan balance / Sensitive balance Spring balance
Beam balance (Force meter – Newton meter)
Vector
Scalar
Magnitude Direction
Constant any where Changed
Vector: it has a magnitude (Value) and a direction.
Scalar: it only has a magnitude with no direction.
Vectors Scalars
Displacement Distance
Velocity Speed
Weight Mass
Moment Time
Force Density
Acceleration Temperature
Momentum Work
Drag Area
Impulse Energy
Power
Pressure
All scalar except (7) vectors

1- Displacement
2- Velocity
3- Acceleration
4- Weight
5- Force (drag, tension…)
6- Moment
7- Momentum(Impulse)
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m/kg g/(m/s²) W/N

Earth 60 10 600
Moon 60 (1/6)× 10 100
Space 60 Zero Zero
 N.B:
W=mg
g=gram
 Example: -
g
If we have an object with mass m=50g W=???
W= mg Cons. downwards Acc~
= 5010=500N

= (50/1000) 10=0.5N
 g
g
kg 1000 g
g
÷1000
 If we've 2 different objects falling from the same height (h) ignoring Air R.
Both will reach the ground at the same time. Why????!!!!
2
Because both Same Acc a=g=10m/s
a
t
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Drag Force (friction force): it is the type of force that opposes

the motion of body. Ex: air resistance, friction on the road and in the sea.
Equilibrium: a state of rest or balance due to the equal action of opposing

forces.
Equilibrium = Balance Net Force = 0
Net Force = zero Net Moment = zero ; At Rest Moving with

The body will keep Constant speed
its last state
Net = total = Resultant = Unbalanced
If Thrust > Drag = Accelerating

Thrust < Drag = Decelerating
Thrust = Drag = moving with
constant speed
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Up Thrust
Force
Air R Force
Drag Force Thrust Force
Friction force
Wt.
grav. F
Liquid
Drag between object &:
Gas
Liquid
Friction between object &: Gas
Solid
5N 9N
Total Force Force to be balanced
4N 4N
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Types of acceleration
Acceleration Acceleration Centripetal

due to the gravity Acceleration
(a)
(g) (aC)
wt=mg
a=∆v/∆t
F = ma FC =m aC
g=10m/s²
D
D
(A) we've the wt only Uniform ACC.
(B) As Speed Increase. Air R Increase. So Acc  decrease.
(C) wt = Air R / Fnet = 0 , a = 0 constant Speed. Terminal vel.
(D) Opening the parachute Air Resistance > wt

So Fnet, Acceleration. Upwards But the motion downward.
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Air
Resistance
Air
Air Resistance
Resistance
wt wt wt wt
A B C D
Note that: - A body is moving with constant speed
a=0
Fnet =0
aC
Fnet = FC

a Speed a
Ignoring Air R
We Have Air R
Constant
C
acceleration B Decreasing
10
D acceleration
A
T T
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Opening The Fnet upwards

Parachute Here Acceleration upwards
Movement downwards
Final Velocity Initial Velocity
For constant ∆𝐕 𝐕−𝐮

Acceleration 𝐚
only
∆𝐭 𝐭
𝐕−𝐮 𝐚𝐭 𝐕 𝐮 + 𝐚𝐭
Note that: -
𝐮+𝐯
For constant acceleration only The average velocity
𝟐
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Free Fall (If he said falling freely or Throwing up word)
Ignoring Air Resistance With Air Resistance
Decreasing Acceleration
Cons Acc
a a=g=𝟏𝟎 𝐦 𝐬𝟐 Speed Speed
a
T T
T T
Time Speed Acc

Distance 0 0 10 Distance
1 10 10
2 20 10 X = cons speed = zero Acc
3 30 10
4 40 10
T T
Note that: -
How to solve the investigation question?????
1. Read the question carefully “more than one time”.
2. The question will be after the word” investigate”.
3. Your invest. is the answer for the given question.
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Centripetal force:
 To keep the object moves in a circular motion.
 It acts toward the centre.
 To change the direction continuously.
 If the body will leave the track, it will move in
the tangent direction.
Car Friction F
FC
String Tension F
Examples of centripetal forces:

1. Gravitational forces produce the centripetal force needed to keep
a satellite rotate around the Earth in a circular orbit with constant speed.
Motion & Force
Same direction Opp. direction

(Acceleration) (Deceleration) (Curved Path)
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2. The friction between the tires and the road lead

to a centripetal force to keep the body in
a circular motion.
 Note: Although the body is moving in

a circular path with constant speed but
we have Acc due to change in direction so
velocity changed so there is acceleration.
N.B
 For a body moving in a circle the net force is the
centripetal force which acts toward the center.
The body isn't balance because Fnet = FC
N.B Because
8m/s 8m/s 8m/s  Speed constant
Balanced Why?
 Velocity constant
 a=0 & Fnet=0
Not balanced Why? Changing direction

So
Because
 Speed constant
 Velocity change ac FC
 ac =Value & Fnet= FC
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Hooke’s Law: the load is directly

proportional with the extension.
N.B
Force α Extension
Force α Length
F=KxL
Where k is spring constant and  L is the change
in length.
F  L
F = constant x  L
F=kxL where F = force (N)
K = spring constant (N/cm)
 L = elongation or extension (cm)
 Load = Force = Weight = Tension
 Extension = ∆ −
𝐋𝐨 =original length 𝐋𝐅 =final length
=unstratched length =Measured length
=unloaded length =loaded length
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Hooke’s law graph:
Beyond limit of proportionality:

 The spring will be
plastically deformed.
 Will not return to the
original length.
 The line will bend towards
the extension axis.
Length
Springs connections:
Series Parallel L˳
Load
Total extension = extension /

number of springs.
X
Total extension = extension x number of springs.
Load = weight = force = Tension are all in Newton

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Adding Vectors
If same line of action:
Adding Vectors
Given Given
Vector 1 Vector 1
Vector 2 Resultant
Required Required
Resultant Vector 2
If there is angle between them:

Steps of Solution: By using 6 Steps Close a triangle
1. Let a scale of 1 cm=……….
2. Draw Copy - Paste.
3. Close the Shape. OR OR
4. Use your ruler to Measure the resultant R .
5. Magnitude of the total = R × scale.
6. Direction → Angle.
Except
R
N.B
F₂ F₁
wt
Except vertically upwards
here wt=R
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 Head to tail ⇒ start to end.
⇒
⬚
 Head to head or tail to tail ⇒ in between.
⇒
⬚
⇒
⬚
Net = Total =Overall = Sum = Unbalanced = Resultant

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Adding Vectors
Same Diff.
lines of lines of
action action
5N
=
2N 7N
Head Tail Head

to to to
5N 2N 3N Head Tail Tail
=
End
Start
Tail Head
 Care: Displacement.
Velocity.
Acceleration.
All Scaler except Force (air, drag, friction, tension)
Wight.
Moment.
Momentum(Impulse).
Field (Mag., Elec., grav.)
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Moment (Turning Effect)

Force x perpendicular distance between force and pivot.
Moment
Force Perpendicular
distance
 Care: Hinge Fulcrum
Steps of Solution
1. Determine the pivot position.
2. (F) at the pivot has no moment.
3. get the direction of the moment (Clockwise or anti-clockwise)
4. Care ( d) between (F) & pivot.
Moment
(Turning Effect)
Moment = F d
N m
(Turning Effect)
Nm
F d
Moment
F = ———————
Distance between Force & Pivot
d
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 Care:
If he said
At rest Moving with constant Speed
That means Balance = Equilibrium
1. Fnet= 0 1. Net Moment = 0

2. No Turning effect
Clockwise Moment= Anti clockwise Moment
Example:
A B C D
   
Choose which one of them is Balanced???????
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 For paper 6: -
Problem(Difficulty) Solution(How to overcome it)
1 The Load may fall. Tape it.
2 Balance can't be obtained. Repeat & get the best position.
The load may cover the scale X Y
3 "Center can't be obtained". X+Y Center

Center = 2
Example
Note that:
8N 5N 1N
T1 T1
d1 d2
1cm
2cm 4cm 6cm A B
F
3N
Clock Moment = Anti clock Moment

wt
(3 ˣ 4) + (8 ˣ 3) = (F ˣ 2) + (1 ˣ 10)
Let point (A):
12 + 24 = 2F + 10
36 = 2F + 10 wt×d1 = T1× (d1+ d2)
Let point (B):
36 – 10 = 2F
26 = 2 F wt×d2 = T1× (d1+ d2)
F=26 ÷ 2
F= 13N
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Centre of mass (gravity):

o The point where the weight the of the body acts.
o Also where the body balanced & where we’ve the pivot.
Note that: -
The center of mass is in between the resting points.
How to determine center of mass?

For regular shapes For irregular shapes: Using a plumb line
1. Tie a small weight to a piece of string to

form a plumb line.
2. Let the card hang freely from a large
pin.
3. Hang a plumb line from the same pin.
4. Mark the position of the plumb line by
two crosses on the card. Join the crosses
with a ruler.
5. The Centre of gravity of the card is somewhere
on the line you have marked.
 Note: if the lines don't intersect in a point,

the Centre of mass will be in between them.
Pivot = Hinge = Fulcrum
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Stability increases by
Using wider base area lowering the Centre of mass
For the body to be stable

The line of the weight action must pass through the base
N.B.
1. If he said a body is uniform the weight acts at the
middle.
2. F
┴d
Pivot ┴d
wt
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Momentum:
Momentum = mass x velocity
Define: The product between mass & velocity.
Impulse = 𝐅∆𝐭 = ∆𝐦𝐯
Define: the product between force & change in time.
Change in momentum  Impulse (Ns).

Rate of change in momentum  Force (N).
Proof:
∆ 𝐹 𝑚𝑎
mv = Momentum
∆ 𝑣
𝐹 𝑚
∆ 𝑡
∆
  = impulse
∆
∆
N.B
Change ∆ +
100m/s 80m/s
∆V = 100m/s – ( 80m/s) = 20m/s
100m/s 80m/s
∆V = 100m/s – (-80m/s) =180m/s
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∆
∆
harm
Injury
Time of impact Damage
Like:
 Seat-belt
 Air bag
 Crumple zone (Car bumper)
 Bending your knees while jumping
 Care:
If he said
At rest stick together The velocity =3m/s in

the opposite direction
That means velocity = 0

That means V=V₁=V₂
That means V= -3m/s
N.B ∆𝐦𝐯
1 body
∆𝐭
Momentum, Impulse
Force, collision
2 bodies m1u1+ m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2

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The law of conservation of momentum
Sum of momenta
Before collision
=
Types of Collision
Sum of momenta
after collision
Elastic Inelastic
Ex: Gas Molecules Ex :2 cars
m1u1+ m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2
Where m = mass
U = initial velocity ; V= final velocity
1 = first body ; 2 = Second Body
N.B
 In inelastic collision V1 = V2 = V
 At rest, the velocity = 0
 If he said:
Determine = State = Mention = Write = deduce = what is = same previous
answer
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N.B
 Momentum & total E are conserved
(Elastic collision or inelastic collision).
 But KE conserved Elastic collision only

because in the inelastic collision
KE(before collision)˃ KE(After collision)
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Energy
Energy: The ability to do work.
The law of conservation of energy: Energy is neither created nor destroyed but
can be changed from one type to another.
Work: Product of force & distance along the force.
Work = Force X Distance along the force
W=FXC
A ramp can allow you to life a heavy load, but you do more
work than if you could raise it unaided. From the diagram,
you can see that the box is raised 0.75 m vertically, but the
girl has to push it 2.5 m along the slope
Step 1: Write down what want to know

vertical distance moved h = 0.75 m
work done along the slope ∆𝑊 = ?
work done against gravity ∆𝑊 ′ = ?
Step 2: Calculate the work done by the pushing force

along the slope, ∆𝑊
∆𝑊 = pushing force along slope distance moved along slope
=𝐹 𝑑
= 200 N 2.5 m
= 500 J
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Step 3: Write down what want to know

vertical distance moved h = 0.75 m
work done along the slope ∆𝑊 = ?
work done against gravity ∆𝑊 ′ = ?
Step 4: Calculate the gain in g.p.e. of the box.

This is the same as the work done against gravity, ∆𝑊 ′
∆𝑊 ′ = weight of box vertical distance moved
= 𝑚𝑔
= 400 N 0.75 m
= 300 J
So the girl does 500 J of work, but only 300 J is transferred to the box. The
remaining 200 J is the work done against friction as the box is pushed along
the slope.
Power = work /time

Power is the rate of doing work
 Note :  Joule is for work and energy

 Newton is for force and weight Watt is for power.
Power = Rate of Energy
N.B d=3m
d=3m
F=5N
4kg
4kg
Work = F  d
Work = F  d = wt  d
=53 = mg  d
= 15 J = 4103
= 120 J
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Top gpe=20J
KE=0 gpe top = KEground
gpe=14J
mgh = 1/2 mv²
h ἀ v²
KE=6J
hˣ4 vˣ2
gpe=7J
KE=13J
hˣ9 vˣ3
hˣ100 v ˣ 10
h/4 v/2
gpe=0
KE=20J h/16 v/4
Ground
Speed  Time
gpe = m g h
Work = F  d
gpe = wt  h
ma
mg ∆mv/∆t
Distance / Time
Power = Work / Time = F × d / t = F × Speed
 The law of conservation of energy (E): -

It is neither created nor destroyed but can be changed from
one type to other
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
Types of Energy
Kinetic Internal
Ex: motion Ex: Heat
2
K.E = ½ mv Thermal
Potential
GPE Chemical Elastic

Ex: weight Ex: food Ex: rubber
gpe = mgh fuel battery
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
 Note : Work = energy

F x d= ½ x mv2 = m g h = P x t
F x d = ½mv2 = mgh = P x t
We may equalize any 2 of them according to the given
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Water Cycle:
a) Nuclear fussion
b) Heat E from the sun evaporate water to from cloud (gpe)
,Condensation – falling rain (gpe KE) , H₂O(h) behind the
dam inc. (gpe) , falling water gpe KE
turning turbines KE , turning generator KE Ele E.
E (Useful out)
c) eff = 100
E (Total in)
 Care: turbines before the generator.

Nuclear Fusion: occur at the sun.
2 small nuclei  Large nuclei.
Ex: + + +
Nuclear Fission: occur at the nuclear reactors.

Large nuclei  2 small nuclei.
Ex:
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
N.B
To use a solar panel care from: -
 Best Position (Exposed to the sun light)
 Cost benefit (initial cost & running cost)
 Number of users.
Work Max
W=Fd
W = gpe
=mgh
Max Work
To move it
upwards (h) Max (m) Max
against the
gravity
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Energy resources

Renewable (R) Use heat to get
electricity (H)
Non- Not using heat to

Renewable (N) get electricity (C)
Wind R C
Solar (heat and light) R C and H
Geothermal R H
Chemical N H
Nuclear N H
Fossil fuel N H
hydroelectric R C
Water Falls
Waves
Tide
Geothermal energy: it is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable.
Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and
hot rock found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even deeper to
the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma.
Solar power: is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical
energy. Solar energy is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source
however it is not available all day.
The sun isn't available all times
Energy resources that are not related to the sun is:

 Geothermal.
 Tide. (Related to The Moon)
 Nuclear Fission. (Nuclear reactions in the reactors)
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
Efficiency: the ratio of the useful work performed by a machine or in

a process to the total energy expended or heat taken in.
𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 × efficiency
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
In this rule energy or power In Out

÷ efficiency
Sankey Diagram:
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
Pressure
General At any point in a liquid

= Force /Area =ρgh
ρ = density ; g = gravity
h = depth
 Note:
 Pressure of fresh water < pressure of salty water, because salty water is
more denser.
 All of the points at the same level of in liquids have same pressure
 The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).
𝐍
 Pascal = not 𝐍 𝐜𝐦𝟐
𝐦𝟐
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
The atmospheric pressure:

 It is the pressure of air around us.
 Its value is 101 kPa / 76 cmHg.
Remarks:
1. Pa can either be a unit (Pascal) P= 500 pa or a physical quantity for the
atmospheric pressure (P=Pa + h).
2. In the manometer, generally, P = (Pa +h) or (Pa – h) depending on the liquid in
the free branch whether it’s high (+) or low (-).
3. If the barometer reads 73 cm Hg, i.e. it is above the sea level.
The pressure due to gas
PinitialVinitial = PfinalVfinal P1V1=P2V2

Vol Vol
 When P and Volume

P P
Vol Vol
When P and Volume

 P P
Vacuums only P=0

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____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Barometer:
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure
atmospheric pressure. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the
weather.
 If we tilt the tube or using a thicker or thinner tube

the vertical height
still same = 76 cmHg or 75 cmHg
 For a broken barometer air above the Hg will push it down (h=0)
so the barometer is no more function.
 Note: At the top of the mountain the Pa

decrease, Hg height decrease.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
A
PA=Zero
PB= ρgh
PC= Pa
B
C
D
PD= Pa +ρgh
N.B
Inside a barometer Hg H₂O
bec (Hg) ρ h 75cm
(H2O) ρ h =10.5m
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
Manometers:
 It is an apparatus used to measure the enclosed pressure.
 Manometers are filled with mercury or water or any liquid.
 If the difference between the two levels is too small, use the less dense liquid
(use water instead of mercury).
ρH₂o ‹ ρHg
hH₂o › hHg
P
h =P / ρg ρ g h
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
 As when the density of the liquid decreases, the height increases and will be
more noticeable.
P=Pa +- h
Higher +
If the liquid in
the free side
Lower -
lower
Any change in the manometer will divide on the 2 branches.
i.e. (P) increase (40 cmHg).
Unit
Pascal ----------- P=500 Pa
Pa
Physical
quant.
Atmospheric ----- Pa=ρgh
Pressure
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
Pressure
General inside a liquid Gas Manometer
P=F/A P= ρgh P1V1=P2V2 P=Pa +- h
Care:-
Work = Fd
P=F/A J N m
Pascal N m²
F=ma
W=mg N Kg m/s²
N kg
Power = Work (E) / Time

W J S
(h) Is the diff between the

liquid levels
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Note that: -
 170 w/m² that means P=170w & A=1m²
 9.2 J/min that means E=9.2J & t=1min(60Sec)
 4.5 kg/sec that means m=4.5kg & t=1sec
 13 N/m³ that means F=13N & Vol=1m³
Note that: -
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐄
Power = =
𝐭 𝐭
Work=F x d; E= ½mv2; E= mgh
Note that: -
660000 Pa = 6.6×10⁵ Pa How????? By using calculator

 Press shift mode 7 2 then write 660000 then press = 6.6×10⁵
 To remove it press shift 9 3 then press = then press AC
____________________________________________________________
Physics
O.L
Notes
Thermal
Physics
2. Thermal Physics 62
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Thermal Physics
Properties of Matter:
Solid Liquid Gas

Arrange uniform Non-uniform Non-uniform
I.M.S (Spaces) Very narrow Moderate Very Large
I.M.F (Forces) Very Strong Moderate Very weak
Motion Vibrate sliding Random and fast

over each other
and Random
Shape Fixed Take shape of Take shape of
container container
Volume Constant Constant Occupied

Compressibility X X ✔
container
Expansion ✔ ✔✔ ✔✔✔
IMS = Inter molecular spaces

IMF = Inter molecular forces
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Gas molecules
Car tires Balloon

Fe-Cylinder (Cons. Pressure)
(Cons. Volume)
Temp. Temp.
Speed of molecules Speed of molecules
K.E = 1/2 mv² IMS
Momentum=mv Vol . gas
∆ mv
F
∆t
P F
A
Care:
Rate of collision between
Vol. of gas
molecules & walls of the
contain Vol. of gas molecules Constant.
Temp. α Speed of molecules

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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes:
 We have 3 factors affect the gas molecules.
(Pressure/Volume/Temperature), if we deal with 2 of them, we need to keep
the third constant.
 Speed of the molecules is directly proportional with temp.
 The pressure of the gas is due to the collisions with molecule with each
other and with the walls of the container.
 As temp increase, the speed of molecules increase, Kinetic energy increase
and the change in momentum increase, leading to increase in pressure
because collision between molecules and the wall increase.
Gas
When temp increase, volume increase, When temp increase, the pressure
While keeping pressure constant increase, while keeping volume constant
Ex: Balloon Ex: Car tires
Molecules Internal E
Care:
P.E + KE
Mechanical E
Body
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Evaporation: escaping of the most energetic molecules from the surface only of the
liquid to the air leaving the less energetic molecules there causing cooling effect.
Vaporization (Boiling): escaping of molecules from liquid to the air,
doesn’t cause cooling effect.
How to increase the rate of evaporation:

 Increase temp.
 Increase surface area. Care:-
 Passing air current.  Water evaporates from temp 1°C to 99°C.
 As temp increase …. Rate of evaporation increase.
 Decrease humidity.
 But boiling (Vaporization) at 100°C only (Pure H2O).
 Decrease pressure.
Evaporation. Vaporization (Boiling)

A
A Most Energetic Molecules

B Balanced.
Cause Cooling For all of the molecules
Brownian motion:
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
The proof that showed that gas molecules moves in random, straight line and
short distances.
Eye
Micro scope
Glass
Care:
 Air molecules collide with the smoke particles. Air + Smoke
 Fluid + Lighter object.

 Water + graphite or pollen grains.
 Air +duster smoke.
Lamp
Bright specks
St. line
Short distance
Random Fast Long distance
Regular
Note that: -
Air molecules collide with the smoke particle Curved
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Boyle’s law:
 At constant temp, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to volume.
 It studies the relation between volume and pressure at constant temperatures and
states that: "The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure, if the temperature is constant".
 It means that (V∝1/P) when it is constant.
P1V1=P2V2
pV=constant
Vol P

P P
Time Time
P=0 in Vacuum only.
Temperature: It is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules.

0
The upper fixed point: 100 C the boiling pointof pure water. Max 110
0 Upper 100
The lower fixed point: 0 C the melting point of pure ice.
Lower 0
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin Min -10
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
Thermometer
Clinical Thermometer lab thermometer

Range: 35oC  42oC Range: -10oC  110oC
Note that: -
More sensitive
Cap. Tube
Rapid response
Thermometric properties:
 Length of the liquid ∝ temp.
 Expansion of (solid/liquid/gas) ∝ temp.
 Voltage ∝ temp.
 Resistance of a wire ∝ temp.
 Pressure of a gas with constant volume ∝ temp.
 Simply: expansion of matter increase with temp.
Bulb: contain the liquid (Hg or colored alcohol).

Cap.tube: narrow tube to be more sensitive.
Stem: Thick glass not to break easily, It's around the bulb (a thin glass for rapid
responsetoany temp change).
Advantage Of Alchol in Thermometer:
 Linear (Expand. Uniformly)
 Low freezing point (Efficient with low temperature)
 Low thermal capacity (Rapid response to heat E.)
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
The Thermocouple
Advantages:
 Wide range of temperature (-200 → 1500) → wires have high melting point.
 Rapid response to temperature → wires with low thermal capacity.
Wires used in thermocouple are (Fe/Cu/Constantan)
mv
cu Fe
Hot Cold
Junctio Junctio
n n
How it works:
Place the hot object at the hot junction leaving the cold junction in air, we have different
temperatures and different kinds of wires so we have a potential difference which create a
current.
Current/ Voltage is calibrated to the temperature in C°.
So we can find the equivalent temperature of the hot object for any current.
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
The properties of thermometer:
1. The Range:.
Define: difference between the highest and lowest temperatures ignoring any
reference to fixed points.
How to increase it: tube (sufficiently) long / not too short OR bore wide/not too thin
OR little/not too much liquid/bulb NOT change liquid.
2. The sensitivity:. Sens. =∆L/∆Ɵ

Define: change in length / distance moved (accept “how much it expands”) per
unit / given temp rise OR equivalent.
How to increase it: large bulb OR thin / narrow bore / tube / capillary NOT thin /
narrow thermometer.
1. Linearity:. If ∆L/∆Ɵ=cons.
Define: idea of equal size divisions/expansion for equal temperature rises
OR ∆ l / ∆θ constant OR reference to l against θ graph straight line ignore 1 division =
1 °C.
How to increase it: uniform bore OR alcohol/liquid expands uniformly (with temp).
Problems of expansion: in bridges, train rails & electricity and telephone cables.
Problems of contraction: electricity& telephone cable with contract and be
damaged.
Any material expands by heating and contracts by cooling except water.
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Expansion occur greatly in the following sequence S<L< G.

However solid expand at faster rate.
The bimetallic strip(Here by heating (cu) expansion more
by cooling(cu) contraction more).
Used in (Thermometer, Electric Iron, Fire alarm)
Disadvantage of the bimetallic strip:

Inaccurate and Difficult to use due to its Size
Properties of matter:
During melting/Boling:
 Temperature constant.
 Average kinetic energy of molecule constant.
 I.M.S increase.
 Average Potential energy increase.
Heat E P.E. KE
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Cooling Curve
Solid
Heating Curve
The Boiling point: the temperature at which the liquid change to gas.
The Melting point: the temperature at which the solid change to liquid.
Notes:
 Melting point=Freezing point.
 Speed of molecules is proportional to the temperature.
Note that: -
 Heating = Gain E(abs.) = E increasing = Temperature increasing.
 Cooling = Loss heat(release) = E decreasing = Temperature decreasing.
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Quantity of Energy (Q):

SHC (J/kg )
Quantity of
heat energy (J)
Q HC (J/kg)
mass (kg) m C ∆𝛉 Change in

temp.
S.H.C.
(J/kg )
S.H.C. : The heat E needed to raise the temp of 1 kg by 1oC.

H.C.: The heat E needed to raise the temp of whole body by 1oC.
SHC of water is maximum so it will take a long time to be hot or cold
Heat Capacity = mass X S.H.C.

(Thermal)
(kg) (J / kgoC)
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Latent heat of fusion: The heat E. needed to change 1 kg from solid to liquid at the
same temp.
Latent heat of vaporization: The heat E. needed to change 1 kg from liquid to gas at
the same temp.
Diff. temp mkg C J/kgoCc
Same temp m(kg) L (J/kg)
Q = General power(w) X time(s)
Electric E VIt
You may equalize any 2 of them according to the givens
Q = mc  = m L = P X t = V I t
How to calculate it:-

The general equation: PxT where P=Power V=volt
: VxIxT I=current T=time
If there is difference between temp: m x c x ∆ where m=mass

C=specific heat capacity
∆ = difference between
Initial and final temp
At Same temp: mxL Where m=mass
L=Latent heat
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Unit of Q=J
S.H.C=J/Kg
L=
Notes: Notes:
m = m2– m1  To get S.H.C by electric method:
t→timein sec Electric energy= Heat energy.
V x I x t= m x c x  Ө
 To get S.H.C of solid by mixture:
Heat Energy lost= Heat energy gained.
mxcx Ө=mxcx Ө
 To Get Latent of substance:
Electric energy= Heat energy.
VxIxt=mxL
Notes:
If he said same material
Same Density Same S.H.C.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________
Latent Heat Of fusion

SHC of a liquid by Electric Method. SHC of a solid by mixtures.
Of ICE by Electric Method.
Elec E = Heat E Elec E = Heat E Heat E (Solid) = Heat E (Liquid)
V I t =m C ∆ɵ V I t =m L m C ∆ɵ = m C ∆ɵ
ˢ ˢ ˢ L L L
___________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Heat energy is supplied in the lab with an electric heater, so

heat energy can be calculated using:
Q=Power of heater ×time=P×t
 Experiment to Calculate Specific Heat of a solid:
1) Measure the mass using a balance.
2) Measure initial temperature using the thermometer.
3) Start heating, start stopwatch.
4) After a while, stop heating and record the time.
5) Measure final temperature.
6) Use the equation: C= pt / m (T₂-T₁).
N.B.:
Overestimation of specific heat capacity value, due to

heat losses to surroundings
Reduced by:
- Insulation (or lagging).
- Painting the block with a shiny silver colour.
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment to Calculate Specific Heat of a liquid:
1) Measure the mass of empty beaker using a balance.
2) Measure the mass of beaker & water using a balance.
3) Measure initial temperature using the thermometer.
6) Measure final temperature.
7) Use the equation: C= pt / m (T₂-T₁).
N.B.:
Overestimation of specific heat capacity value, due to

heat losses to surroundings
Reduced by:
- Insulation (or lagging).and using a lid (cover)
N.B.:
Crushed Ice Larger surface area
 You’ve to wait until water dripping rate is constant.

 To be sure that all of the ice start to melt.
 To be sure that the heat reaches its max eff.
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment to Calculate Specific latent Heat of Fusion:
1) Measure mass of empty beaker.
2) Start heating, start stopwatch when the dripping is constant.
4) Measure new mass of beaker and molten ice.
5) Use the equation: L f = pt /m.
N.B.:
Underestimation of the specific latent heat of Fusion, due to heat gain

from the surroundings
Reduced by:
 Also a rather simple technique is used to reduce the error in the

calculated value in which: the experiment is conducted twice; once with
the heater on and once with the heater off, hence both masses are
subtracted and the difference is used in the equation.
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment to Calculate Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization:
1) Measure mass of beaker & water.
4) Measure new mass of beaker and remaining water.
5) Use the equation: L = pt /m.

V
N.B.:
Overestimation of specific latent heat of vaporization value, due to heat

surroundings
Reduced by:
N.B.: Metal Free electron.
Cu Vibe. of the molecules in the crystal

Sloid lattice.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________
 Heat Energy transfer (high temperature to low temperature)

Conduction Convection Radiation
States Mainly Solid and Liquid. Liquids and gases only. Gase and vacuum
How Metals: Free electrons gain E, vibrate, collide By heating (volume increases, em waves
with molecules in Lattice. Density decreases, so it rises up).
Solid: molecules vibrate colliding with next and (vice versa) IR Red Light (Visible)
molecules in the lattice. Hot Cold In all direction.
How to Double wall , Vacuum Shiny surface

reduce it Vacuum in between. Trapping Ag , Al
___________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Conduction is due to the lattice vibration
Care:-
PE Related to the position
GPE = mgh
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
D
Cooler best
A C
position
D C
A B
Heater best
position
Double walls
Cond.
Ag
Vacuum Conv.
Al Hot
Cond.
Radiation Liquid
Convection
cons.
𝐦
By heating Vol ↑ ↓𝐃 rises (V.V.)
𝐯𝐨𝐥↑
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
White Color: is a good reflector however it is a bad absorber and emitter.

Black Color: is a bad reflector however it is a good absorber and emitter.
Surface:
Absorber Radiator Emitter Reflector
Shiny Bad Bad Good
Dark Good Good bad
N.B
Black
By heating
White
Shiny Heater Dark
Which one?
Abs.
Good heater Max temp Black
Emitter Min temp White
Dark Max temp rise Black
Max temp fall Black
Bad heater Reflection
By Calling
Min Shiny Change Inc. Black

Temp. In
Max Black Temp. Dec. Black
Variables to be controlled
 Same Temp.
 Same initial temp.
 Same vol. of hot water
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Determining which surface will absorb more heat:
Precautions to get accurate results:
Best heat
emitter (IR).
Larger size
More Temp.
Darker
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Care:-
Hot object: Heat E. lost to the Surr.

Cold Object: Heat E. gained from the Surr.
Heat E. Transfer: Hot Objet Cold Object
Hot water Surr Cold water
Q Q
m C ∆Ɵ m C ∆Ɵ
SHC=C=Q / m∆Ɵ Heat Cap= mc =Q/∆Ɵ

Specific heat Thermal Capacity
capacity
Temp α Speed of gas molecules
The only factor affecting the gas molecules speed is the temperature
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Thermal Physics Rules

General Same Temp
Elec E Diff.Temp
Q = E = P t = m L = V I t = m c ∆Ɵ
J
w s kg J/kg v A s kg J/kgc° c°
J
P₁ V₁= P₂ V₂
Heat Capacity (Thermal) = Q/∆Ɵ = m c

J/c° kg J/kgc°
J/c° c°
Care:
To change Between a molecule & another molecule.
the direction
Collisions
Causing Between a molecule & the walls of
A pressure the container.
Values from the

Results table
If he said
Graph Slope
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
By heating:
1St the liquid falls:
Bec. Glass exp.first

by heating temp Glass expand.
Vol. Gas Inc. Liquid fall.
Then the liquid rises:

Heat E Transfer solid Liquid
, liquid expand.
Liquid expand ˃ Solid expand
B C D
Care:- 95% 60% 40%
A Wood Copper
5% 100%
Lowest Temp. A
Max Temp
B
Will burn
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Paper (6)
Clamp
×
Temp of liquid & solid glass
√
Insulation
Base Side Top
 V.I Factors to be controlled

Initial temp.
Same Room temp.

Volume of liquid.
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Graph of thermal physics Curve

Ɵ/C°
Column headings = Units

t/s Ɵ/C°
t/s
0 30 60 90 120 150
 To make a fair comparison, take the same time interval (every 30s).
t/s Ɵ/C° t/s Ɵ/C°

0 80 0 79
30 72 30 75
60 66 60 72
90 … 90 …
… … … …
Ɵ/C°
A B
i.e
In the 1st 60 sec.
A 80 C° - 66 C° = 14C°
t/s
B 79 C° - 72 C° = 7C°
____________________________________________________________
Physics
O.L
Notes
3
Waves
3. Waves 91
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Waves
Properties of Waves:
Amplitude: max displacement of a vibrating
body.
Wave length (λ): distance between 2
successive crests or 2 successive troughs.
Periodic time: the time to make one wave.
Frequency (f): number of waves made in one
sec.
Wave speed: λ x f.
Wave Front: a surface containing identical points may be a straight line, curve or a circle.
The distance between 2 wave front is the wavelength.
Wave Front
λ λ
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3. Waves 92
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Remarks: /2
In the opposite figure:.
1. The whole vertical distance represents 
double amplitude. A
 Wave is the transferring of energy from 2A
one place to another.
 Wave = cycle = rotation = oscillation = 
vibration = pulse = revolution.
 Crest Next Trough ( ½ ).

 Compression Next rarefaction (½ ).
 V = f .
1/T
Care:.
Frequency v/ λ t = time
T = Periodic time
No of waves / Time (sec)
Example:-
A vibrator with 3000 vib. /min , calculate the frequency.
F= 3000/60 = 50HZ
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3. Waves 93
____________________________________________________________________________________________
ms mill sec =sec/1000 Time F=1/T = 1/s = s¯¹

m/s meters/ sec Speed Units of Freq
Hertz (Hz)
Mechanical waves: Need a medium to propagate (Sound)

Electromagnetic waves: No medium is required (Light)
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 94
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Waves
Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves

Required a medium Don’t Required a medium
Light
Microwaves
Longitudinal Transverse
Infrared
Waves Waves
X-Rays
Sound waves Water waves Ultraviolet Rays
Radio waves
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 95
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Sound Wave

Properties:
 Need a medium to be transferred Mechanical Waves.
 Vibration of molecules is along direction of
travel.(longitudinal)
 Speed of sound: in air = 330m/s.
 In water ≈ 1500m/s.
 In solid = 3000 → 6000m/s.
 Audible range of humans is 20 ~ 20 kHz.
Loudness = Amplitude ex: in (b) the sound became more louder.

Pitch = Frequency ex: in (a) the sound became of higher pitch.
How to get the speed of sound in air?

First Method:
Speed = distance /time
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3. Waves 96
____________________________________________________________________________________________
15HZ 15KHZ 30HZ 30KHZ

 
20HZ 20000HZ
Infra-Sound/sonic Ultra-Sound/sonic
Sound = Sonic
Speed = 2 distance / time
Sound will not be heard:

1. in vacuum
2. quitter sound Amplitude
Loudness
3. Out of the audible range frequency less than 20 Hz or more than 20,000 Hz
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 97
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Wave Properties:

Reflection:
 Echo = sound reflection.
 If same source = same frequency.
 If same medium = same velocity.
 The law of reflection
Angle of incidence = angle of
reflection.
 The angle is measure between the
ray and the normal.
 A ray box is used to produce
straight line light Beam.
Normal
 Angel between the ray & the normal. Ray box
 The law of reflection î = ȓ.

 Reflection of sound Echo. Wave Front
 Ray box to get a st.line light beam.

 Constant (speed, λ, frequency, angle).
îȓ
 Change Direction
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3. Waves 98
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Refraction:
The fact or phenomenon of light, radio waves, etc. being deflected in passing
obliquely through the interface between one medium and another or through a
medium of varying density.
Speed ∝ Angle ∝ Wave length ∝ depth
î = ȓ = zero
In the shallow water:

 Depth decrease.
 Angle decrease.
 Wave length decrease.
 Seed decrease.
 Frequency same Same Source
N.B
 The normal is Perpendicular to the interface.
 The ray is perpendicular to the wave fronts.
 Interface = Boundary = Separating Surface = Refraction Surface
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 99
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Diffraction:
The slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object.
The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to
the size of the opening. If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength,
the bending will be almost unnoticeable.
Ideal diffraction is when Wavelength = gap size.

When the gap is much smaller than the wavelength, it doesn’t pass.
√ ×
Reflected
Source
Refracted
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 100
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Light waves:

An electromagnetic wave by which light travels through a medium or vacuum, it is
transverse wave ( it’s vibration is perpendicular to direction of motion).
Speed of light in air = 3.0 X 108 m/s

or vacuum
V.V.I
The pin-hole camera:

Image produced by the camera can be:
 Real = can be formed on screen.
 Inverted = Upside down.
 Small in size = diminished.
The image properties in plane mirror.

 Virtual = can’t be found on screen.
 Upright = erect.
 Same distance.
 Same size.
 Laterally inverted. (R l)
Image is formed due to the rays intersection.
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3. Waves 101
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The normal of plane mirror: an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface.

How to draw normal?
Draw a line that make a 90 degree with the plane.
Refractive Index:
It is the ratio between the speed of light in the air and speed of light in
the medium.
n=VAir/ Vmed. =sin ᶲAir/ sin ᶲmed.
The refractive index indicates the ability of the medium to bend the light rays.
Has No Unit
Refractive Index
N≥1
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3. Waves 102
____________________________________________________________________________________________
When light passes in semi-circle disc:
At the entrance of the disc: the light pass undeviated because î = ȓ = 0.

At the exit the light refract away from the normal because the speed of light in air
is faster than in prism. n= Sin ( air)/ Sin( medium).
Refraction in a glass rectangular block:

1. Get a glass rectangular block on a paper and mark its edges.
2. Get a ray box shine on it.
3. Use 4 optical pins to mark the rays as shown.
4. Remove the block and Join the rays.
We notice that:
 Incident ray emergent ray.
 Angle of angle of
incident emergent
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3. Waves 103
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Total internal reflection and Critical angle:

Critical angle: It is the angle of incidence in the denser medium that corresponds
to an angle of refraction equal 90o in the less dense medium.
The conditions to get T.I.R

1-  > C
2- Inside the more denser medium.
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 104
____________________________________________________________________________________________
C=42
50 30
42 2 50 2
2 2
42=42 50 > 42 30 < 42
ᶲ⁼ C ᶲ> C ᶲ<C
Emerges Tangent T.I.R Refraction
n= ᶲ
Sin Air
ᶲ
Sin Medium VAir
Medium VMedium
Sin
Sin 90 n= ᶲAir
Air n= ᶲ
Sin Med
Medium
Medium Sin C
C Medium
2 1
n= 1 Sin C
Sin C
C=40
ᶲ<C ᶲ=C ᶲ>C
30<40 40=40 70>40
70 70
20
30 40 2 2
2 2 2
30
60
2
2 90 90 90
2 2 2
Refraction Emerges Tangent T.I.R

____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 105
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The fiber optics
V.I
V.I Used also in medicine in medical diagnosis & treatment, it carries

the light in illuminate the organ and the reflected Image out.
Reflecting Prism
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 106
____________________________________________________________________________________________
60 60
2 2
30
2
ᶲ >C
60
60
2
60
30 230 2
30
30 260 2 30 2
2 2 2
Periscope
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 107
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The Lenses
There are two types:
1. Convex (convergent).
2) Concave (divergent).
The optical center(O): the point where the light passes without deviation or center of
vision.
Focus point (F): the point at which rays or waves meet after reflection or refraction,
or the point from which diverging rays or waves appear to proceed.
Focal length: distance between optical center and focus point.
Center of curvature(c): the center of the sphere →to cut the lens.
The principle axis: the line passing through O,F,C.
Real Image Virtual image

Can be formed on a screen Can't be formed on a screen
Like pin-hole camera Like the magnifying lens
F F
Inverted Upright (Erect)

From the rays intersection From the intersection of the ray
extension
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3. Waves 108
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The formation of the image:

The image is formed in three steps:
Figure 1
 Note:
 The image is formed due to intersection (min.2 rays).
 The refraction starts at the middle of the lens.
 As the object get closer to the lens, the image size increase and it’s distance
from the lens increase.
 The image is virtual in the plane mirror and the magnifying lens.
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 109
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 110
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The light Spectrum

Dispersion of light:
Newton discovered the colours of the light spectrum by allowing sunlight (which is
white) to fall on a triangular glass prism. The band of colours obtained is a spectrum and
the effect is called dispersion.
Dispersion of light:
Dispersion start inside the prism

The ray emerges towards the base.
 It is the separation of white light into its component colours (by using a prism).
 Dispersion occurs because each colour has a different refractive index.
 The white light (Chromatic light) is made up of all the wavelengths in this range.
 White light spectrum has the following colour: [Red, Orange, Yellow, Green Blue,
Indigo & Violet].
 Monochromatic light is the light with one frequency, one λ.
 Red light has the smallest refractive index, smallest frequency, smallest. deviation,
smallest energy and longest wavelength in air.
 Frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
 All colours travel with the same speed of light in vacuum but they have different
speeds in material media.(in glass, red is faster than violet).
 There are two extra invisible rays which were detected by their effect on the
photographic plates. These are:
 Ultra- violet rays which can produce fluorescence in some materials.
 In air, all colours have the same speed, but in glass the speed of red is more than
the blue colour.
Infra-red rays which are detected by their heating effect. (Detected using
a thermometer).
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 111
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Screen
Screen
IR
R
V
UV
 
Dispersion Refraction
Screen
V
R
R
 
  
R
 
V
R V
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 112
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electromagnetic waves:
____________________________________________________________
3. Waves 113
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Any a communications using satellite (microwaves)

Usage Danger
Treating cancer, sterilizing medical
Gamme Rayes Cause cancer,
equipment
Cause mutation,
Imagining bones, detecting metals Damage cells
X – Rays
(bags)
Florescent lamp to strength the teeth Blindness, Skin cancer
U.V.
filings
Visible Light Vision, photosynthesis Laser danger
Remote control
I.R. causes skin burns
Night vision
Microwaves Communication satellites + cooking
Damage the internal tissues
Radiowaves Cooking, TV, mobile phones, Radar
N.B
Microwaves Satellite Communication.
Radio waves Direct Communication.
____________________________________________________________
Physics
O.L
Notes
4
Electricity &
Magnetism
4. Electricity & Magnetism 114
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electricity & Magnetism
Magnetism
Magnets are said to generate a magnetic field around themselves. Every
magnet has two poles, called the north and south poles. Magnetic poles exert
forces on each other in such a way that like poles repel and unlike poles attract
each other.
Ferrous (Magnets) substance: Fe, Steel, Cobalt, Nickel. Metal

Non-ferrous substance: Aluminum, Copper, Wood, Rubber etc.
 How to form a magnet?
 How to de-magnetize a
magnet?
 By heating.
 Hammers dropping.
 By electricity in alternate
current move the magnet
slowly.
 In the (east – west) direction
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Iron Steel
Magnetized & de-magnetized Magnetized & de-magnetized hardly

easily
Temporary magnet permanent magnet
Electromagnet
Ex: electric (bell/ crane) electric motor/generator, speaker
The magnetic field: the area around the magnet at which it has an effect.
The properties of magnetic field line:

 They come out from North Pole to South Pole.
 Crowded at the 2 poles and rare at the middle
 Lines don't cross each other.
bass
Fe
N S
S N
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
How to plot the lines?
1. By Fe-filling 2. Compass
Sprinkle iron fillings on a paper  Use a compass, it will point out

placed on a magnet and tap of the north pole and into the
gently. The iron filling will show south pole
the pattern.  Put a dot at the arrow head
and move the magnet to this
point.
 Advantage:
1. Shows the polarity (N & S)
poles
2. Effective with weak
magnets
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electricity
Charges can be at rest (static) or in motion (dynamic).
Q= e x N
Number of
Quantity of Electron electrons
Charge charge
Repel Attract
_
+ + & neutral charge
_ _ + & neutral charge
N N S &ferrous substance
S S N & ferrous substance
Charging by Rubbing:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Charging by induction:
1. Let the charged rod close to the object.  Note: the order is very
2. Connect the object to the earth. important.
3. Remove the earth connection.
4. Remove the rod.
The direction of the electric field is the Direction of a +ve charge.
N.B
 Only the (-ve) electrons will move.
 No movements for the (+ve) Charges.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Charging by
induction
Neutral Earthling Charged

_
_
-- -
++
++
_ -
― ―
― ―
―
― ―
Nothing Nothing
+ _
_ +
+ _
To be +ve To be -ve
_ _
_ _ +
+ + _
_ + _ _
_ +
+
_ _
_ _ +
+ + _
_ + _ _
_ +
+
_ _
_ + _
_ + _
+
The last Step is to
Remove the rod
+
+
- -
-
+ - -
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The current: the flow of charges in a conductor.
Electric current intensity: The rate of flow of charges.

P.d. (Voltage): The work needed to move a charge 1C between 2 points.
E.M.F: The work needed to move a charge 1C in the whole circuit.
W=V×Q
Source of charges (Elec.E.):
=V×I×t
Cell
Battery Power = E/time =V×I×t / t

= V*I
Capacitor
Power = Work / time = V x I

Current moves from high voltage to low voltage
++ --
+ + - -
+
+ + -
- -
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electrons direction is against the electric current direction.
 Conventional Current = Electric current

 Electric current conventional + (High voltage - (Low voltage)
 Electrons direction - (Repel) + (Attract)
Care:-
Electricity Quantity of charge C= Coulomb
Q
Thermal Quantity of heat .E J= Joule
C Coulombs Charge
° Degree Angle
°C Degree Celsius Temp
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Resistors:
There are two types:
Ohms law: At constant temp the P.d. is directly.

proportional to current.
Vv
IA RΩ
Power = Work / time = V x I = I2 x R = V2/R
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electron Conductors: Material with Free electron: metal, graphite, H2O, your body.
Electron Insulators: Material No free electron: Air, wood, plastic …
N  S
+  –
Magnetic Area magnet

The Electric Field: The Zone around the charge at which it has an effect.
Space
The Electric Field Direction: The Direction of the force acting on a (+ve) charge.
//
Equally Spaced
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electrical conductors and insulators:
Electrical field:
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Resistance in a lamp:
U
Con → temp ↑ → R↑ temp ↑ → R↓

Fixed resistor
U Bulb
U Thermistor (Fire Alarm)
U U
V Slope = R Slope↑ = R↑ V Slope↓ = R↓

V
I I
I
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
I Slope = Slope↓ = Slope↑ =
𝐑𝐑 I 𝐑𝐑↑ I
𝐑𝐑↓
V V V
1/R=I/V
____________________________________________________________________________________________
 Factors affecting (R):-

Length (RαL)
Area (Rα1/A)
The wire Material ( wood ˃ Fe)
Temp. (Rα Temp.) Except thermistor
Thickness A= πr² = π
Area Radius r= r²=
₁ 1
Diameter =
₂ 2
Care That:-
Longer
To Increase (R) use a wire thinner
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Resistivity (Specific Resistance):

It is the resistance of a wire of length 1m, area 1m² at
constant temperature.
R  L/A → R = L/A → = RA/L

= Resistivity, its unit is Ohm.m
N.B
L×3 L2=3L1
r
A/4 A2= (1/4) A1 Sq.
d
2r 4A A2=4A1
d/5 A/25 A2=A1/25
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
R
Resistance Resistivity
(Specific Resistance)
R= =
 .m
Depend on (length, area, Depend on material only of the
temp…) of the wire. wire.
Rα Cons Temp
Length R
R=cons
Area
Thickness R
R=
Radius
Diameter
=
Here wood ˃ Fe
Care that:
Factors affecting R all directly except area inversely.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
N.B. If he said 2 wires from the same material  =
=
Example: A wire with resistance 18  another wire from the same material but
double length and triple-diameter. Find the new (R).
R1 = 18 = 3d  3r  9A L2 = 2L1
A2 = qA1
=
R2 = 4.0 
Example: A wire with resistance 6.0  another wire from the same material
with resistance 9.0  but with double diameter L2 = ….L1
R1 = 6.0  P1 = P2 R2 = 9.0 
2d  2r  4A A2 = 4A1
=
L2 = 6.0 L1
A,X,1
N.B
 The 2 wire B , Y, 2 Vv
𝑅 𝐼
 I α 𝑅 that means 𝑅 = 𝐼 IA RΩ
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
R=V/I
1/R=I/V
V I
Vv
IA RΩ I V
Care that:-
Temp R (In all cases (General)),
Except thermistor Temp R
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The circuit Connections:
RT ˃ Rmax RT ˂ Rmin
In case of equal
RT = RN Resistor RT = R/N
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Example: 50 resistor each 10Ω calculate RT with series connection &

parallel connection.
N R
RT = R N RT = R / N
Series Parallel
= 10 × 50 Connection = 10 / 50 Connection
= 500Ω = 0.2Ω
Lamps
Full brightness
Heater
Max Temp.
Max. eff.
Motor
Max Speed.
Speaker
Max loudness.
Care:-
All in parallel
Lamps Resistor
Full brightness Min (RT)

Max (IT)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Advantages of parallel connection:

1. When one unit is off, the rest still works on.
2. To control each unit independently.
3. Keeping Voltage constant.
4. Max Efficiency (Full brightness in case of lamps)
 Care:
Current overloading → Fire
Damp Conditions & bad insulations → Electric Shock
Circuit Components Symbols:
2V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
V (total) = 2+2+2=6V V (total) = 2-2+2=2V
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
 DC Power suply For example,

3v
 Variable power suply For example,

from 0v to 3v
 Cell
 Battery
 AC power suply
Note that: -
 To decrease heat (E) in a circuits you must be decrease
the current(I) & Decrease the Voltage (V)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Relay
S1 S2
device
9) L.E.D (light emitting diode):

A small lamp, use less voltage, give high brightness.
 Note: Both of the diode and the LED rectify A.C → D.C
10) Motor
Elec E K.E. M
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Care that:-
ac only
ac +Diode
To reverse the Current(I)

each half cycle keeping the
rotation in the same
direction.
I=0
Cell
OR
dc
Battery
OR
Power Supply + -
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4A 3Ω
10A 10A 10A 10A
6A 2Ω
V
R
The voltmeter has a high (R) so no
10A 10A current approx. will pass through it.
10A
2Ω
10A
10A 10A
10A
10A
2Ω
10A
Diode (AC – DC) LED (Lamp) NOT gate (Inverter)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The potential divider (Potentiometer):
𝐑 ∝ 𝐕 ∝ 𝐋 ∝ 𝐁𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬
 To divide the voltage:-
20V
20V 20V 20V
V 0V V 10V V
0V
V
V 8V 4V V
8V 8V 8V
L₁ 1Ω
5Ω
12V
2Ω
V
L₂ (brighter)
10Ω
30V
12V 3Ω
30V 20Ω 2Ω
??V 2Ω V
??V 5Ω
V=12×2/3=8V 3Ω
V= 30×5/20 =7.5V
Danger of electricity:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Any important device must be connected with:
Live wire: brown (any device or component must be connected with it).
Neutral wire: blue (just to close the circuit (Empty)).
Earth wire: (yellow, green) to prevent from electric shock in the metal casing device.
To cut off the circuit:
Thermal effect
Fuse
To cut off the circuit (Current overloading)
Magnetic effect
Circuit breaker
Current (I) Temp Wire melting Stop current (I)
Circuit breaker & the relay based on the magnetic effect of the elect current.
N.B
The value of the fuse must be in between the current to work & the current
to be blown
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The logic gates:

NOT AND OR
Symbol
Action Only one is enough to

Inverter Multiple give 1
Truth
Table
You can add gates together:
Examples:-
NAND = NOT AND
AND Gate Not Gate NAND Gate

NOR = NOT OR
OR Gate Not Gate NOR Gate

 Note:
All with one output
NOT gate has only one input, the rest has 2 or more inputs
NAND + NAND = AND

NOR + NOR =OR
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The magnetic effect of the electric currents:
The right-hand grip rule: To know the magnetic field direction, knowing
the electric current
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Explain why the wire will move?
How to get the direction of motion?
Care:-
Fleming's left hand ruel : Motion (???) , Field (N S) , Current(+ -)
Fleming's Right hand ruel : Motion (√) , Field (N S) , Ind. Current (???)
Wire move or or or
Coil Rotate (clock wise or Anti clock wise).
Commutator:-
To reverse the Current(I) each half cycle keeping the rotation in the
same direction.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The difference between the A.C. and the D.C.:
For Demag. For mag.

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
The simple D.C. motor:
The mechanism of the D.C. motor:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
How to let the motor rotate faster?
How to rotate in the opposite direction?
 Care:
Motion action:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Electromagnetic induction without a bottom:
Lenz's rule: The induced current

has a direction which oppose the
change producing it.
Fleming's right hand rule: To know the
induced current direction. Knowing the motion and
the magnetic field direction.
How to increase the iunduced current?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
A.C. generator:
How to let the lamp glows more?
 Note that:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Comparison between the D.C. motor and the A.C. generator:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
A.C. Generator D.C. Motors

Change kinetic eneergy to electric Change electric eneergy to kinetic energy
energy
2 metallic Rings Commutators

Lamp Battery
How to produce a large Electric How to produce a faster motion?
energy?
1. Stronger magnet. 1. Stronger magnet.
2. Rotate the coil faster. 2. Stronger battery.
3. Increase the number of turnes of 3. Increase the number of turns of the
the coil. coil.
4. Using an Iron Core. 4. Using an Iron Core.
I
To get an ind.
V
We've to cut the Mag. field lines.
Wire Mag.field.
Coil // Mag.Field.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Note that: - The Current has a mag. Field
Producing Coil cut mag.field

a force line producing an
(Motion) ind (I) emf
Like Like generator &
Motor Transformer
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Fire is due to High Current:

The Fuse: a device used to cut off the circuit if the current is overloading.
Based on the heating effect of the electric current.
The circuit breaker: Like the fuse but based on the magnetic effect of the
current
The fuse value must be in between the current to work and to be blown or just
above the current to work.
The Transformer:
A transformer is a device used to
decrease or increase the voltage of an
electric supply. They are designed to
be efficient as possible.
The transformer consists of 2 coils

A primary Coil: it receives the incoming
voltage connected with the a.c source.
A Secondary Coil: provide the voltage to

external. It will be connected with the
device.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Relation between (V&I)

Directly inversely
At constant R At Constant P
V=IR V=P/I
The mechanism of work:

The input is A.C, it will produce a constantly charged magnetic field, the
Iron core will transmit it.
It from the primary coil to the secondary coil, the turns of the secondary
coil will cut these lines and produce an induced Current (potential) which
may be stepped up or down according to the number of turns.
Types of Transformers
Step UP to increase the voltage, so there are more turns in the secondary coil.
Step Down to decrease the voltage, so there are more turns in the primary coil.
V = voltage
N = number of turns
I = current intensity
1 = primary
2 = secondary
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
 At the power station, we use a step-up transformer to decrease

power and energy loss, also we use thinner cables.
 Before the consumption in the houses, we use step-down
transformer and decrease the voltage to 230V to be suitable for
the appliances.
N.B
 Inside the solenoid mag. Field
Same
direction Attraction
2 St .line wire I Opp. Repulse

direction
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
N.B
 To get the magnetic field direction knowing the current
direction Ampere's right hand screw rule.
I FLHR
Magnet +
er consists of 2 coils ind I
FRHR
____________________________________________________________
Physics
O.L
Notes
Atomic
Physics
5. Atomic Physics 157
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Atomic Physics
Atomic Physics
Rutherford experiment:
To explain the nuclear model.
Pd-shield
Zinc sulphide screen
Most of the device is vacuum
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
158
______________________________________________________________________________________
They noticed that
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
159
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Representation of the structure of the atom
(Nuclide)
Mass number: It is the sum of the protons and the neutrons. It is equal to
the nucleon number.
Atomic number: It is the total number of the protons in the nucleus.
• The number of the protons is equal to the number of the electrons.
• The number of the neutron is equal to the difference between the mass
number and the atomic number.
• Number of the neutrons= mass number – atomic number.
Mass proton = Mass neutron = 2000 Mass electron

1836 1840
Isotopes:
They are different atoms of the same elements having same atomic number (Z)
but different mass numbers (A).
Stability increases as the difference between the mass number and the atomic
number Decreases.
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
160
_______________________________________________________________________________________
For any unstable (radioactive) material to be stable, it

U
will emit radiation (alpha/beta/gamma).
Ionizing effect (charge)
lead
So (ß) also is out from the nucleus.
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
161
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Examples of Radiation
U
Beta Particles
U
14
6𝐶𝐶 ⇒ 8 neutron
⬚
14
7𝑁𝑁 ⇒ 7 neutron
⬚
We're a neutron emission which
converted 4 a proton and an
electron ( β).
So (β) emitted from the nucleus.
Alpha-particles
U
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5. Atomic Physics
162
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Gamma Rays
• The cloud chamber to know the

kind of radiation.
• The GM counter to know the
amount of the radiation.
Nuclear fusion: is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms into a larger
one. i.e. The sun
Nuclear fission: is the splitting of a large atom into two or more smaller
ones. i.e. The nuclear reactor
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
163
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Background Radiatio:
U
It is radiation around us in the absence of any radioactive material.

Due to:
1. Cosmic radiation (Sun, space, stars...).
2. Contaminated earth rock.
3. air (argon gas ).
Uses of radiations:
U
1. Treating cancer.
2. .Sterilising food and medical equipment
3. To get electricity.
4. Water leakage in pipes.
5. Check the thickness of the material.
[As the thickness increases radiation counting decreases].
6. Tracer (by injecting with a radioactive source then detect it using GM
counter for the blood block.
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
164
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Dangers or hazards of radioactivity:

1. Causing mutation.
2. Causing cancer.
3. Damaging cells.
4. Damaging brain.
GM Counter unit is Bq
Half- Life time

It is the time taken for a radioactive element to lose half its radioactive intensity.
The unit of radioactivity is count / sec = Becquerel (Bq).
The half-life time according to the graph and the table is 1 hour.
• The decay occurs randomly (Cannot predict the next decay).

• No decay for the background. The decay is for the radioactive
material only.
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
___ _____________________ 165
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Remarks:
Most of the atom is space.
At the center, we have the nucleus.
A. Positive in charge.
B. Small in size.
C. Most of the atom concentrated inside the nucleus.
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
166
_______________________________________________________________________________________
m p = m n = U = 2000 m e
U is the atomic mass unit.
The radiation occurs randomly (you cannot predict the next radiation).
In the beta decay experiment, the data required are:
1. The background radiation.
2. Reading of Beta source without Al sheet.
3. Reading of Beta source with Al sheets.
Beta particles are emitted from the nucleus, how?

𝟏𝟒 𝟎 𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝐂 → −𝟏𝜷 + 𝟕𝐍
We’ve a neutron loss which converted to
a proton and an electron (Beta-particle)
To get the HLT of a source only:

1. Subtract the background radiation.
2. Divide by 2.
3. Add the background radiation.
Same material = Same HLT
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
167
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Example: -
A detector record 120Bq
HLT=4day
Find the detector reading after 12 days
(1) Ignoring background Rad.
(2) With background 20Bq.
Solution
4d 4d 4d
1- Ignoring background 120 60 30 15Bq
2- With background
 Correct the reading 120-20=100
4d 4d 4d
 Decay 100 50 25 12.5Bq
 Detector =source+background=12.5+20=32.5Bq
____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
_________________________ 168
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Care That:-
Beta = Electron = Cathode ray
Shells Nucleus
(orbits)
𝟏𝟒 𝟎 𝟏𝟒
n=8
𝟔𝐂 → −𝟏𝜷 + n=7
𝟕𝐍
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝐧 → 𝟏𝒑 + −𝟏𝐞
Neutron Proton Electron
Electron Neutron Nucleus
0
-1
𝜷𝜷
α⁺⁺
Electric current
α with the current direction
𝜷𝜷 In the opp.direction of the current

____________________________________________________________
5. Atomic Physics
_________________________
169
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Mechanics Same density
Thermal
Same SHC
Waves
Same Material Same refraction
index
Electricity
Same resistivity
Atomic
Same HLT
____________________________________________________________

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Physics

Dr. Mostafa Allam

Unit 5 States ofAtomic

S.I. Base Units

Length: Cm, m , Km, mile, Inch, yard, feet.

Too Small Moderate Too Large

The Precautions of the ruler:

For curved surfaces:

2. By using two blocks.

To measure the thickness of a paper

The Measuring Cylinder precautions:

4∏r² (Sphere) ∏r²h

Time: is measured by stopwatch, light gate, stop clock.

The time can be measured by:

How to get time of one oscillation

 min x 60 sec X=digit

Mass: measured by balance.

Define Problems & unit Graph Explain

Care: Same Material = Same Density

Remarks on using the micrometer (measure to the nearest 0.01mm)

How to draw a graph?

Zero Start Measuring

Total Distance / Total Time (Initial Speed +Final Speed)/2

Acceleration =  Speed /  Time

For Constant Speed

Speed Rate of moved distance.

Distance - time graph General Speed-time graph:

A ⇒uniform Acc 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …..

Zero speed at rest

Zero speed at rest

To calculate the Acceleration from (Speed-Time ) graph.

Straight Line Curve

 How to take Gradient (Slope)?

To get the Y-axis

Different Speed Constant Speed

Max Speed = B Max Speed = C

Zero Speed = C Max Acceleration = B

Area under Slope

1. How far? 2. Circumference 3. Depth 4. Anything by Meter 5-Height

Because a=g=10m/s² (constant) R

Ball (P) Less Time

Less Average speed

At max height the speed =0

The Force: It is the effect that changes:

gravity Phenomena (No Value / No Unite)

Acceleration due to gravity grave. force gravitational

Acceleration due to gravity Free Fall acceleration gravitational field strength

 Note: If he said a body is falling freely then the initial speed =0

g(moon) = 1/6 g(earth)

Moon wt (moon) = 1/6 wt (earth)

Mass (M) Weight (W)

All scalar except (7) vectors

m/kg g/(m/s²) W/N

W= mg Cons. downwards Acc~

Drag Force (friction force): it is the type of force that opposes

Equilibrium: a state of rest or balance due to the equal action of opposing

Equilibrium = Balance Net Force = 0

Net Force = zero Net Moment = zero ; At Rest Moving with

Net = total = Resultant = Unbalanced

If Thrust > Drag = Accelerating

Total Force Force to be balanced

Acceleration Acceleration Centripetal

(A) we've the wt only Uniform ACC.