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Interpretation of Results:
1. Average performance of score distribution
2. Students who scored above the mean performed well in the said examination
3. Students who scored below the mean did not performed well in the said
examination
MEDIAN
Refers to the centermost scores when the scores in the distribution are arranged
according to magnitude (from highest to lowest score or vice versa)
Used when the middlemost score id desired
Used when the data are in ordinal level of measurement
Used when the frequency distribution is irregular or skewed, asymmetrical, not
badly skewed
Used when there are extreme scores
Not affected by extreme scores because it is a positional measure
May not be an actual observation in the data set
Most reliable if there are extreme scores
When to use the Median?
When a quick and easily computed measure of central tendency is desired.
When there are extreme scores, such as a few very high scores or a few low
scores, which could affect the mean disproportionately.
Median of Ungrouped Data
1. Arrange the scores from lowest to highest or vice versa
2. Determine the middle score in a distribution if n is an odd number, and get the
average of the two middle score if n is an even number.
Solve the Median (Ungrouped Data)
19, 17, 16, 15, 10, 5, 2
Median = 15
Interpretation of Results:
1. 50% of the scores are above 15
2. 50% of the scores are below 15
MODE
Refers to the score/s that occurs most frequently in the score distribution
Used when the data are in nominal level of measurement
Used when quick answer is need
Used when the score distribution is normal, regular, symmetrical
Can be used for quantitative, as well as qualitative data
May not be unique
Not affected by extreme values
May not exist at times
Types of Mode
1. Unimodal – One mode
2. Bimodal – Two Modes
3. Trimodal – Three Modes. Also considered as multi-modal.
When to use the Mode?
When it is desired to find the score that occurs most often.
When it is desired to find the measure of central tendency that has greatest
concentration.
Find the mode and identify its classification
Score of Section A: 25, 24, 24, 20, 20, 20, 16, 12, 10, 7
Mode: 20 Type of Mode: Unimodal
Score of Section B: 25, 24, 24, 20, 18, 18, 17, 10, 9, 7
Mode/s: 24 and 18 Type of Mode: Bimodal
Score of Section C: 25, 25, 25, 21, 21, 21, 22, 18, 18, 18
Mode/s: 18, 21, and 25 Type of Mode: Trimodal
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
It is a single value that is used to describe the spread of scores in a distribution,
that is above or below the measures of central tendency.
Formula: Range = HS – LS
Problem: Below are the score of 10 students in Mathematics and Science. Find the
range and in what subject has a greater variability.
Mathematic Science Mathematics
s
35 35 HS – LS = 62 – 33 = 29
33 40
45 25
55 47 Science
62 55 HS - LS = 57 – 25 = 32
34 35
54 45
36 57
47 39
40 52
Quartile Deviation
It is half of the difference between the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile
(Q1).
It is based on the middle 50% of the range, instead the range of the entire set of
distribution.
It reduces the influence of the extreme scores
It is not as easy to compute compared to range
Its score distribution is irregular, asymmetrical, skewed
Formula: QD = (Q3-Q1)/2
Standard Deviation
It is the most important and useful measures of variation.
It is also the most commonly used.
It is the square root of the variance.
It is an average of the degree to which each set of scores in the distribution
deviates from the mean value.
It is more stable measure of variation because it involves all the scores in a
distribution compared to range and quartile deviation.
Score distribution is regular, symmetrical, normal
Interval or ration level of measurement
Procedure:
1. Find the mean.
2. Subtract the mean from each score to get the deviation.
3. Square the deviation.
4. Get the sum of the squared deviations.
5. Divide the sum by the number of cases.
∑d 2
Formula: SD =
√ N −1
Mean (x́) d = (x – x́) d2
5 -4 16
7 -2 4
9 0 0
11 2 4
13 4 16
∑ d 2=40
40
SD =
√ 4
= 3.16
MEASURES OF SKEWNESS
Describes the degree of departure of the scores from a symmetry
3 Classifications
1. Positively Skewed Distribution – Sk > 0
2. Negatively Skewed Distribution – Sk < 0
3. Normally Distributed – Sk = 0
3(Mean−Median)
Sk =
standard deviation
P positively skewed
R right
D difficult test
L low score
N negatively skewed
L left
E easy test
H high score
1. Percentile Rank
It is the percentage of the scores in the frequency distribution which are
lower.
This means that the percentage of the examinees in the norm group who
scored below the score of interest.
It is used to clarify the interpretation of scores on standardized tests.
Example:
Interpretation:
1. This means that 90% of Maria’s classmates got a score lower than 82.
2. She surpassed 90% of her classmates.
3. She belongs to the upper 10% of the class.
2. Z-score
It tells how far from the mean the score is.
The number of standard deviation units a score is above or below the
mean of a given distribution.
A positive z-score = measures the number of standard deviations a score
is above the mean.
A negative z-score = gives the number of standard deviations a score is
below the mean.
Zero z-score = means the score is in the mean.
Formula:
Problem:
Jemar had a score of 59. He is compared with other examinees; the mean and
standard deviation of this group are 50 and 5, respectively. What is Jemar’s z-
score?
Solution:
Interpretation:
3. T-score
It tells the location of a score in a normal distribution having a mean of 50
and a standard deviation of 10.
Formula:
4. Stanines
Also known as standard nine
These are single digit scores ranging from 1-9.
The distribution of raw scores is divided into nine parts.
Formula:
Stanine = 1.96z + 5
Problem:
Bryan has a z-score of 1.9. What is Bryan’s stanine score?
3 Types of Correlation
1. Positive Correlation / Direct Correlation
Rises from left to right
As one quantity increases/decreases, the quantity increases/decreases
2. Negative Correlation / Indirect / Inverse
Falls from left to right
As one quantity increases/decreases, the quantity decreases/increases
3. No relation / Zero Correlation
No discernable pattern
Pearson r
It is the most appropriate measure of correlation when sets of data are of
interval or ratio type.
It is the most stable measure of correlation.
It is used when the relationship between the two variables is a linear one.
Spearman-Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman Rho
It is most appropriate measure of correlation when the variable is expressed as
ranks instead of scores or when data represent an ordinal scale.
Spearman Rho is also interpreted in the same ways as Pearson r.