«Chapter V Water Measurement Structures H. J. WARREN A. GENERAL 5-1. Types of Measuring Structures. There are many different types of water measurement structures used in irrigation systems. The types most commonly used in Reclamation systems are Parshall flumes, figures 5-1 and 5-2; weirs, figure 5-3; open-flow meters, figures 5-4 and 3-22; and constant-head orifices (CHO). Constant-head orifices are mainly used in tumouts and have been previously discussed in chapter II]. Acoustic velocity meters and magnetic flow meters are expected ta offer a reliable method of flow measurement in General Engineer, Engineering Reference Branch, Bureau ‘of Reclamation, irrigation systems but they are not included herein. Parshall flumes, weirs, weir boxes and open-flow meters are discussed in this chapter. A general description of each type of structure is given, along with its advantages and disadvantages. Design examples show how a particular size of water measurement structure is determined. Standard design drawings of Reclamation measuring structures are also included. Ina typical irrigation system, water is usually measured at the storage reservoir outlet, the canal headworks, and at lateral and farm turnouts. The type of measuring structure selected for these locations depends on availability of head, adaptability to site, economy of installation, and ease of operation. Figure 5-1. Flow through a 9-inch Parshall flume. P 20-D-29299:520 Figure 5.2. Recently constructed Parshall flume, PXD-72610 243Figure $.2. Concrete weir structure with standard ‘contracted Cipollett weit. PX-D-7261 1 SMALL CANAL STRUCTURES Figure 5-4, Open-flow meter attached to a conerete pipe. 222-D-33586 B. PARSHALL FLUMES 5-2. Description.—Parshall flumes are specially designed inline open channel measuring structures in which canal water flows over a broad, flat-converging section through a narrow downward sloping throat section and then diverges on an upward sloping floor (fig. 5-5). The floor of the converging section is the crest of the flume. It is level both longitudinally and laterally and is usually set above the upstream canal invert. The flume geometry forces the water at free-flow conditions to pass through critical depth on the crest, thereby providing a means of determining the rate of flow from a single water depth measurement. Free-flow conditions occur when the downstream canal water surface (tailwater) is low enough to have no effect on the depth of water on the crest. These conditions prevail over a wide range of tailwater depths. The tailwater elevation may be appreciably higher than the flume crest without affecting the free-flow discharge through the flume. However, if the We PARSHALL FLUNESS Figure 55. Axtist sketch showing Parshall ume ima canal. CTPX-D-31408.WATER MEASUREMENT STRUCTURES. downstream water surface exceeds specified limits, submerged-flow conditions occur and two water depth measurements are required to determine the rate of flow. Parshall flumes can be designed to measure flow from 0.01 cubic foot per second (cfs) to 3,000 cis. This discussion will be limited to small Parshall flumes having free-flow capacities of 0.05 to 139.5 cfs. These discharges correspond to throat widths of 6 inches through & feet. For 6- and inch flumes, the maximum degree of submergence ratio, see fg. 5-6) for free-flow discharge is 60 percent, whereas, for flumes 1 through & feet in width, the maximum degree of submergence for free flow is 70 percent [1].? Gage zeros for both H, and H, are set at the flume crest elevation so’ that water depth measurements are depths above the crest. Correct zeroing and reading of the gages is necessary for accurate results which is usually within about 2 percent for free flows and about 5 percent for submerged flows [2] Parshall flumes can be constructed of concrete, wood, galvanized metal or any other construction material that can be built to the given dimensions in the field or prefabricated in a shop. Care should be taken in construction so that the structure is built as closcly as possible to the standard dimensions given in figure 5-7 with one exception: the wingwalls may be lengthened as required. Also, it is important to have the floor of the converging section level so that the same amount of water is passing over each increment of throat width. An angle iron is usually embedded flush with the floor and perpendicular to the flow at the downstream end of the crest to prevent crest erosion and to provide a smooth surface for setting gage zeros. Sidewalls of the throat must be parallel and vertical. Parshall fumes should be located only in straight sections of channels where the flow is relatively smooth and uniform. They should never be located on a curve oF at right angles to the canal flow, as in a turnout, unless the flow 2 Numbers in brackets refer to items in the bibliography. see 528. 245 has been straightened and uniformly redistributed. Parshall flumes should be located as close as possible to canal discharge regulating gates for convenience of oper: but far enough away trom the gates so that the flow is uniform and free from eddies, turbulence, and 5-3. Advantages. Parshall flumes are recognized as accurate and reliable flow measuring structures and have the following advantages’ (1) capable of measuring rate of flow with relatively small head loss, (2) capable of measuring a wide range of free-flow discharges with relatively high tailwater depths using a single water depth measurement, (3) capable of measuring submerged flow using two water depth measurements when the degree of submergence impedes the free-flow discharge, (4) virtually a self-cleaning structure because of flume geometry and the throat velocity, (5) can not be easily altered to obtain unallocated water, and (6) unaffected by velocity of approach, which is automatically controlled, when the flume is built to the given standard dimensions and where the incoming flow is uniform, evenly distributed. and free of turbulence 5-4. Disadvantages. Parshall flumes: (1) are usually more expensive to construct than weirs, (2) cannot be used in close combination with tumouts because the inflow must be uniform and the water surface relatively smooth, and (3) must be constructed carefully and accurately for satisfactory performance. 5-5, Size Selection. Parshall flume sizes are designated by their throat widths. Before a Parshall flume can be selected, the channel cross. section, the range of discharges 0 be measured, allowable head loss through the flume, and the normal depth of the flow in the channel must be known. Minimizing construction costs is an important factor. A particular discharge or discharge range can be measured by any one of several different size tlumes. Final selection is based on the flume width which best fits the canal dimensions and hydraulic properties. As a general rule, the width of the Parshall flume shonld be about one-third to one-half the width of the upstream canal water surface at design discharge and normal depth. With these246 conditions known, the selection and setting of a Parshall flume for free flow and submerged flow can be described best by design examples. 5-6. Design Example with Free-flow Discharge.—In this example, assume that a Parshall flume is to be selected for use in a canal to measure flows from 4 to 40 cts with free-flow discharge. The design capacity of the canal is 40 cfs, bottom width 6.0 feet, side slopes 1-1/2 to 1, normal depth of water in the canal 2.0 feet, width of water surface 12.0 feet and the canal bank freeboard 1.5 feet. Further assume that 0.65 foot of head is available if required for losses through the flume, From figure 5-7 “Standard Parshall Flume Dimensions,” the Parshall tlumes that have free-flow measuring capabilities within the desired discharge range are those with throat widths from 3.0 to 8.0 feet, Using the general rule to determine the throat width, the size range would be 4.0 to 6.0 feet. Since the crest of the Parshall flume is set above the upstream canal invert a distance M 4 fume that is too narrow would cause 4 the headwater to rise and encroach on the upstream canal freeboard. Consider for now only the size range where the depth at H, for free-flow discharge is less than or equal 10 the upstream water depth. Table 5-3 gives the following values of Ty for a discharge of 40 cfs for different flume widths that meet the criteria set forth in the preceding paragraph of Flume se thoat width, feet Upper head Hi feet 138 138 125, nis Allowable head loss through the Parshall flumes must also be considered. For flume sizes in this example, free-flow discharge exists until the degree of submergence exceeds 70 percent The following head losses for a discharge of 40 cfs and a 70 percent degree of submergence are obtained from figure 5-8 (see subsection 5-8(c) for explanation on reading this chart), SMALL CANAL STRUCTURES Plume size throat width Feet The head loss, Hy, is the difference in water surface elevation of the headwater and tailwater as shown In figure 5-6 The 5.0- through 8.0-foot flumes meet the depth and loss requirements; however, further investigation is required and the final selection of the flume is made on a trial and error basis. First try a 5-foot flume as it is the smallest and least expensive to build. The head loss for a foot flume is 0.58 foot, therefore the tailwater elevation is set 0.58 foot lower than the headwater elevation. Ax noted trom the dimensions in figure 5-7 the crest elevation is set Mt above the upstream canal invert or 0.38 foot. Assume the upstream canal invert elevation is 100.00, and as previously indicated the normal depth of water in the canal is 2.0 feet, then the headwater elevation 18. 102.00. The depth at H, fora free-flow discharge of 40 cfs is 1.55 feet.’ From the continuity equation, Q = VA where A is the cross-sectional area at H,, the velocity at H, is 3.85 feet per second v (fps) and the velocity head, 7, is 0.23 foot The energy at H, is the crest elevation + Hy, + & or (100.0 + 0.38) + 1.55 + 0.23 = 102.16 ret. If this flume were used, the headwater would rise about 0.16 foot and encroach on the upstream canal freeboard which is undesirable. Next check to see if this is a free-flow flume. Since the water surface at H, is die same elevation as the tailwater, the H, degree of submergence is the ratio of —, Then H, is the difference in elevation of the tallwater and the crest of the tlume, or 1.04 H, mb = 104 - 67 porwent feet. i The ratio of which meets the free-flow criteria, The 6-foot flume is the next smallest, so using the same procedure try a 6-foot Parshall flume. Since theWATER MEASUREMENT STRUCTURES head loss through the flume is 0.49 foot, set the downstream water surface 0.49 foot below the upstream water surface. The crest elevation is the same as for the S-foot flume, as dimension M is the same tor both the 5- and Gfoot flumes. The depth at H, for a discharge ‘of 40 cfs is 1.38 feet. Prom’ the continuity equation the velocity at Hyis 3.70 feet per second and velocity head, 55, 0.21 foot. The energy at H, is 100.38 + 1.38 + 0.21 = 101.97 which is slightly less than the upstream water surface elevation. When checking this flume for free flow, the degree of submergence is 1.13 feet 1.38 feet less as previously determined), which does not meet the criteria for free-flow discharge. Recalling that 0.65 foot of head was initially available, the downstream water surface should be set at elevation 101.35 and the new Hy 0.97 foot 1.38 feet or 70 percent which meets the criteria for free-flow conditions. The 6-foot flume should be selected because it is the least expensive to construct, can be set for free-flow conditions, and does not cause an encroachment on the upstream freeboard. If a Parshall flume is always going to be operated at 70 percent or less submergence, that portion of the flume downstream from the throat section is not needed. If, however, the downstream channel should become silted up or clogged with vegetation, the submergence would increase to greater than 70 percent and the downstream portion of the fume with an H, measuring well would be needed to determine the discharge for submerged flow. 5-7. Design Example with Submerged-flow Discharge. If possible Parshall fumes should = 82 percent (should be 70 percent or i 0.97 foot. The ratio oF now equals 247 be designed for free-flow discharge, however they will measure submerged flows up to 95 percent submergence. If a flume is set for this high submergence and hydraulic conditions in the downstream channel change to cause greater submergence, the flume becomes uscless. In the preceding example of the 6-foot Parshall flume assume that the flume is set for 90 percent submergence. Recall that the headwater elevation is 102.00, crest elevation is 100.38 and H, for free-flow discharge is 1.38 Hy Then the ratio — = 0.90 and Hy ~ 0.9 (1.38) = 1.24 feet, The tailwater surface is then tentatively set at elevation 101.62 or 1.24 feet above the crest. From figure 5-8 determine the head loss for 90 percent submergence, 40-cfs discharge and a 6-foot flume. Read a head loss of 0.17 foot. Submergence in excess of 70 percent, however, will influence the water surface at the H, measuring well and an erroneous discharge’ would be read or computed using only this reading, Hence a new H, and Hy for 90 percent submerged flow must be determined. Using a trial and error procedure, select values of H, trom table 5-3 and read the free-flow discharge for a 6-foot flame. Then from figure 5-11 read the correction for 90 percent submergence and subtract it from the free-flow discharge until an H, is found that will give a correct reading for measuring 40 cfs through a 6-foot flume at 90 percent submergence An H, of 1.58 feet is then determined to be satisfactory. Then the new Hy reading is 0.90(1.58) = 1.42 feet. The new tailwater surface Is set 1.42 feet above the crest elevation or 100.38 + 1.42 = 101.80. The flume is now set for 90 percent submergence and will measure 40 cfs with an H, reading of 1.58 feet and an Hy, reading of 142 feet. The actual fect. Submewed-tiow “Submerpoa-Tlow Throat wien, Freesnow aisemage, eorrection (correction feet Feet fe ‘times multiplying or M) 162 60 sis) 22443-9463 anus. 138. 60 4978 223,43" 958 30.20, 1st 6.0 49.28 222x43-9.54 39.74 “This value only an approximation determined from figure S-1248 calculated difference between the headwater and _tailwater elevation (102.00 ~ 101.80) is 0.20 foot, which is slightly greater than the 0.17-foot head loss taken from figure 5 Engineers at Utah State University have developed submerged-flow calibration curves for a number of Parshall flumes. The discharge, Q, in cubic feet per second is plotted as the ordinate;(H, — Hy), in fect as the abscissa; and Hy the submergence ratio =" in percent as the varying parameter [3]. These curves eliminate the need for trial and error procedure as given in the example problem for submerged flow. Knowing the design discharge and the desired degree of submergence, the value of (H, — Hy) can be read directly. The desired submergence ratio gives the relationship of Hy to H,. The two simultaneous equations may be solved for H, and Hj, for a specified flow and a specified submergence. The downstream canal water surface is set above the crest an amount equal toh, 5-8. Use of Tables and Figures for Discharge and Free-flow Determinations.-(a) Free-flow Discharge.—Free-flow discharge for 6-inch, 9.inch, and 1- through 8-foot Parshall fumes can be read directly from tables 5-1, 5-2, and 5-3, respectively [I]. When the’ flow is submerged, a correction must be applied to the free-flow discharges. (b) Submerged-flow Discharge —Figures 5-9 and $10 give the submerged-flow discharge directly for 6- and 9-inch flumes respectively a For example, assume flow through a 6-inch flume with an H, gage reading = 1.25 feet and i Hy = 1.05 feet. The submergence ratio, —° = ii, ESE = 84 percent. Find 84 percent submergence on the left side of figure 5-9. Proceed horizontally along the 84 percent submergence line to half way between the 1-2 and 1.3 sloping H, lines, From this point proceed vertically “downward and read a discharge of 2.25 efs on the bottom line of the Figure SMALL CANAL STRUCTURES The corrections for discharge in 1- through 8-foot flumes are determined from figure 5-11 {1}. These discharge corrections are then subtracted from the free-flow values in table 5-3. For instance, the flow through a 6-foot flume with an H, give reading 1.38 fect and Hy gage reading 1.42 feet would be computed as follows: (1) Hy _ 1.42 _ a, 1387 percent. Submerged flow conditions exist because the submergence ratio is greater than 70 percent, (2) from table 5-3 the free-flow discharge for H, = 1.58 would be 49.78 cfs. On figure 5-11 project a line horizontally to the tight from 1.58 feet to the 90 percent sloping submergence line. From this point drop vertically downward to the base of the figure and tead a correction of about 2.23 cfs. This correction should then be multiplied by the size or multiplying factor, M, for a 6-foot flume which is in the insert table on figure S-I1. In this case M = 4.3. The corrected discharge for the 90 percent submerged 6-foot flume is the free-flow discharge minus the correction times the size factor, or 49.78 cf minus 2.23 (4.3) = 40.2 cfs. (c) Head Losses.—Head losses for 1- through 8-foot Parshall flumes can be obtained from figure 5-8 by the following procedure: (1) for he free-flow design example find 70 percent submergence at the bottom of the chart. Follow the 70 percent submergence line vertically upward until it intersects the sloping discharge line where Q = 40 cfs, (2) from this intersection project a horizontal line to the foot throat width, W, and (3) from this point go vertically downward and read the head loss of 0.49 foot. submerged-flow compute submergence ratio, Figure 5-6, Relationship of flow depths tothe flume crest elevation, 103-D:1224WATER MEASUREMENT STRUCTURES 249 Extend wingwall into canal bonk os required. _ Throat Diverging Section | Section Z-alternate 45° ‘| wingwall “ ee PLAN PROFILE a o[elele[m|[~[e] # Pema nnar a spat ae ple sts ie BAT SBR eesnies slo OG 2lolsoli ls of 1s 618 ils SeMnEIsBlstife ye Lis igure 5.7, Standard Parshall flume dimensions, 103-D:1225250 SMALL CANAL STRUCTURES PERCENT OF SUBMERGENCE HEAD LOSS, FEET ‘Figure 5-8. ead toss through Parshall fumes, 1 through 8 feet wide, 10340-1226 UPSTREAM HEAD Ha, FEET oisensnee, cs ‘Figure 5-9, Digram for determining rate of submerged flow ina inch Parshall flume, 10340-1227