Total Quality Management

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Leadership behaviour in successful organisations:

Universal or situation-dependent?

Johan Larsson & Stig Vinberg

To cite this article: Johan Larsson & Stig Vinberg (2010) Leadership behaviour in successful
organisations: Universal or situation-dependent?, Total Quality Management, 21:3, 317-334, DOI:
10.1080/14783360903561779

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Total Quality Management
Vol. 21, No. 3, March 2010, 317 –334

Leadership behaviour in successful organisations: Universal or

situation-dependent?
Johan Larssona and Stig Vinbergb,c
a
Department of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Mid Sweden University, Campus
Östersund, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; bSwedish National Institute of Public Health;
c
Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Campus Östersund, 831 25 Östersund,
Sweden

Leadership behaviour has a critical role in the creation of successful organisations. This
article reviews dimensions of leadership behaviour theory and their relationship to
effectiveness, productivity, quality, health and job satisfaction in organisations. The
article has two purposes: (1) to identify and summarise leadership behaviours
common among successful organisations; and (2) to use these common elements to
discuss those theoretical implications which concern situational aspects of successful
leadership behaviour. The successful organisations studied for this work were two
manufacturing companies, one hospital and one retail operation. The case studies
were performed in connection with two leadership research projects. They focused on
quality work, effectiveness, working environment, subordinate health and perceptions
of the leadership. The common leadership behaviours were explored using a
comparative qualitative method. The identified common leadership behaviours were
then analysed in relation to the three-dimensional leadership behaviour theory
(change-, structure- and relation-orientation) to explore distributions between
dimensions. Nine common groups of behaviours were identified and described. The
qualitative analyses showed that the identified behaviours were in all three behaviour
dimensions. Also evident was that relation-oriented leadership behaviour was by far
the strongest of the three. The conclusion is that a successful leader uses high
relation-orientation as a base. At the same time, this successful leader uses all three
behaviour dimensions. The two additional dimensions of structure- and change-
orientation can be altered by leaders according to situational factors. This conclusion
implies that successful leadership behaviour includes both universal and contingency
elements.
Keywords: leadership; leadership behaviour; quality; quality management; health; job
satisfaction; productivity; effectiveness

Leadership related to outcomes and situational aspects

Leadership1 is an important factor for organisations (e.g. Arnetz, 2005; Arvonen, 2002;
Juran, 1989; Maslach & Leiter, 1997; Yukl, 2006). Leadership behaviour theory has
traditionally included two dimensions derived from factor analysis. These two dimensions
are relation- and structure-orientation (Arvonen, 2002; Yukl, 2006). The balance between
these dimensions as they relate to different desired organisational outcomes in different
situations has been discussed by a number of researchers over the past several decades.
Some have concluded that high-high (sometimes called 9,9) behaviour in both dimensions


Corresponding author. Email: Johan.Larsson@miun.se or Johan.Larsson@qfromz.com

ISSN 1478-3363 print/ISSN 1478-3371 online

# 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14783360903561779
http://www.informaworld.com
318 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg

in all situations is what leads to the most effective organisations – a universal perspective
(e.g. Andersen, 1994; Blake & Mouton, 1985; Lennerlöf, 1968; Misumi, 1989; Misumi &
Peterson, 1985). Others maintain that leadership behaviour must change according to
situational aspects and preferred outcomes – a contingency perspective (Arvonen, 2002;
Arvonen & Pettersson, 2002; Hersey & Blanchard, 1969, 1982a, 1982b; Reddin, 1970).
A clear conclusion as to whether a universal theory or contingency theory is most effective
could not be reached (Andersen, 1995).
The third dimension of change-orientation was introduced in the 1990s as an
increasing change pressure in society and organisations became evident (Ekvall &
Arvonen, 1991, 1994; Yukl, 1997, 1999). There is not a lot of research about this
dimension (Skogstad, 1997; Wolvén, 2000; Yukl, 2006). In this article we present a
theoretical review of leadership behaviour as associated with the outcomes of effective-
ness, productivity, quality, health and job satisfaction. This summary focuses mainly on
the leadership behaviour theory and its two or three dimensions as they are related to
these five outcomes.

Leadership related to effectiveness and productivity

Leadership research often assumes that leadership has a considerable influence on organ-
isational effectiveness2 (Andersen, 1995) but that the identified strength of the connection
varies (e.g. Andersen, 1994; Arvonen, 2002; Arvonen & Pettersson, 2002; Blake &
Mouton, 1985; Fiedler, 1971; Hersey & Blanchard, 1969, 1982a, 1982b; Lennerlöf,
1968; Misumi, 1989; Misumi & Peterson, 1985; Reddin, 1970).
Andersen (1995, p. 264) argues that researchers assume, but seldom demonstrate, that
leadership significantly influences organisational effectiveness. He went on to point out
that if leadership behaviour is taken to be the major influence then there is little room
left for influence from other factors such as strategic planning, investments, product
development and marketing. He added that subordinate (normally around 90% of an
organisation) competences, input and motivation would then have to be considered
even less important for organisational effectiveness – something researchers never
assume. Andersen concluded his observations by remarking that it is more realistic to
suppose that organisational effectiveness is influenced by both internal factors (where
leadership is one of several) and external factors like market demand (ibid.).
Empirical tests by Mott (1972) of four leader behaviour theories3 showed that the
highest predictive factors (with effectiveness as the outcome variable) were task-orien-
tation (initiating structure) and group-maintenance (relation-orientation). These two
factors had a significant but limited relationship with organisational effectiveness
(ibid.). Research on two-dimensional leadership behaviour has been the path which has
been the most favoured, empirical and productive with respect to understanding the
relationships between leadership and effectiveness (Andersen, 1995).
Research using three dimensions in leader behaviour theory showed that high relation-
and high production-orientation were best matched for cost-effectiveness. For change effec-
tiveness high relation- and high change-orientation were most appropriate (Arvonen &
Pettersson, 2002).
Another important leadership factor that seems to influence an organisation’s effec-
tiveness is its leader’s room to manoeuvre (Andersen, 1995, p. 262). Similar discussions
are found concerning ‘constraints’ (Stewart, 1976), ‘neutralizers’ (Kerr & Jermier, 1978)
and in Yukl’s model4 where the situational variables act as constraints upon leader
behaviour and moderate their effects (Yukl, 2006).
 Total Quality Management 319

According to Bass (1981) both a purely relation-oriented leadership and a combined

style (both relation- and structure-oriented) have positive effects on job satisfaction
among subordinates and in most cases also lead to higher productivity5. These findings
are based on a large amount of research (ibid.).
In a later work, Bass (1990, p. 543) mentioned that causal analysis by cross-lagged
surveys and experimentation implied that relation-oriented behaviours both increase the
satisfaction of subordinates and are increased by it. He went on to say that if the structure
initiated by a leader is low, and then increased, a subordinate’s performance will likely
improve. When the desired subordinate performance has been reached the need for struc-
ture-orientation in the leadership style is reduced. Also according to Bass (1990) leader-
ship is an iterative process in which a leader uses formal or informal feedback from
subordinates to identify any need for change. These findings by Bass paint a picture of
a leadership style which includes understanding of subordinates and a commitment to
motivate rather than to closely control. Yukl (2006) defines task-oriented behaviours as
those which are used primarily to improve efficiency and process reliability. He defines
change-orientated behaviours as being primarily used to improve adaptation to external
environments. Relations-oriented behaviours are primarily used to improve human
relations and human resources. Bass and Riggio (2006, p. 56) concludes that transforma-
tional leadership affects group performance regardless of whether performance is
measured subjectively or objectively. Another way for leaders to influence performance
determinants is by implementing or modifying formal programmes, using management
systems as, for instance, total quality management (TQM), and adding key aspects of
formal structure (Yukl, 2006, pp. 370 – 371).

Leadership related to quality

According to Hirtz et al. (2007) and Lakshman (2006) research on the effects of specific
leadership behaviours on quality6 performance has not been particularly comprehensive.
The work of Lakshman (2006) does present a theoretical model which integrates values
from TQM, leader traits, and leader behaviours with the outcomes of leader effectiveness
and unit performance. The model is theoretical and has yet to be empirically tested.
Larsson et al. (2007) found that theory Y-oriented (McGregor, 1960) leadership values
and methodologies were related to positive outcomes concerning quality work. Hirtz
et al. (2007) analysed the effects of transformational, transactional and non-transactional
leadership styles on quality performance using the full range model of leadership (Bass &
Avolio, 1999) as assessed by a questionnaire developed by Wu et al. (1997) which
measures content of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (NIST, 2003).
Results showed that transformational leadership is positively related to successful
implementation of quality management and that passive styles of leadership (manage-
ment-by-exception and laissez-faire) were negatively related. Earlier studies showed
that transformational styles of leadership and contingent reward were positively correlated
with measured quality management factors. They were significant in their predictability of
quality management implementation (Hirtz, 2002). Other results, even though they were
statistically unreliable owing to the limited and incomplete data, showed strong support for
a possible relationship between different leadership styles (task and relation-oriented
behaviours) and different levels of TQM implementation (Turvey, 1999). It may be
appropriate to use more than one leadership style as the organisation progresses from
the early levels of TQM implementation to the final levels. Results suggested that the
coaching style (high in both relation and structure behaviours) may be preferred among
320 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg

the earlier levels. A change from coaching to participating (high relation and lower struc-
ture behaviours) may be preferred in the higher levels of TQM implementation (ibid.).
These findings underline the importance of relation-oriented leadership behaviour and,
in effect, treat high relation-orientation as a universal factor.
Described by a number of authorities is that the factor of leadership is of crucial impor-
tance for successful implementation of quality management and in achieving high organ-
isational performance in terms of quality, productivity and effectiveness (Bergman &
Klefsjö, 2003; Dahlgaard et al., 2002; Deming, 1986; Juran, 1989; Kanji & Asher,
1993). The processes of quality design, quality control and quality improvements are
stressed as important to focus on in order for leaders to improve quality (Juran, 1989,
1995). Two other important quality management concepts which include leadership beha-
viours are the 14-point list by Deming (1986) and the TQM concept as described by
Bergman & Klefsjö (2003) and Dahlgaard et al. (2002).
Research on quality management and its effects on organisational performance have
found both positive correlations (Alanko & Järvinen, 1995; Douglas & Judge, 2001; Eriks-
son, 2003; Eriksson & Hansson, 2003; Eriksson et al., 2003; Hansson & Eriksson, 2002;
Hendricks & Singhal, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999; GAO, 1991; Vinberg, 2006; Vinberg &
Gelin, 2005) and more limited relationships (Bergquist & Ramsing, 1999; Nohria et al.,
2003; Przasnyski & Tai, 1999).

Leadership related to health and job satisfaction

Research concerning leadership behaviour and job satisfaction7 is extensive and the
relationship is described as crucial by several researchers (e.g. Bass, 1990; Levering,
2000; Nyberg et al., 2005; Skogstad, 1997). Relation-oriented leadership behaviour is
an important factor. Two types: a purely relation-orientated and a combined style with
relation- and structure-oriented leadership behaviour have been shown to have a positive
influence on job satisfaction (Bass, 1981). Larsson (1999, p. 10) concluded that ‘. . . con-
siderate behaviour is necessary, but it alone is not enough . . .’. The level of structure
needed depends on conditions – such as more when stress is high and less when circum-
stances are calmer (ibid.). The connection between job satisfaction and productivity has
long been hypothesised but there is no consensus of opinion with respect to research find-
ings. A positive indication is that the adjacent job satisfaction concept of health8 has been
shown in a Swedish longitudinal study as a having an association with improved pro-
ductivity (Jensen & Roos, 2005).
Leadership influence upon subordinate health has not been researched extensively
(Arvonen, 1995; Nyberg et al., 2005; Rahman, 2002; Skogstad, 1997; Yukl, 2006). In
Europe, Swedish statistics show that employee health levels decreased during the end
of the twentieth and the start of the twenty-first century (Edlund & Stattin, 2005; Försäk-
ringskassan, 2005; Larsson et al., 2005; Marklund et al., 2005; RFV, 2002). This history of
health problems and common acceptance that the influence and power a leader as
a manager has over subordinates makes the absence of significant research glaringly
apparent. The lack of investigation and the limited use of what research which has been
performed mean that leaders lack key knowledge about an important leadership tool.
The potentially valuable relationship between leadership and employee healthfulness
ends up being underutilised, underrated and sometimes perceived as being ignored.
A review of the existing literature found that positive influence on subordinate health
occurs when: (1) leaders are considerate of subordinates; (2) leaders initiate structure when
it’s needed – especially in stressful situations; (3) leaders allow subordinates to control
 Total Quality Management 321

their work environments – increasing the autonomy, involvement and control; (4) leaders
inspire their employees to see a higher meaning in their work; (5) leaders provide intellec-
tual stimulation; and (6) leaders are charismatic (Nyberg et al., 2005). Skogstad (1997)
found a significant relationship between relation-oriented leadership behaviour and job
satisfaction. Relationships with health outcomes were less significant. Task-orientated
leadership behaviour had fewer relationships with satisfaction measures when compared
to relation-orientation. Task-orientation had no significant relationship with health
outcomes. Change-orientation predicted job satisfaction, organisational commitment
and leader efficiency. The studies gave considerable support for a change-oriented
leadership behaviour dimension (ibid). Larsson et al. (2007) found that there were
relations, to some extent, between theory Y-oriented (McGregor, 1960) leadership
values and methodologies and co-worker health outcomes.
Aronsson and Lindh (2004) found a relation between leadership support and long-term
healthiness. Karasek and Theorell (1990) described a relationship between high support,
high subordinate self-control and reasonable work demands and the factors of health
and productivity. The leader can control these three work characteristics and thereby posi-
tively influence subordinate health and productivity. Vinberg (2006, 2008) researched
small private organisations and identified a relation between relation-oriented leadership
and health outcomes. Fjell (2007) and Fjell et al. (2007) researched small public organis-
ations using the three-dimensional behaviour theory and found that poor appraisals of
managers and their leadership styles were associated with high levels of musculoskeletal
pain. The association between musculoskeletal pain and leadership style varied according
to the sector studied; for instance, poor appraisals (low scores) on change- and relation-
orientation were associated with high levels of musculoskeletal pain in the home and
health care sectors. Poor appraisals by subordinates of their leaders’ change dimension
were most strongly associated with high levels of musculoskeletal pain (ibid.).
Ekvall and Arvonen (1994) identified three profiles that were superior concerning sub-
ordinate ratings of leader competence and satisfaction with the leader: the ‘super leader’
(high in all three dimensions), the ‘gardener’ (high change, low structure, high relation)
and the ‘management by objectives leader’ (some change, high structure and relation).
Using the three-dimensional theory, Arvonen (1995) researched the impact of leadership
behaviour upon the mental health of subordinates (dissatisfaction with work, mental
fatigue and psychosomatic load). The highest correlation (negative) was between leader-
ship behaviour and dissatisfaction – with a low variation between the three behaviour
dimensions of change, relation and structure. The relation dimension was ranked
highest. Mental fatigue was positively correlated with change-orientation. Task- and
relation-orientation were negatively correlated with mental fatigue when the immediate
superior was relation- and task-oriented. The relation was not strong, but it was statisti-
cally significant. There was no relationship between change-orientation and psychoso-
matic load. The correlation between relation- and task-orientation, and psychosomatic
load was negative – meaning that higher behaviour scores on these dimensions had
lower psychosomatic load scores. Arvonen (1995) consistently found that relation-
oriented leadership behaviour was positively associated with mental health indicators.
The quality management value ‘management commitment’ (which includes a clear
leadership perspective), has been shown to be positively correlated with subordinates’ per-
ceptions of their own health (Bäckström, 2006; Lagrosen, 2004, 2006; Lagrosen et al.,
2005, 2007). In addition, Axelsson (2000) found that deficits in management practices
were related to a worsened working environment and higher deficiency rates. In contrast,
other studies found that quality management factors, including leadership behaviours,
322 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg

could increase stress and negatively affect other health-related indicators (Barklöf, 2000;
Kivimäki et al., 1997; Lindberg & Rosenqvist, 2005; Öhrming & Sverke, 2002; Sommer &
Merrit, 1994).
The influence of leadership and the ability of leaders to learn to change their beha-
viours were demonstrated in an intervention study by Theorell et al. (2001). Managers
who participated in an education programme about the psychosocial work environment
had subordinates with significantly decreased serium cortisol levels who felt that they
had greater decision authority.

Purpose
This article’s purpose is: (1) to identify and summarise leadership behaviours common
among successful organisations; and (2) to use these common elements to discuss those
theoretical implications which concern situational aspects of successful leadership
behaviour.

Research projects
The first research project, ‘Leadership and Commitment for Sustainable Health’, started in
2002. The project’s focus has been to identify those leadership and organisational meth-
odologies that constitute Sweden’s best workplace practices. The selection criterion is
that studied organisations shall have received the yearly award ‘Best Workplace in
Sweden’ given by the Swedish insurance organisation Alecta. Organisations being con-
sidered for the award are extensively reviewed and audited by independent experts. The
audits and review emphasise looking at the organisations’ work and leadership, internal
partnerships, working environments and efficiencies. The award process is similar to
the Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award (NIST, 2003) and the European Quality
Award (EFQM, 2003). The health indicators of self-assessed health and sickness
absence are measured. No direct quality outcome measurements are performed; success
in terms of financial outcomes and efficiency measured in the award audit can be
viewed as an indicator of high quality in the organisations. Several publications have
used this project as an empirical base (Bäckström, 2006; Bäckström et al., 2005, 2006;
Harnesk, 2004; Lagrosen et al., 2005, 2007; Larsson, 2004, 2007; Larsson, Bäckström
& Wiklund, 2009; Wreder, 2006). In this paper, three organisations from the project are
included. These are: Fresh AB, Stockholm South General Hospital’s (SSGH) Emergency
Department and Roxtec International AB.
The second research project, ‘Health Promotion through Organisational Control’,
started in 2004 and ended in 2007. We were involved in organising and carrying out
the research throughout the project. The project focused on the development of an
organisational control system using aspects of leadership and organisational control and
which also included health statements (which can also be called health closures). Eight
organisations located in mid-Sweden participated in the project. These organisations
came from different sectors of the economy, were of different sizes and gender distribution
varied. A more detailed description of the organisations and the process used to select
participants may be found in Larsson et al. (2007) or Larsson (2007). Several publications
used this project for an empirical base (Larsson, 2007; Larsson et al., 2007; Larsson,
Landstad & Vinberg, 2009; Malmquist et al., 2007). For this paper a highly successful
grocery franchisee, ICA Supermarket in Svenstavik, is included as its profile is so
similar to that of the award-winning organisations.
 Total Quality Management 323

Four successful organisations

Fresh AB, SSGH and Roxtec International AB were studied because each had received the
award ‘Best Workplace in Sweden’. The ICA Supermarket in Svenstavik was selected
because of the presence of the three performance indicators of leadership, quality work
and health. ICA has had outstanding results in these three areas (Larsson, 2007; Larsson
et al., 2007). These four organisations are described below.

Case I – Fresh AB
In 2001 Fresh AB received the award ‘Best Workplace in Sweden’ in the small organis-
ations category. The company develops, manufactures and markets ventilation products
for indoor environments. It is located in a small village named Gemla in the south of
Sweden. In 2002 Fresh AB had 54 workers. The company is 95% privately owned; the
remaining 5% is owned by a worker foundation. Fresh AB has worked to have an equal
mix of men, women, young and older persons in its workforce. More than 20% of the
workers are disabled in some way. Fresh AB is an ethnically diverse organisation with
15 of the workers coming from seven countries besides Sweden. The average age is 40.
Since 1995 the sales turnover has increased an average of 22% each year. In 2001 the sick-
ness absence rate was eight days per person. The Swedish average for the same time period
was 21 days. For detailed descriptions of the organisation see Bäckström (2006), Harnesk
(2004), Larsson, Bäckström & Wiklund (2009), and Larsson et al. (2006).

Case II – ICA Supermarket in Svenstavik

ICA Supermarket is a retail operation which sells food and small household products. It is
located in Svenstavik, almost in the geographic centre of Sweden. The operation belongs
to a large chain, ICA, which franchises and owns retails stores of different sizes. The store
in Svenstavik is owned by its manager. In measurements of organisational factors such as
leadership, quality work and health in the research project ‘Health Promotion through
Organisational Control’ this operation had outstanding ratings (Larsson, 2007; Larsson
et al., 2007). In 2005 it had 25 employees. Of these, 69% were women. The average
age of all workers was 37 years. A total of 56% of the employees had held their jobs
for less than four years. The employees seldom or never worked overtime. A more detailed
description of the organisation is in Larsson (2007) and Larsson et al. (2007).

Case III – Roxtec International AB

Roxtec International AB is one of nine affiliated companies within the Roxtec group. In
2003 Roxtec received the ‘Best Workplace in Sweden’ award in the small organisation
category. Roxtec manufactures cable- and pipe-packing. The owners are part of the man-
agement team. In 2003 the Roxtec group employed 275 persons; 75 at Roxtec International
AB located in Karlskrona in south Sweden, 100 in subsidiary companies and 100 in partner
companies. Around 20% of the employees were blue-collar workers; the rest were white-
collar. The average age was 36 years and 30% were women. The growth rate averaged
36.5% per year over the last decade. The net profit had increased 240% between 1998
and 2002. The annual turnover was 286 million Swedish kronor (approximately E41
million) in 2002. From 1998 to 2002 Roxtec had a 2% sickness absence rate; significantly
lower than the national average for the same period (SCB, 2004). A more detailed
description of the organisation may be found in Larsson (2007).
324 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg

Case IV – Stockholm South General Hospital (SSGH)

The Department of Emergency Care at the Stockholm South General Hospital (‘Södersju-
khuset’ in Swedish) was the organisation studied as part of the fourth case study. It
received the award ‘Best Workplace in Sweden’ in the large organisation category in
2001. The hospital is owned by the Stockholm County Council. There are 3600 employees
in the entire hospital. In 2002 there were 397 full-time employees in the Department of
Emergency Care. In Swedish this emergency operation is known as SÖS Emergency. It
deliberately adopted a diversity policy to reflect its consumer base; employees speak a
total of 14 different languages. At the time of the study approximately 20% of the staff
were males. The average sick leave days at the time was approximately 15 days per
person for 2001, 2002 and 2003. The Swedish average for the same period was approxi-
mately 20 days per person. For detailed descriptions of the organisation see Bäckström
(2006), Harnesk (2004), Larsson (2007) and Larsson, Bäckström & Wiklund (2009).

Method
Common leadership and organisational behaviours used by Fresh, Roxtec and SSGH were
analysed using a comparative qualitative strategy. The conditions for a leadership and
organisational behaviour to be viewed as common were that it should be present in at
least two of the three organisations and valued as highly important for organisational
success by subordinates (Larsson, Bäckström & Wiklund (2009)). This yielded eight
groups of behaviours – these are the first eight groups of behaviours listed in Table 1.
These groups contain one or several behaviours that are practised by the organisations.
A more detailed description of the method and findings may be found in Larsson,
Bäckström & Wiklund (2009) and Larsson (2007).
From in-depth interviews with the owner, manager and two subordinates the leader-
ship methodologies9 used at ICA Svenstavik were identified. Examples of identified lea-
dership methodologies were: using an active dialogue, a high level of employee delegation
and participation, use of reinforcing comments, reflecting upon personal leadership
practices, having a positive attitude, and fostering a positive culture in the workplace.
Valuations of importance concerning each method for organisational success were not
performed with respondents in this project. For description of the method and the
results see Larsson (2007) and Larsson et al. (2007).
The groupings of behaviours found with Fresh, Roxtec and SSGH were compared with
the methodologies identified at ICA. The heading ‘Common elements of successful leader-
ship’ in Table 1 lists the behaviours which were common to all and two which were present
but not as strongly.
Personal leadership, one of the two, was strongly emphasised at ICA but not as clearly
for Roxtec, SSHG and Fresh. At ICA the leader reflected upon his personal leadership
practices. The leader felt a personal responsibility to maintain a positive attitude and to
foster a positive workplace culture as leadership behaviours. Personal leadership has
been described elsewhere as an important cornerstone in leadership and as an important
tool for continuous leadership development (e.g. Blanchard, 2007; Covey, 1990; Senge,
1990). Although the personal leadership behaviours were not clearly evident in the
other three organisations, all four leaders conveyed the feeling that their leadership behav-
iour was based on considerable personal reflection. On the basis that ‘Reflective personal
leadership’ was, to some extent, common to all it was added as the ninth group of beha-
viours in Table 1. While the group ‘Learning culture’ was not identified as being strongly
used by the ICA leader it couldn’t be said to be excluded. The leader used dialogue as a
Table 1. Common elements of successful leadership.
Common groups of behaviours Cases I, III, IV Case II
Strategic and visionary leader role † †
The leaders maintain a holistic view and give their subordinates the opportunity to see their own contributions to the
organisation. Clarify the organisational vision, and communicate strategies, core values, and objectives along with the
intended direction of the organisation. The leaders are aware of the influence of constantly changing external and internal
demands.
Communication and information † †
The organisations have an infrastructure for information and communication. Regular meetings are held in different
constellations of employees/leaders. The leaders communicate and try to get the employees to see the importance of
continuously communication and information sharing. Everyone in the organisation is required to talk to each other, not
about each other.
Authority and responsibility † †
The leaders give both authority and responsibility, and do not control details. As a base for this the leaders trust the
subordinates. The authority and responsibility given is relatively extensive concerning for instance activities such as
customer orders, employment and holidays within the work group.
Learning culture † W

Total Quality Management 325

When projects and tasks are completed the leaders give constructive feedback, both positive and negative. No punishment
in the event of failure; instead the leaders want to have a discussion of how this can be improved so it does not occurs
again. Subordinates acts as coordinates on a rolling schedule to give training in leadership and management related issues.
Worker conversations † †
Cross-functional discussions and dialogues are held where the leaders seriously listen to and focus on worker ideas,
wishes, and points of view. All subordinates have regular conversations with leaders or coaches where individual and
organisational goals are discussed. The leaders recognise that subsequent subordinate well-being is directly associated
with the actions decided during the discussions and dialogues.

(Continued)
 326 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg
Table 1. Continued.
Common groups of behaviours Cases I, III, IV Case II
Plainness and simplicity † †
The leaders encourage the subordinates to make decisions on their own which creates quick decision-making without
time-consuming meetings. Each subordinate has a specific task, a responsibility area and enough authority to make
decisions needed to accomplish assignments. The leaders have made clear the customers needs and that everyone’s
contributions are needed to satisfy those needs through the use of a flat organisation and clear communication where
everyone is involved.
Humanity and trust † †
The leaders are deeply aware that mental and social well-being is a precondition for effective organisational performance.
Some employees said that, ‘if we feel good then we perform better, and the leaders know this’. Communication and trust
are keywords; there is a mutual confidence between leaders and subordinates. Everybody relies on each other.
Walking around † †
The leaders frequently walk around in the organisation and talk to all employees (so-called management by walking
around); not just about the work, also about how they were feeling. The leaders know the employees and also had the guts
to ask awkward questions. The employees confirmed this and said that they had a strong, positive relationship with their
leaders. Both owners and leaders acted, when needed, as an extra or fill-in worker.
Reflective personal leadership W †
The leaders reflect about own leadership practices, personally have a positive attitude and try to foster a positive culture in
the workplace.
 Total Quality Management 327

method when he practised leadership. Improvement and learning discussions were

ongoing during group and individual workplace meetings. As an added motivator, each
subordinate had control over an operational task where they had the authority to make
decisions, helping to train their general management skills. These methods can be seen
as including key elements of a learning culture.
These nine common groups of leadership behaviours from the four successful organ-
isations were compared with the three-dimensional leadership behaviour theory. Yukl
(2006, p. 66) and Arvonen (2002, pp. 26– 28) used a list of behaviour items to describe
the three dimensions. These behaviour descriptions were analysed and compared with
the behaviour groupings shown in Table 1. The analysis process was iterative where
first the individual researchers made comparisons of similarities between methodologies.
Then a meeting was held to discuss and reach a consensus concerning the analyses. The
conclusions from these analyses are described in the section below headed ‘A task-,
relation-, and change-oriented leadership behaviour perspective’.

Common elements of successful leadership

From the comparisons in the preceding section it is possible to identify and fit together the
descriptions of common leader behaviours and methods. How often any method or behav-
iour was used varied among the leaders studied. These common elements are as follows.
The leaders maintained a holistic perspective and gave their subordinates the opportu-
nity to see their contributions to the operation. Priority was given to development, communi-
cation and making the organisational future clear for subordinates by communicating a
commonly understood vision.
The leaders created an infrastructure for information and communication employees
understood and could use. There were regular meetings with different constellations of
employees/leaders. There was openness in information exchange, also for economic
issues. Cross-functional discussions and dialogues were held where the leaders seriously
listened and focused on worker ideas, wishes and points of view – for instance during
‘development talks’.
Broad authority and responsibility was given to subordinates where service to the cus-
tomer was emphasised. Each worker had specific tasks, an area of responsibility and
enough authority to make decisions needed to accomplish assignments. The leaders
trusted subordinates and did not excessively control minor details. No penalties were
imposed in the event of mistakes to avoid fear of punishment in the organisation.
Improving and using understanding to avoid reoccurrence was used to manage mistakes.
Plainness and simplicity was emphasised where decisions could be made by subordinates
without time-consuming interim meetings with a leader, manager or supervisor.
The leaders strongly believed that subordinate health is a precondition for effective
organisational performance to be long-lasting. Generally there was a commitment to
investment in employees – even during lean times.
The leaders were visible and discussed operations with employees through formal and
informal dialogues. They made themselves visible and available for questions from
anyone in the organisation by spending time walking around work areas; the so-called
‘management by walking around’ (see Peters & Waterman, 2004, pp. 121 –122). The
leaders knew all subordinates and talked to all. Conversations were not restricted to
work topics; the leaders often asked their subordinates how they were feeling. The
leaders made reinforcing comments and their own attitude was positive. When necessary,
the leaders acted as an extra or fill-in worker.
328 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg

The leaders spent time thinking about their leadership practices. They felt a personal
responsibility to maintain a positive attitude and to foster a positive culture in their
workplaces.

A task-, relation- and change-oriented leadership behaviour perspective

All three dimensions were present in one or more of the behaviours from Table 1. Most
strongly identified was the relation-orientation with several clear similarities between
the behaviours in the theoretical dimensions and the actual methods used by the
leaders. Some of the clearest were that both emphasise support and encouragement,
socialising, allowing workers to determinate the best way to perform a task, and
keeping people informed about plans/events affecting them. Task-orientated behaviour
was evident. Organising work activities to improve efficiency and assigning work to
groups or individuals were the methods associated with task-oriented behaviour.
Change-orientation was identified as present in the methods of pushing for development,
sharing thoughts and plans about the future, and encouraging and facilitating innovation,
entrepreneurship and learning in the organisation.

Discussion
Literature and practice on how strongly a particular situation or work event should affect
the choice of leadership methods or behaviours is divided. Perspectives range from
advocating leadership practices which use high structure, high relation orientated leader-
ship behaviour in all situations to the opinion that behaviour should vary, for instance
according to the maturity of the subordinates – a more situational-dependent approach
to leadership. In this article, common leadership methodologies in four successful
organisations were identified and described. The organisations differed situationally by
such factors as size, type of operation, industry, market situation and organisational
structure. The analyses of common leadership behaviours in this paper found the three
behaviour dimensions – change, structure, and relation (Ekvall & Arvonen, 1991, 1994;
Yukl, 1997, 1999, 2006). Clearly, the relation-orientated leadership behaviours were
most strongly identified in the empirical material.
The results of this study indicate that high relation-oriented leadership behaviour was
used as a foundation by the leaders in the studied organisations which had successful
outcomes concerning effectiveness, quality work, health outcomes and subordinate
perceptions of their leaders. The common elements described in an earlier section can
be seen as a starting point when looking at the development of leadership practices in
other organisations where leader behaviour can vary according to situational aspects
such decision latitude, maturity of subordinates, work content and industry.
The common leadership behaviours identified in these studies show similar outcomes
to the research about successful organisations in United States by Peters and Waterman
(2004). Many of the eight categories of methodologies described in their book In
search of excellence (ibid.) were closely similar to those in this study. Those which
stood out the strongest were: a bias for action, being close to the customer, autonomy
and entrepreneurship, productivity through people, hands-on, value-driven, and simul-
taneous loose– tight properties. Of particular interest to us is that the same elements we
found in our exploratory studies here in Sweden were also found in North American
studies carried out as long as several decades ago. It might be possible to learn how to
factor out such influences as geography or culture so as to identify some categories of
 Total Quality Management 329

organisational behaviours that are more universal. It may also help in understanding how
to successfully practise leadership to achieve healthy and effective multicultural
organisations.

Conclusion
Several similarities between the four studied successful organisations were found during
the analysis. The analysis identified nine groupings of common behaviours. These were:
strategic and visionary leader role, communication and information, authority and respon-
sibility, learning culture, worker conversations, plainness and simplicity, humanity and
trust, walking around, and reflective personal leadership.
The identified behaviours are present in all three behaviour dimensions (change-,
structure-, and relation-orientation). This does tend to support the contention that
leadership behaviour is three rather than two dimensional. There is a preference in the
findings which favours the relation-oriented leadership behaviour. Our conclusion is
that successful leadership involves a high relation-orientation as a base yet it uses all
three behaviour dimensions where structure and change-orientation vary according to
situational aspects. This conclusion supports the contention that successful leadership
behaviour includes both universal and contingency elements. By taking this element
into account in leadership research and practices then the influence of situation is
considered a variable.
Admittedly, this study is of a small number of case-studied organisations and as a
basis for generalisations the small numbers must be considered. On the other hand, the
detail and depth of study and analysis would not be logistically practical if carried out
with a large number of companies. That three of the four companies reported here are
award winners is a consideration when addressing population size – not that many com-
panies received a top award so the number of potential subjects is small. This paper
emphasises description and exploration to find common patterns of leadership behaviours
to analyse and use as a base for more in-depth knowledge and to identify lines for further
research. It is difficult, and perhaps naive, to try to explain the success in the studied
organisations only in terms of leadership. At the same time, empirical findings and the
universally recognised formal power and influence of a leader in an organisation strongly
indicate that the factor of leadership can be of importance in the creation of healthy and
effective organisations.

Further research
Several directions for further research and development are evident. One path is to
research the connection between leadership and quality performance where knowledge
from the disciplines of leadership and quality management can be combined for further
theory development. An alternative path is to look at the relation between leadership
and health outcomes – a path not so well developed. This work can help to integrate
and support the development of the workplace health management (WHP) concept
which we strongly support (for a discussion about WHP models see Larsson, Landstad
& Vinberg (2009)). As a third path we re-emphasise Yukl’s (1994, p. 310) observation
that there is a continuing need to continue the development of leadership theory models
that incorporate both universal and contingency elements. Continuously present and
relevant situational factors need to be identified and integrated into research models and
theories.
330 J. Larsson and S. Vinberg

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to VINNOVA (The Swedish Governmental Agency for Inno-
vations Systems), AFA Insurance, Swedish National Institute of Public Health and the
Division of Ecotechnology and Environmental Science at Mid Sweden University for
their funding of this research.

Notes
1. In this paper leadership is defined as ‘. . . the process of influencing others to understand and agree
about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and
collective efforts to accomplish shared goals’ (Yukl, 2006, p. 21).
2. In this paper organisational effectiveness is defined as ‘. . . grade of fulfilment of objectives’ and
can be viewed as the benefit of the performed achievement. Both internal (fulfilment of internally
determined objectives) and external (fulfilment of the market valuation of an organisation’s
achievement using market expectations, demands or objectives as the criteria) effectiveness
are usually needed for survival of an organisation (Andersen, 1995, p. 29).
3. Skill Mix, System IV, Fire-Factor and Three Patterns.
4. The multiple linkage model (Yukl, 1994).
5. In this paper productivity is defined as ‘. . . the quota between two quantities, the production result
(output) and some production resource (input)’; this can be seen as a simple form of effectiveness
(Andersen, 1995, p. 28). The same meaning for productivity and effectiveness is used many times
(Andersen, 1995; Arwidi & Samuelson, 1991; Frenckner, 1983; Nationalencyklopedin, 1991).
6. In this paper quality is defined as ‘. . .its ability to satisfy, or preferably exceed, the needs and
expectations of the customers’ (Bergman & Klefsjö, 2003 p. 24).
7. In this paper job satisfaction is defined as a person’s ‘. . . valuation of work or a work environ-
ment’ (see e.g. Hollingworth et al., 1988 or Månsson, 2006).
8. In this paper health is defined as a person’s ‘. . . individually perceived feeling of well being’
(Larsson, 2004; Larsson, 2007, p. 43) and health and sickness are viewed as two-dimensional
as in the health cross (Eriksson, 1984).
9. Within the discipline of quality studies the term ‘methodologies’ is often used to describe how a
work activity or chain of activities is performed (Bergman & Klefsjö, 2003). Leadership method-
ologies are the activities and behaviours that a leader uses to lead subordinates (Larsson, 2007).

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