STRUCTURAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES. SECOND EDITION ee G ants Philadelphia, PennsyvaniaAgoring Edo Tim Peter Prog Foe Corl Woche “Mafting Mangers Rr Cin, ae Lewis Ae May Jn St Cove dein Seton Ponel Pres vn Laon, Cary Bons Mamta Cat Ser Library of Congres Caan Pubcon Data aris, Hay 6 Sects mlg a eines etigns Man Haris sn Gann Satis, = 2nd Fae pb. me: Seta olin al expert ‘etic Inco biog reac nine, ISBN iva) 089524096 (ale pape 1 Sct fee-MeleTesing 2. Seta sen, 1 Sai, Gaon Me Tae, TASIET 1989 aur aat ows his book conti instincts rm ate ad ighy ep soe Reprinted mis qed with emis and ours a Indeed A wie vary of eferes ned Reno fers ave ch ae pe ‘ele dita enfant the aura te pbs ios nepal rte aly of ah mis (forthe omega of i te eke is ook nor ny at my be repro or writen ny am yay mean ceo or chai, Incaing ete ing, mieining, and recring. BY ny fafrmon stage veil sym Wien pe ermine pobier “The eoment of RC Pres LLC dos a xen 1 copying forges Sto, fo omc, freeing et wets ofr eal, Spe pernon mus te sed ewig fom CRC Pes LE Th oping, Dialing 0 CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corte vd, NW. Roca ie 333), ‘Teaeark Notice: Prodat r cores aes my be ademas ope nde ny we fe ican and elation wou tt ge © 199 CRC ren LE ‘No chim to cgi US. German wes Inman Stndrd Book Naber O03 2606 inary of Congress Cad Naber 9846557 Prine ia he United Stes Ameria 1 2.39.45 6.7°8.60 Preface Since the fist edition ofthis book, many developments in the wse of tural modeling have taken place. Significant among these isthe extension of the moving technique io masonry structures and the popular use of models on shaking tables to study the earthquake resance of structures. This secon eton attempts o document these and other developments and present to the student an pe to-date text suitable fr use in advanced undergraduate or graduate level courses in stractural modeling ‘orn the behavior of civil and architectural engineering structures using experimental techniques Structural models have always played a significant role in srctuel engineering research, ‘design, and education. More recently, the modeling technique has been wsed in structural product and structural concept development and i illustrated in the second edition with several detailed examples. Spured by the extensive developments in microminiatarizaton of instrumentation and clectonics and renewed interest in using experimentation inthe new engineering curiculum, the use of structural modeling techniques has gained new importance in civil and architectural engi- neering education. The purpose ofthis textbook is to present curren up-todte treatment of stevtural modeling for applications in design, research, education, and product development, ‘This extensively ilustated textbook teats equally the techniques of modeling of reinforced and prestressed concrete, masonry, stel, and wooden structures under satie and dynamic foads [New chapters on model fabrication methods and use of structural models in civil and architectural engineering edvation have been added to the second edition. Many worked out examples and case studies are used Io guide the student or practicing enginoer through the necessary steps of using {he structural modeling technique for themselves in understanding structial behavioe, Numerous problems of varying degrees of difficulty after each chaptr est he understanding of the reader. he authors view the siracural model as a complement tothe mathematical model and not as 8 competitor nora replacement for analysis. A rule of thumb is that if an appropriate, well-tested analytical approach exists fora given situation, it will usually be less expensive and quicker than an expesimental approach. If analysis isnot feasible, or if boundary conditions are poorly defined ‘or highly variable, the mode! test may be the only solution tothe problem, Models must be used selectively, and their range of application i constandy changing a8 analytical methods get increas ‘ingly more powerful. This book should prepare the reader to form the proper perspective a8 10 ‘when and where models should be lized, ‘Models for determining the elastic response of structures have been used for many years, and considerable information i available in the form of research reporis end books. Many elastic nodeling techniques have been replaced by computer-based analysis methods, and therefore they are treated herein a relatively brief manner, The major emphasis is onthe modeling of the tre inelastic behavior of structures. Compared with ¢lastic models, the problems in inelastic modeling are considerably greater — starting from the selection ‘of materials tobe used inthe models, the technigues of favication, instrumentation, and testing to the imerpreation of mode! ests to predict the behavior of the simulated protype structure Applications ofthe modeing techniques to real structures help one fo ter understand the atuat roces of mode! analysis. They also asist in forming a perspective on the types of structures for which ‘Physical modeling is important. There are some types of special sitar where the models approoch las an essential roe in design. These topics are given detailed treatment in he form of case histories. Chapter I discusses the historical ackground of model analysis and similtade principles that 20vem the desigo testing, and interpretation of models. Fight well chosen case stues illustrate the ide use of model studies covering application to a vaity of strctral forms such as buildings, bridges, and special strctres and a variety of construction materials incluing reinforced concrete, ‘masonry, and wood. Chapter 2 presents the theory of structural modeling under static and dynamic Joading. Chapter 3 deals with the various aspects of elastic models with aditional material added 10 ‘cover the properties of balsa and other wooden models, Chapter 4 teats materials for concrete andconcrete masonry models, Extensive material as been added in ths chapter to cover the properties of tock mmomry smtures Chapter 5 presets the material modeling requirements for structural tel rt reinforcement for enforced and prestressed concrete sacar. Accurate modeling tthe Prop tie of both conccte and stel is absoktelyesseitial and is one ofthe more dificult pars of the modsing process. Chapter 6 is anew chapter that covers the various model fabrication techniques. stumncntation techniques are treated in Chapter 7 with emphasis on stain measurement and imerptation, Chapter 8 presets selected laboratry techniques and Woaing methods. Developing f sound faniiarity with these technigues isan imegral part of model analysis. A ew Chapter 9 ‘eats with size effects, accuracy, and reibiity of materials and modes. An understanding of the rte av souee of scale effects is ercial in understanding the capabilites and fmstations ofthe tmodeting tochnique. Chaper 10 covers acta apyliations of structural modeling under static ‘quas-stae Toding. Case stxes of number of important uses of modeling in desig, esearch, lind peaduct development are presented. These are dravn from the experience of Ue authors and their celleagues and cover a wide spectrum of applications. ‘Dynamic load effects suchas wind, blast, impact, and earthquakes are tested in Chapter 11 Case studies of important model structures under dynamic loading are also presented. The problems ‘Gscussed in ear chapters dealing with static loading become more dificult in dynamic studies. ‘dina simltode requirements and new experimental techniques are necessary when dealing ‘vith dynamic stvctural models "A new Chapter 12 dealing with educational models for civil and architectural engineers has been added tothe second edition, A large muaber of applications, mainly from the teaching tapesience of the senior author ot Drexel Univesity, Mustates the wsfulness of the sista Sodeling techie in teaching stectural behavior to undergraduate and graduate students alike ‘We believe that this book will be of substartil assistance not only to students of civil and architectural engncering curricula but also to ter engineering students with intrest in experi ental tecbnigues It should be helpful to practicing engines, designers, and architects who are ‘ealing with structures. It should also be useful to thse engaged in testing large or full-scale Structures since the instrumentation techniques and overall approaches used in testing large stuc- tures are very similar t those utilized in small-scale modeling work Tnformation on typical sacral models courses and how the material presented in this second edition can be introduced into the classroom ean be found onthe senior author's web page: "wovvepages.drexeledufaculyfharrshe! ‘We express many thanks to Dr. Richard N. White, Comell University, advisor, mentor, and colleague who contributed greatly tothe first edition and without whose collaboration this book ‘vould not have been possible, Also, thanks go t» Dr. M, Saced Mirza, McGill University fr his Contributions to the fist edition. The authors are indebted to Dr. Start Swartz, Kansas State University, and Dr Philip Pedikaris, Case Wesem Reserve University, for reviewing the entire manuscript and to Drs. Mohamed Elgaaly, Asa Zerva, Mahmoud El-Sherif, and Prof. James Mitchel, Drexel University, for reviving Chasters 5,9, and 12, respectively. Former grads students Dr. Vincent Cacese, University of Maine, Dr. Bechara Abboud, Temple University, Ivan J, Beviea, Dr. Ahcene Larbi, Dr. Win Somboonsong, and Basem Dow reviewed pars of the hansscript for which we are very grateful, Thanks are also duc to our many colleagues who provided photographs and other material for this book. Among those, we would like to thank Drs. Helmut Krawinkler, Daniel Abrams, Philip Pedikars, Miba Tomazevic, Nabil Grace, Ahmad Hamid, Theodor Krauthammer, Emin Aktan, Vincent Coccece, Bechara Abbowd, Abcene Larbi, Salah Sagur, Keng-Ho Oh, and Win Somboonsong and Mr. Noman Hoffman. heartfelt thanks to George Papayianis, who labored trough the equations and tables of he draft, Finally, we would Tike to thonk our many students over te years who persevered shrough our sacral moves courses and whose needs were the inspiration for this took Harry G. Harris Gajanan M. Sabis Philadelphia, Pennsplvania Foreword “This revised edition of an earir edition entitled Structural Modeling and Experimental Anabyss ty Sabis, Haris, Wht, sad Mia is avery welcome ation to the seta engines laser provides an op to-date exposition ofthe bases, rinciples, and ptics of experimen} yf he tal physical behave ofa broad clas of suet ranging trough al is onnct sy evo constuction with parol trong treatment of conerete and masonry structures I etn from the premise that carefully done experimental studies are estntial im developing x at understanding of bow astracture behaves at high Toad levels (up thrcugh the faire sa). ‘The reoulting insight also is required in the formulation of meaningful mathematical models for further study through analytical means. | ‘Wine the banc thrust of de book is ircted to reduced scale models these same principles ace just a pliable to fll cal progr. One f the stongest fests ofthe book iis ory it engincring approach fo all phases of experimental stody of structures, including iii ‘Sanning inate selection, instentation, ang design and appeain, err analysis and Fine effets, and condocting the est nd reporting on resus “Te cxanded coverage inthis new edition includes detailed information on Fading systems — stats nd dynam, including wid, earksuake, last and impact. Dynamicexperimenta stuctres sath are now pechaps the most important of al, given the fac that nonlinear static response can to increasingly well treated analytically Perhaps the eat way to wu appreciate this book isto study the may excellent applications and hee dosed casestudies cover in Chapter 10. Each case study provides a wealth of infor: Thaton on experimental investigations of complex structural behavior. ae ow festure of the book is a comprehensive chapter (Chapter 12) on educational models for vil and uchitetural engineering stents. The use of physical models in teaching structural Chuincering provides students with aleve of understanding not sehivatleUwough theory) alone ‘Tare ake imalable in motivating and encouraging siden to appreciate the completes and seeks of suctual behavior. Thearly encourage my colleagues in academia wo incorporate theve kinds of experiments in their courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels Richard N. White James A. Friend Family Professor of Engineering ‘Comell University Inhaea, New York| The Authors Harry G. Haris tas been a professor of Civil and Architectural Engineering a Drexel Universiy since joining the faculty in 1974, Prior wothis, he worked in several postions for Gremman, ‘Aerospace Corporation (Nowhrop-Grumman). He eared his ‘BEE. (cs) degree from the American Univesity of Beirut, S.M. and CEE. degwes from MIT, and his PhD. from Corel] Uni versity where he was an Instructor, He hae authored oF co- authored over 130 publications ad several books dealing with ‘structural engineering problems — many of them related to structural modeling and experimental techniques of concrete, masonry, ste, and wooden structures. He has conducted research forte Air Fore, NASA, DOD, HUD, NRC. NSF, and ‘many indostat concerns. Some of his areas of investigation include progressive collapse and earthquake resitance of precast concrete buildings asks under the enforced concrete and masonry portions of he U.S.Japan Cooperative Program on Earthquake [Engineering Research; earthquake qualification of masonry wall in nuclear powerplants, and the development of ductile hybrid FRP (D-ILFRP) reinforcement for concrete structures He is active in several professional societis inchding ASCE. ACI. TMS, and ERI Gajanan M. Subnis has been Professor of Civil Engineering at Howard Univesity since 1973 Prior to this, he worked for Bech tel Corporationas well a the American Cement Corporation. He {ook his undergraduate studies in Mumbai, India and obtained bis PhD. from Comell University in 1967. He has authored over 100 poblications and several books related to conerete, including rehabilitation o conerete structures. Dr. Sabmis is active in var fous technical committees of professional societies, which inclade ASCE, ACI, ASE, and PCL He has traveled and ected extensively interationlly. In adition to his academic achieve- rents, Dr. Sabnis heads two design and research related firs and isaregisterd professional engineerin many sates, including California, Maryland, and New York. Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to Physical Modeling in Structural Engineering 11 Invoduction sn : 1 1.2. Strutural Models — Definitions an Clasifcations. 2 13 A Bret Historical Perspective on MOdelNg one | 14 Structural Models and Codes of Practice. ~ ced 15 Physical Modeling and the New Engineering Curriculum 8 1G Choice of Geomettie Seale nn = 9 17 The Modeling Process a o 10 8 Advantages and Limitations of Model Analysis a 19 Accuracy of Structural Models... =a) 110. Model Laboratories : sl LIL Modeling Case States 1B 132. Summary a = co Problems, P36 References. aa 37 Chapter 2. The Theory of Structural Models 24 Introduction. a - o 2 22. Dimensions and Dimensional Homogeneity : nn 23. Dimensional Analysis. 45 24 Stmctural Models a 56 25 Simalitude Requirements on 26 Summary . ~ %6 Problems. ~ . oT References st Chapter 3. Elastic Models ~ Materials and Techniques, 3.1 Introduction. se 86 3.2. Materials for Elastic Models . 87 33. Plastics. : : 38 34 Time Effects in Plastics — Evaluation and Compensation . 96 3.3 Bfecs of Londing Rate, Temperature, and the Environment. 100 36 Special Problems Related to Plastic Model. 103 3.7 Wood and Paper Products. —— 108 38 Elastic Models — Design and Reseach Applications. von 3.9. Determination of Influence Lines and Tauence Surfaces Using Indirect “Models — Muller-Breslau Pinciplennunns send 3.40 Sumamary 123 Problems en a 124 References. S — v2Chapter 4 Inelastie Models: Materials for Concrete and Concrete Masonry Structures 40 General 42 Prototype and Mode! Coneretes 43 Engincering Properties of Coneret 44 Unconfined Compressive Strength and Stess Stain Reto 45 Tensile Suength of Concrete 46 Floxural Behavior of Prototype and Model Concrete. 47 Behavior in Indirect Tension and Shear. 48 Design Mixes for Model Concrete. 49 Summary of Model Concrete Mixes Used by Various lavesigators. 4.10 Gypsum Mortars. 4.11 Modeling of Concrete Masonry Siucures 41.12 Strength of Mode! Block Masonry Assembhges. 413. Summary Problens.. References Chapter 5 inelastic Models: Structural Steol and Reinforcing Bars 5.1 Introdvtion 52 Selon 53. Structural Steel Models... [54 Reinforcement for Small Scale Concrete Models 5.3 Model Prestressing Reinforcement and Techniques. 56 _ FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Models 5.7 Bond Characteristics of Model Ste. 58 Bond Similitde 59° Cracking Siniltade and General Deformation CGonerete Elements 5.410. Summary... Problems. References... Chapter 6 Model Fabrication Techniques 6.1 Introduction. 62 Basie Cutng, Shaping. and Machining Operation. 63. Basic Fastening and Gluing Techniques. 64 Constraction of Structural Stel Models 65 Construction of Plastic Models {6 Constraction of Wood and Paper Models Fabrication of Concrete Models 130 130 BL 133 182 146 8 153 159 165 170 188 2m 202 205 210 210 mal 230 252 255 259 266 267 am 2m a4 280 Chapter 7 Instrumentation — Principles and Applications TA General 72. Quantities t be Measared - . 73. Stuin Measurements. . . : 74 Displacement Measurements alld Stan Measurements and Crack Detain Methods 716 Siest and Force Measurement. ~ 7.1 Temperature Measurements. 8 Creep and Shrinkage Characters and Moisture Measremen 719 Data Acgpistion nd Redhct asm 1.10 Fiber Opies and Smart Stroctures. oe TAN Summary Problems, References. Chapter 8 Loading Systems and Laboratory Techniques SA Invoduction a 82 Types of Loads and Loading Systems. - : 83 Discrete vs. Distributed Loads. : 84 Loadings for Shell and Other Modes 85 Loading Techniques for Buckling Studies and For Structures Subjet to Sway 8.6 Miscellancous Loading Devices : 87 Summary nnn ~ Problems References Chapter 9 Size Effects, Accuracy, and Refiabiti 9.1 General 9:2 Whats Sie Ee? 93. Factors Influencing Size Effects 2 94 Theoretical Sues of Sie Esfees 9.5 Size fects in Pani Concrete—Exprimental Wotk mnsnnn 9.6 Size Effects in Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete effects in Metals and Reinforcements 918 Size Effees in Masonry Mortars. 9.9 Size Effects and Design Codes. 9.10 Errors in Stractaral Model Studies. - SAY Types oF E00. 9.12. Statistics of Measurements. : 9.13. Propagation of Random Errors... = 9.18 Accuracy in (Concrete) Models. a 9.15 Overall Reliability of Mode! Results. a ‘9.16. nfluence of Cost and Time on Accuracy of Modets 917 Sammary em - Problems. : = . References 5 vo 320 32 351 353 361 362 364 367 377 “377 381 in Materials Systems and Models Az au “ald ais 420 431 433 34 “435 437 439 aah aaa 450 4st 458 458 359 4‘Chapter 10 Model Applications and Case Studies 10.1 Introduction 7 466 102 Modeling Applications . 466, 103 Case S568 ven nn = — 529 104. Summary... 7 ve 32 Problems nun a 373 References. eee — 379 Chapter 11. Structural Models for Dynamic Loads TT Introd. 00 . —— 586 112 Simitiade Requirements. cso a 387 113 Materials for Dynamic Models. - 388 114 Loading Systems for Dynamic Mods! Testing, 593 11. amps of Dyanic Mods z ~ 08 116 Case Stuies : : 9 117. Summary : nn) Problems. - vom ors References - 2 a 615 Chapter 12 Educational Models for Civil and Architectural Enginecing 121 Inredction ve nn 680 12.2 Historical Perspective. —— 681 123 Linearly Elastic Sirctral Behavion : . 681 124 Nonlinear and Inelastic Stvcturl Behavior = 4 12.5 Stroctrsl Dynamics Concepts vo m2 126 Experimentation and the New Engineering Cunicaln = “ns 127 Case Sui nd Sten Po _ m9 128 Summary S . — “751 Problems . = : 2 752 Reference nnn : _ IS Append A Dimenstona Dependence and Independence Al The Form of Dimensions 131 ‘AZ Method I: The Numeric Method = 159 3 Method T: The Functional Method _ 761 AA Ulustrative Examples. ae 963 ReReMCE8 enero 765 ‘Appendix BA Note on the Use of SI Units in Structural Engoneing Bl Geometry. ss : 68 B2 Densities, Gravity Loads, Weis 8 B.3 Force, Moment, Sires, and Other Stress Resultant . 68 BA Miscellaneous (Angles, Temperature, Enerey, Powes)... 168 BS __S1System Standard Practice... cea 769 Index To Helen and ShardaCHAPTER 1 | Introduction to Physical Modeling in Structural Engineering CONTENTS | LAL fetrodvetion — : 12 Smuetural Models — Definitions and Classifications 121 Models Classification unum 122 Physical Models in Ober Engineering Disciplines 1.3. A Brief Historical Perspective on Modeling... 114 Structural Models and Codes of Prater 15 hlcal Modeling and the New Engineering Camila s.r 16 Choice of Geometric Seale. : 2 17 The Modeling Process a: = 18 Advantages and Limitations of Mode Analysis. 19 Accuracy of Structural Models, 110. Model Laboratories. TIT Modeling Case Staies. LAVAL Case Study A, TWA Hangar Suvetares L112 Case Study B, R/C Frame-Wall Stuctares L113. Case Study C, Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks. LILA Case Study D, Lightly Reinforced Concrete Buikines. LI15 Case Stady E, Presuessed Wooden Bridges. = LANG Case Study F, Interlocking Mortaress Block Masoary 111.7 Case Study G, Pile Foundations... ae TALS Case Stody H, Exteroalyinteally Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge System. a at 112. Summary 4 Problems... - 36 References 37 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘A perspective on physical modeing of statues presented inthis chapter, incaing ss sate rote various ypes of physical model tat hae evolved over the years and some comments‘STRUCTURAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES cn he pr le of hese eters of odin teation, desig, ech, an pdt concept development ‘in North America and elsewhere. “ oceeen Seta models and ede cle strict onetime alld pea mils) fave ala layed a Sica ron stocaraengineig cation, escath sal ge, egress tec sctus anpcints evs ten imper ixhing ocean td sive engintng concept A wie ng of poten et nee, cache ad iterating mci ty osc tr hte sem hh ag on theories oth ate eee dpi of xperinnel se willbe teaed inden sso ht. Tas capers the ale ms eee wa 'shopedan appresation osteoid ya oneal othe eee iting wed dyin th engcrng posi This me expended sca eno took hs aed ne materi onthe tengo sacra cnet co ea aed Ceoineing tens anon theca sacral seg cis soe nt da con ne nw ping rea, Pacly seta se ipa n ling new onto nd creating pce, bt npc md a Conserserebcaseisaeicomplel feet om he Seu, Stal lee wsedinarccctoal egicring efcaton wile canted een, een ev chs fhe tsk se thse come te vehicle by shih te sade sb nance we ope stroctural behavior concept in both analysis and design = 1.2. STRUCTURAL MODELS — DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS Asal mode deed ay phys representation of sce oa prion of ¢ scr: Mos commen te model wll be comet ederd ses ie Seon a ‘ence by ACT Cate 14, Experientia rConce Ses phe eu wel o mol fst ie fay mae eau: fens een aes Janney et al. (1970) is ” met seat 2 sm ys at sey of tl cn i eel ‘ee Gn compron vt lassie) wh ta be te whens soe ‘mast be employed to interpret test results. eis Bath ttn encompass od hs of waking sues on rtp ili) ste sx sing i dam ter ec ves sl tye an win ca etn ours, nds Loins ne sateen es and wind effects. aaacen * Sima a Mary edcesiz str element ae ctl din sac stasis {alors also class these structures as models even though simiitude conditions are not normally {np tele see sec ml nica dia mead canton a ed ay ton he bred thao of th resch med adasngh el ee the sgn fein. sl bent tha me bre ss rane en eae te. An ipo dso is way mae wen protype nal cnet be wd sides. nt ee, apropinte model isnt sated nde Tectia ihen propery deg «mo vipins cnc malo mde of fos prsese ops coc wes witha eon saat of ht a bck sey seat Si scenes sale fcr of 3 Mae is ao provsed ‘sel ad tne ers vhs ones ‘ae ar of 55. Mach them fof snes apie ma oot pe of sts ao iteret see ates INTROOUGTION TO PHYSICAL MODELING IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 3 1.2.1 Models Classification Structural models can be defined and classified in a variety of ways. The definitions adopted dere cela wo the intended faction of the model. That is, what do we expect to achieve from the tests? Do we want only elastic response, of do we expect fo load the model up ofall to observe its complete behavior, including the failure mode and capacity? Ate ve content to work with influence lines determine from the models, or Jo we need actual stan measurements for prescribed Joadings? The models needed in each of these applications have been given well-aceepled names, Elastic Model — This type of mode! has a direct geomesic resemblance to the prototype but is ‘made ofa homogeneous, elastic material that doesnot necessarily resemble the prototype material The elastic mode is resticted tothe clastic range of behavior of the prootype and cannot predict postercking behavior of concrete of masonry, postyeld behavior of steel, nor the many other inelastic behavior modes that develop in actual stractoes when they are loaded. Caper 3 teats clastic models in detail, inclading selection of materials, Plastics such as methyl methacrylate (Plexiglas, Lacite, Perspex) and polyvinyleloride (PVC) are most widely used in constructing clastic models, even though their time-dependent properties present dificulies. Wood of many ‘commercial species and balsa wood are also covered in Chapter 3 since these find many applications ‘in modeling timber structures and aze easy to work with. In many applications of elastic models, specially in the demonstration of structural behavior to students, materials with low modulus of elasticity soch as rubber, paper products, and plastics ae used fo accentuate deformations making it easy to observe the behavior. These materials are also discussed in Chapter 3. Inlrect Model — An indirect model is a special form of the elastic medel that s used to obtain Influence diagrams fo reactions and for internal sites resultants such as shearing forces, bending ‘moments, snd axial frees, Th loading applied to indirect models has a0 correspondence to the actual loads expected oa the prototype structure since load effects are obianed from superposition ofthe influence values. An indirect model often does not havea direct physical resemblance tothe prototype; for example, a frame whose behavior is controlled by its flexural stifines properties (EN) cam be modeled with an indiect model that correctly teproduces the relative stiffness valves, ‘The later can be done without precise sealing of the eoss-sectonal shape (circular shapes inthe indirect model can represen prototype wide lange sections), and the clement areas may be grossly distorted without affecting the reals Inthe pas, most applications of the indirect model have been for nonuniform members in indeterminate frames, but now this type of model find very litle use because these purely elastic calculations are beter done by compte. Direct Model — A diect model is geometrically similar tothe prototype in all respects, and the loads are applied to it in the same manner as wo the prototype. Strains, deformations, and stresses nthe mod! foreach Toadng condition are representative of similar quantities in the prototype for ‘he corresponding loading condition. Thus, an elastic model can also bea direct model. Examples of indirect and direct models are shown in Figure 1.1 ‘Strongth Model — This type of model sslso calle ultimate stength or realistic model or replica ‘model and i a direct model that is made of materials that are similar 1 the prototype materials such thatthe mode! wil predict prototype behavior forall oads upto failure. A strength model of ‘reinforced concrete clement or structure mast be made from model concrete and model-einforcing Clements where each ofthe materials satisfies the smiltude conditions fr the prototype materials ‘The later represents the most dificult problem met in strength models for concrete structures; (Chapers 4 and 5 cover these topics in depth, Strength midels can also be made fr stel structures,STRUCTURAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES ENDVIEW DEFLECTION INFLUENCE LINE - MAX NEG MOMENT INTERIOR SUPPORT (@moIRECT MODEL 5.20 UNIF STRAIN GAGES m7 eNDVIEW DIAL GAGES DEFLECTED SHAPE (e)OIRECT MODEL, Figure 14. Exarole of (9) ect and) direct med ner sre, and in each es the mor ote en ding the rope mate a fabrication techniques for the models. ers fines Prone “a "\aengh mel muse a ect mel, by defnton, To wee esi of nist mols, ne musty sgerpeson of rest, ane serpin panes Pt valid fr te poster esse eum alsoength nds isnt conomeal Bad kength models nd {ee them only ine ast ange of bebo Wind Effects Model —There ace various ways of classifying wind effects modeling. We can tlie shape or rigid modes, where citer total ces or dhe wind pressures om he structure may ‘be measured, and aeroelstc models, where both the shape and stfiness properties ofthe prototype structure are modeled in order to measure the vind-indsced stresses and deformations and the ‘dynamic interaction of the structure with the win Dynamic Models — These models are used to study vibration or dynamic loading effects on structures They may be tested on a shaking table for stodying earthquake loading effects or in a ‘wind tunnel for studying aroeastic effects. Dynamic models can also be used to study internal or extemal bast effects or impact effects on structs. These form a very important group of models land are extensively covered in Chapter 11 Instructional, Research, and Design Models — One often sees the classification of instruc tional models, research models, and design models. While the use of each sobviow, tis worthwhile \nTRODUGTION TO PHYSICAL MODELING IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 5 to pint out thatthe degree of sophistication needed in each may be markedly ifferent, Instrctional Tred should be made as simple a possible to demonstrate the concepts und>r study, and simiitode ‘Doteton tat doce not markedly ifuence the desired behavior is permis le. Reseach models from which theories may be substantiated and generalizations made fora cls of structures, sally st be made with as much accuracy asthe lbortory technicians can mast. Design models may tunge m acowacy requirements rom te isirutional mode! tothe ressarch model, depending upon the desired reels. Some design models may be used only a8 a conceptual ool to geta eter idea Df how a proposed structure deforms under Hand; olbers may be expected 0 predict the true Toad Capacity of the structure, The use of srctural models as dzect aids in design is one of the most ‘omerfal applications of strctral models. An enginer is often called upon to design strvctres uch asthe Trans World Airlines maintenance hangar facility located in Kansas City, MO and ‘escibein Chapter 10 n this instance a series of plastic models and a stength model were sed asthe main approach in the final design. “Anothce major physical modeling application in design isto help verify calculations for very targe and monumental stractures where failure consequences could be extemely serious (Such 28 heavy los of life or capital investment, or disruption of essential lifeline services), nuclear reactor strctre is a good example of this application, ‘Perhups the major disadvantages of using a model for design purposes from the sianpoin of the consulting engineer, are the time and money involved in the modeling sudy. This topic is given farther attention in Section 1.8 ‘Other Model Classifications — Okher classifications of models include thermal models, where cifecs of temperature gradients are sted. Thermally loaded models ae usually elastic, direst ‘odes although some attempts have been made (0 combine mechanical ods and thermal loads for steagth models There is also a group of photomechanical models that wsilze opsical effects, sch asthe photoelastic effect for stress intensies and directions and interference effects from trds to measure plate displacements, inleral strain fields, and deflecticns of framed structures ‘Construction procedure models are used to belp plan the building of very complex structures, such sin reinforcement placement in niclear reactor containment, and in cantilever bridges 1.2.2. Physical Models in Other Engineering Disciplines ‘Hydraulic engineering, models have been studied as early asthe late 1800s with considerable succes. Studies of id notion in pipes, pumps. and open channels, wave setion, beach erosion, ‘Shing due to tides an tial caren, and the extent of contaminants de to polation in impertant ‘estuaries and river basins hae all een suceesfuly carried out by means of physical models. ‘Today, all important hydraulic stuctores are designed and built after estin preliminary model studies have been completed ‘Naval architects have fr a Tong ime relied on the use of piysical models in the design of shipa, Al the important features of ship design, such a ship maneweraility in smooth and rough feat, ahip ending and vibration, frictional and wave-smaking characteristics, t., have been studied by means of scale models in model testing tanks or water basins. “The aulomotive and gerospace industries hae relied on the use of physical models for staying ‘a number of phenomena ranging fom the wind flow ever aerodynamic bodies to vibration testing fin thermal Suess elects, Important contributions to the advancement of automotive and aero teal sciences and space exploration would not have been made posible were it aot for model testing. Important examples in these areas ae covered by Schuring (1977), "The geological, peomechanial nd soil mechanics sciences have also used physical models to study sll and rock phenomena. More receny, mel studies dealing witt gesyntheics and geome ‘hati have also been cared oat. Modeling of soil-sirecture interaction is bricfly treated i. the tmodkling of srucral systems using a cenifge in Chapter 2and in an example in Chapter 116 ‘STRUCTURAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES 1.3 A BRIEF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON MODELING “The use of small-scale models by engineers and builders dates back many hundreds and even thonsands of yeas. However, these early models were primarily sis for planing and constructing structures and were not useful for predicting deformations and strengths of pottypes, They more nearly resemble the modem architectural model ind should not be thought of in the same context 4s stuctual models ‘Most models uss to predict structural behavior require measurement of srains, displacements, and frees. Thus, the development of modeling practical ool has been sharply inflnced by bilities in experimental sess anlysis. The most-used technigaes in experimental stress analysis have been established ony since the tum of the 2entary. They include: Photoclasticity for elastic stress analysis of complex geometries: 2, Deformeers developed by Beggs, Eney, Gottschalk and oles for introducing deforma- tions into indtect modes and thea determining iaflacnce lines by use of the Muller-Bre- slau principle; Mechanical and pial strain guges for measurement of surface stain; Flecrical resistance strain gages; 5. Linear variable differential transformers (LV), linear potentiometer, and similar devices for electrical recondin of displacements; 6, Brite coatings, moiré and interference fringe metbods, and photoelastic coatings for “full-field” strain measurements on the surface of a structure of model; 7. Automated data acquisition systems that uses minicomputr to contol and process many ‘channels of data Hem 2, deformeters in indirect models, has been used to study iftuence lines and to determine deflections in skeletal stuetures since the early 1920s. Beggs (1932) and Eney (1938) were the firs to use specially designed deformetes to obuin influence Hines for skeletal structures made of plastic and other materials. The simplest appiction isthe use of along, flexible strip of woos, ‘brass, or stel and to measure the model deformations directly. The Gotschlk (1926) continostat is an improvement on this technique. However, lrge defomations must be imposed onthe model, ‘which causes other kinds of errors (Kinney, 1957) Bull (1930) used the brass spring mode! for indirect analysis of aniculated structures. Development of other deformeter i reported by Ruge ‘and Schmidt (1939) at MIT (moment deformetr, and by Moakler and Hated (1953) at RPL (RPL ‘eformete) Ttem 4, the electrical resistance stain gage, is pehaps the single most important development in tems of providing an easily used method for determining either static or dynamic strains in a structure. The same gage forms the sensing devize in commonly used load cells and trandcers ‘Thus its introduction inthe 1940s canbe considered to be the bass for moder experimental tess analysis and structural model analysis (Ruge, 1943/4; erry and Lissne, 1955). Relatively litle model analysis other than photoelastic studies and indirect models was done prior to 1940. The Ysescale Hoover Dam model built in 1930 and models of ether great dams of ‘that era built by the Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO were a aoable exception (Savage, 1934). Another notable exception of the exly 1930s wis the work of Goorge Beggs and his co-workers at Princeton on suspension bridge models (Begas etal, 1932). Since that time, the technology ‘needed for rapid constuction, instrumentation, cad testing of stuctural models has continued to develop, The current use of structural modeling is introduced inthis chapter, andthe full ange of| applicability will become apparent as the reader progresses through the book, INTRODUCTION To PHYSICAL MODELING IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 7 14 STRUCTURAL MODELS AND CODES OF PRACTICE Modeling has received relatively ite altetion in most North American building codes and specifications. However, mos codes do contain special provisions that permit the engineer to make rather substantial use of models in the design process. For example, the 1969 City of New York Building Code contains the following paragraph: (5) MODEL TESTS. Teton model es thn fl ie maybe used to determine the elaive intensity, ction, and ditittion of stesses and applied loads, tat shall woe comsred as proper mod. {orevalsting tress in nore suength of individual members unless apoved by the commissioner fortis purpose, Where model anal is proposed a a means ofetaahing the situa design, ‘he flowing coon sal be met. 2 Analysis shal be made bya firm oeosprton satisfactory tthe cmnissone. |b The simiitoe scaling and valiy ofthe analysis sal be axe by an cero pencil ‘ofthe im or cnpration making thesis © A report om the analysis shall be submited showing test sup, equpment, and resting ACI 316-95, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, exits model analysis for shel stractures in Section 19.2.4 192.4 — Expeimentl or numerical snaysis procedures sll be pet where it canbe shown that such procedures provide a safe basis for desion This is further elaborated on inthe Code Commentary R192 Experimental analysis of estic meld" has bon se a. substi foran analytic soation of complex shell rate. Experimental analysis of reinforced miorcomrete model tough the last, cocking, inelastic, and wlimate range should be considered fr important sels of unas sie, shape andor comple, For model analysis, oly thse potion ofthe sate which fet sigicaly the tems wnder stoly net be simulated. Every atte shouldbe made tense tat he experiments reveal he ‘quanta ber of the pottype strstr Some countries, such as Australia, permit complete designs of cern (pes of structures by ‘mode! analysis alone. Thus, there isa relatively healthy potential usaze of modeling in design ‘codes. Many engineers would be even more receptive of modeling for Jesiga if they would only realize that many ofthe code provisions that they apply analytically every day ae in fat derived ‘mainly from tess on reduced-scale models. The engineer who wishes to use models should not Desiate to contact the responsible building official to seek approval and should also seck proper ‘assistance from an expert in model analysis There are numerous situations in which these code provisions might be appiod in practice; in most cases itis where the analytical approach is not fully adequate. Basic doubis may arise in applying existing analytical techniques to new and complex structural forms. Analytical methods are not yet developed to handle te extremely complicated behavior of enforced concrete structures Toaded to nearfllure or certain othe Fimitstate conditions. This is why modeling is often used by engineers studying the failure of structures, ‘Types of sractures suitable fr possible structural model studies during the design phase include: 1. Shell roof forms of complex configuration and boundary conditions 2. Tall structures and odher wind-semstve structures for which wind tunnel modeling is indicated;8 ‘STRUCTURA. MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNBQUES. [New bung stractral ystems involving the interaction of many components; Complex bridge configurations such a moll prestressed concrete box gir highway bes: [Noclear reactor vessels and other reinforced and prestessed concrete pressure vessels; 6 Ordinary framed stractures subjected to complex Toads and load histories, such as wind and earthquake forces, +. Stroctual slabs with unas boundary or losing conditions, oc wit iegular peometry produced by cutouts and thickness changes; 8. Dams; 9. Undersea and offshore stuctures; 10, Detailing, Item 10 points out an important use of modes: fr studying problems that rie in only aimited region of a structure, stch as an involved connection detail or localized stresses de 10 Tange pestressing forces. Carefully designed and tested, he partial model can be extremely important in Clarifying these stations and in leading tan improved design. The major difficulty with the partial model is in providing proper boundary comlitions: an adequate boundary condion in a physical model may produce even worse results ban a poor boundary conlition in an analytical solution, 1.5 PHYSICAL MODELING AND THE NEW ENGINEERING CURRICULUM “The now engineering curriculum, under development and implementation at Drexs! and ater universities with strong udergraduste engineering programs, relies on teaching basic engineering ‘concepts by giving the student hands-on experiences in the laboratory (Quinn, 199). Mastery of ‘eaperimental techniques is expected in the fist aud second years. The students become filiar ‘wth how deta are acquired, processed, and analyzed as well as how basic experimental techniques, devices, and methods are tsed in a wide variety of engineering disciplines. The experiment feperience is not lost in upperfevel engineering courses but is ineprated with the theory. This reans that experimental techniques must become nore widespread fo reach a much wider andience ofthe engineering community. For undergraduate students studying the fundamentals of tuctres, St means thet laboratory feciliies must exist where the design, fabrication, testing, and observation fof the structural behavior canbe carried out. This kn of experience can be invaluable tothe new ‘Student who cannot afford t0 walt to be a practicing engineer with several years of experience 10 tain such information. Stidens” understanding i prealy enbanced by observation and corlation ‘with the theory that they are earning. 1 shoal be pointed ovt that in the new enginceyng cuticular experimentation is an integral pert ofthe engineering stents profesional development The incoming freshmen stat engineer ing courses from day one. Emphasis is given to experimental methods in engineering because of their wide use in analysis, design, development, and manufacturing. Special attention is given to the interpretation and effective presentation of experimental results in writen and ora forms. The computer is used effectively aa rescarch and design tool The students engage in professional ‘design projects solving real world problems. They lear interactively, trough teamwork, gaining life-long leaning skills. ‘Reganlss of discipline, practicing engineers perform a wide variety of experiments throughout their carers. Mastering the techniques of experimentation is therefore very esental. During the freshman year, stents conduct a thre-hovrTabratory each weck in the Engineering Tet, Design, ‘and Simulation Laboratory. Tis state-of the-art facility provides students with opportunites to INTRODUCTION TO FAFSICAL MODELING IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 8 exercise their imagination, satisfy their curiosity, and experience the joy of engineering. Throwgh fhe mar af computers and Computer controlled laboratory instments, stents are able to explore tow experimentation i used in engineering applications. They become famiiar with how data are secured, processed, and analyzed as well as how basic expeimental techniques, devices, and methods ae used in a wide vity of engineering disciplines. ‘During the sophomore and junior years, the laboratory component is shared among several ‘courses rather than being an integrated course at was the case in the freshman yeas, These courses teach the fundamentals of structoral enginecring and form the backbone of the young strvetural ‘engineer's academic taining The laboratory work s competed by the stodent majoring in stractures jn courcs such as Construction Materials, States, Mechanics of Materias, and Introduction 10 ‘Structural Analysis. These courses contin the stents Iboratory training in a variety of hands ‘on experiments and demonstrations wsing the techniques developed inthe fist year ‘During the senior year, the structral engineering major takes courses sich as Project Design, Structural Design of Stee, Concrete, Masonry and Timber Siructures, and Senior Seminar. 18 audition, advanced seniors are allowed to take introductory praduatetevel courses including Model “Analysts of Structures and Experimental Analysis of Nonlinear Sractures 1 an H- Examples of Saractre, drawn from these courses and demonstting diferent levels of behavior, are described jn Chapter 12 to illustrate how the laboratory component of the new engineering curiculum is implemented 1.6 CHOICE OF GEOMETRIC SCALE ‘Any given model being builtin a given laboratory has an optimum geometric scale factor. Very small noes requie Fight loads but can present great difficulties in fabrication and instrumentation. ‘Large modets a easier to build but require much heavier loading equipme. The later requirement is not seus ina laboratory that is flly equipped to conduct tests on large structures, but itis @ Severe handicap ina smaller laboratory. Typical scale factors for several classes of structures are a Follows: ‘ype of Siructure Elastic Models Strength Models stetcot wes yes igh bee BS rs Wind fee dw Neeamtiaie ‘The rationale behind this table should become more apparent as we progress through the chapters of tis book. Strength models of concrete structures have many practical dimensional Timations, such as minimum feasible thickness bar spacing, cover, ct. Maintaining materials similtde requirements a crucial problem inthis category of models. As will become apparent Tater in the tex, tis desirable alays to try tose the Targest physical size model fora particular ‘pplication, An example ofthe various factors that influence the choice of model size is given in the following example10 ‘STFUCTJRAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHMIGUES Example 1.1 tis requised to test two reinforced concrete strength models to demonstrate the principle of “over” and “under” reinforced concrete beam belavior. The available testing machine ha a capacity (of 5 KN and the work area to accommodate th model i approximately 0.5% 2m, Based on these Physical limitation ly supported eam of up to 50x 100 mm eross section made of sand and fine aggrezate (“pea gravel) canbe fabricaed Using wp toa No.2 bar (6-35 mm) forthe steel reinforcement. A model of the hypoibetical prototype beam experiencing this behavior would be at 4 to % scale. If only wire reinforcement of lest van 6.35 mm in diameter is availble, then a ‘beam of appropriately smaller size will have tobe used with seal as smll as ocr Ya. Obviously, ‘strength model ofa larger portion ofa reinforced concrete structre ta be stiied, sing the sme ‘equipment, wil have to be of a smaller crss section, hence scale 1.7 THE MODELING PROCESS ‘The succesful modeling study i one thats characterized by careful planing of the many diverse steps inthe physical modeling process. An experimental study ofan engineering structure is a small engineering project in itself, and as in any engineering venture, a logical and carefil sequencing of evens isan absolute necessity Detailed planning of an experiment is even more essential than planning of an analytical approach because refinement ofa structural mod! halfway through the modeling process usally imposible. A major aspect of planning is deciding what i expected ror the del. Da we need ‘only clastic stresses and displacements, or do we want to see how the stracture behaves at ovefcads leading upto failure? Is instability a possible fare mode? Are thermal stresses involved? Do we have to simulate dynamic effects? The time quired to complete the model study ean range from pethaps a week or two fora very limited elastic model ofa portion of a structure to 6 months or ‘more fora detailed, ultimate-strength reinforced mortar model for predicting fale behavior of ‘complete stricture. We obviously must guard aginst “overdcing” dhe model stdy just s We Have tw avid excessive analysis of astrctare. The engineer who bears inal responsibility Fr the project rst be the key person in prescribing precisely what the mel i supposed to accomplish, ‘A typical modeling study can be broken inte the follwing maltistep process 1, Deine the scope ofthe problem, deciding what is nceded from the mov and what is not needed. 2, Specify similinade requirements for geometry, materials, loading, and interpretation of resuls. Pay particular attention to those seilitude requirements that cant be met, such the desired equality of Poisson's rato for concrete and plastics when doing clastic ‘modeling of shell and slab structures (Chapter 2), 3. Decide onthe size of model and required kvel of reliability or accuraey, What size mode should be used consistent wih the accuracy? If 230% is adequate for design porposes, ‘hen an temp to achieve 105 accuracy is wasted efort and time (see Chapter 9), 4, Selectmodel materials with properttentoeo steps 1,2, and3 above (Chapters 3 through 5). 5. Pan the fabrication phase in consultation with the technicians who will be constructing ‘he mode, and follow the fabrication activities closely. This can bea ftrating pat of ‘modeling because iis often quite time-consuming (Chapter 6) 6 Sclect instrumentation an recording equipment for stains, displacements, forces, and ‘other quate. This step mast be closely coordinated with steps Sand 6, particularly if ‘embedded strain gages are tobe used in concrete models Special stain gages and other equipment must be erdered well in advanee ofthe actu time of usage (Chapter 7) INTROOUGTION TO PHYSICAL MODELING IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING ” 7. Design and prepare the loading equipment; new systems should te thoroughly checked ‘out and calibrated before wse om a mods (Chapter 8). 1 Observe the response of the model ding loading, taking complete notes and photo- _rophic records ofthe behavior. Do not rush though a test, and never leave anything to ‘memory. Some investigators use tape or video recorders inthis pase to record detailed ‘comments onload history cracking development, instability modes, and other information that may be dificult to describe numerically. Approximate calculations should be done before the experiment o estimate expected levels of response. Equilibrium checks should 'be done on results obtained carly in the test. Because of the great importance in properly recording data vhen it must be done manually, afew specific comments ae in order here a. Prepare a ruled sheet with columns; pt the date, names of test personnel, and the model designation on the fist shet. '. Record the readings directly, and do not attempt to reduce the tain one's head «Record the 20 readings, allowing atleast wo lines of space Since zero readings often rust be taken more than once, 4. Allow adjacent columns for reduction of results. “Take readings at lower load increments as failure i approached. “Take readings a8 yielding or fuilure actually occurs, even if the level of accuracy schieved isnot high — approximate readings can give a better idea of behavior. Take final readings when the load is emoved. 98. Anaiyze the daua and write the report as soon as possible, while the ent testi sil fresh in the mind. In addition to reporting the resuls, suggestions for improvement in techniques shouldbe recorded to facilitate better modeling results in subsequent experi- ‘Most of these steps are merely statements of common sens, but i is surprising how often common sense is ignored o¢ left out of a erucial step in an experimental stady. Several “laws” should be kept in mind when thinking bout the difficulties of experimextal work: ‘Murphy's Law If something can go wrong, it will ‘O'Tooke’s Law: Murphy is wildly opimisic. Harris-Sabnis Lave: Things are never as bad as they tur out to be ‘Theres a moral in these tongue-in-check laws, and that s the fact hat experiments most be curcfelly planned, controlled, and interpreted if they are to succeed. 1.8 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MODEL ANALYSIS ‘The main advantage of «physical model over an analytical mode! is that it portrays behavior ‘of complete structure loaded to the collapse stage. Although substantial progress is continually ‘made in computer-based procedures for analysis of structures, we still cannot predict analytically the failure capacity of many three-dimensionl structural systems, especially under complex loadings. ‘The prime motivation to conduct experiments on structures at reduced scales isto reduce the cost Cost redetions come about from two areas: reduction of loading squipment and associated restraint frames, etc, and a reduction in cost of test-strucre fabrication, preparation, and disposal ‘after testing. The load-reduction factor is most dramatic since the concerrate load ona provtype {reduced in proportion to the square ofthe geometric scale factor ofthe model (a 100-KN protxype2 ‘STRUCTURAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNNQUES. Ioad is 0.25 KN on @Y-sale model) This raction is even more dramatic when & low-modulus mates uct ay plat Is used in the model “The major limitation of using structural modelsin a design envionment are those of time and expense. In comparing pysical modes with nati! models, one finds that the later are normally Jess expensive and faster, ane one cannot expect physical models to supplant or eplae analytical ‘modeling of structures wien the later procedure las to acceptable definition of behavior ofthe jrototype structure. Thus, physical models are almost always confined 10 situations where the mathematical analysis is mot wequate or not feasible. Another liiting facto is that changes inthe proatype design resulting from the resus ofa model study may require a second model to chock the desig, Practical considerations therefore often dictate thatthe model wil be used 10 verify 2 “nearly finalized design, “The time involved in modeling is often subjected to Father pressures because the decision to 0 toa piysical sty i often made atthe last minute, after more conventional approaches are proved inadequate. An engineer who is accustomed to geting all answers by analytical means is fatraly hesitant to admit that the analysis is incuficient and that a physical mode is nooded. Suitable efforts mast be made to predict earlier im the design process that atest is needed This ‘would enable earlier planning anda smoother, less hectic approach to the model stody. ‘Design applications of structural models have been oullined eatir inthis chapter. Stuctrat models are also widely employed in research progam in such applications as the following 1 Dele fxpinat da fois f ie ade of ee anti 2. Study of basic behavior of complex structural forms such a sells. 5. Parameitic staies on member behavior. Macs of our basic research on reinforced concrete Aexoral members has been done on lrge-sale models. 4, Behavior of complete strctoral systems sutected to complex loading histories, such as coupled shear walls and connecting beams 5. Development of new stricturl systoms. The“Yry stack” interlocking block msonry wns described in Chapter 10 are an example Many of these areas of rescarch modeling wil be explored through examples in subsequent chapters. tis well ecognized that research models play an invaluable role in improving knowledge fof structural behavior and thercby pave the way for new and improved design methods. This role will always be important in structural engineering because it isa discipline Founded strongly on physical behavior of real systems made of ordinary materials of construction. 1.9 ACCURACY OF STRUCTURAL MODELS “The reliability ofthe results from a given physical modeling study is perhaps the single mast {important facto othe user ofthe modeling approach. This topic is explored in depth in Chapter 9, find only a few general comments will be given bere to stimulate te reader into thinking aboot this important topic. Adequate definitions of reliability and accuracy ar iffielt to formate. One ‘obvious measure isthe degree to which a model can duplicate te response of a prototype sructare. “The problem met in such a comparison isthe inberent variability inthe prototype itself particularly if it isa reinforced concrete structure. Two supposedly identical reinforced concrete elements oF ‘nvctures will normally show differences, sometimes a high as 20% or mor, and when one must ‘compare « model to a single protoype, the difficulty in making a firm conclusion on accuracy ‘becomes rather apparent. Multiple prototypes and multiple models are needed to treat the results Statistically, but the expense of eve a single test structure i usually high, and the availability of sulicient data for application of statistical tests of signiieance i severely limited INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOAL MODELING IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING. 3 The factors affecting model accuracy include model material propenies,iabrication accuracy, loading technsqoes, measurement methods nd interpretation of results. Elst models ean be ail to give cxtemcly high eorclation with detailed computer-based ests, The ony Tintin i in the cost of properly fabricating and foding the model. Elastic models of reinforeed concrete Stroctares can only predict elastic response and thus will have high accuracy (errors on the order of fess than 5 10 10% for sructones with minimal cracking, such as shell. Carcfully Jesigned and tested strength mel of reinforced concrete beams, frames, shells and other strotores normally have maximum errors on the ordcr of less than 13% for prediction Of poseracing displacements and uitmte foad capacity ofthe structure, provided that bond between ste! reinforcement and model concrete not the governing fctor 11 Dehavion "A etter perspective on the degree of reliably tobe expected in any panicular mode! testing ‘program can be achieved only by caefl study of large nuber of individual cases. The material Presented in Chapter as well asin ber chapess and in the ited references will provide the feader with mach of the material needed in staying model reliability. 4.10 MODEL LABORATORIES “There area number of eutstanding laboratories in Europe that have developed excellent ep tations in physical modeling. There ae n similar conymercia laboratories in North America, but there are exellent structural modeling fii at a number of private and initutional laboratories, incloding Wiss Janney Elsiner and Associates in Northbrook, IL, the Potdand Cement Association in Skokie, IL, and edaationalesearch Iaboratries at Come University, MeGill University the Univerity of Texas, Drexel University, and elsewhere, The Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel atthe University of Westem Ontario an a similar facility at Colorado State University are widely wsed for both vescarch and investigation of wind effects on actual stuctoes. Dysamic tests on shaking tables may be done at laboratories lcated atthe University of California UC), in Berkeley end in Las Angeles, the State University of New Yerk (SUNY) Bula, the University of Mbinois, ‘Stanford University the University of Calgary, Cornell University, Drexel Unversity, and elsewhere "The many diverse problems asocited with stractural modeling make it evident that high quality structral modeling is best done by skilled engineers and technicians at established Iabo- Moles This statement is not made to discourage newcomers instead, t is merely a realistic ‘Comment onthe difficulties of good experimental work. Considerable time aad patience are requited {establishing a diverse stuctoral testing laboratory, whether it be a fll scale ora the greatly ‘clued small move sale. One particulary important point o be made is that considerable amounts Of til and.crror approaches to materials development are now in the iterature, and the carefal {vidos can tke Tull advantage of this material in setting up a aboraory. Thus, advances in “ructural modeling since 1960, coupled with the simplicity and reliability of modern instrumen- ation, havea east partaly eased many ofthe difcultes tobe faced in beginning a new labortory operation, 4.11 MODELING CASE STUDIES ‘Several sructral modeling studies will be sed i this text to help illustrate the many faces of modeling. These have been selecied because they representa varety of structural system nates of consaction, and types of loading. Two design model studies (designated A and E), our research model studies (B,C, D, axl G), and two product development model studies (F and HH) ae atlzed as cave studies, General descriptions are given inthis chapter, and the rest ofthe tnateril given in Chapters 10 and 11. Additional case stues of educational modes are discussed Jn Chaper 12_ Other modeling studies elated to more spcislized topics such as prestressed concrete