Earth’s Ecosystems

Ecology
 Ecology:
 Scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment

 Rediscovery of the nearly extinct harlequin toad in Costa Rica raises many ecological questions
 What environmental factors limit their geographic distribution?
 What factors (food, pathogens) affect population size?
Ecological Research
 Areas of Ecological Research:

 Global Ecology: examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the
biosphere

 Landscape Ecology: focuses on the exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across
multiple ecosystems

 Ecosystem Ecology: emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic
and abiotic components

 Community Ecology: deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community

 Population Ecology: focuses on factors affecting population size over time

 Organismal Ecology: studies how an organism’s structure, physiology, and (for animals)
behavior meet environmental challenges
Figure 52.2
Global ecology

Landscape ecology

Ecosystem ecology

Community ecology

Population ecology

Organismal ecology
Weather vs. Climate
 Weather:

 Local area’s short term temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, cloud cover and
other physical conditions of the atmosphere measured over hours or days

 Climate:
 Long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area
 Major components of climate are temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind

 Macroclimate:
 Consists of patterns on the global, regional, and landscape (multiple ecosystems) level

 Microclimate:
 Consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log
 Determined by fine-scale differences in the environment that affect light and wind patterns
Water Currents Affect Climate
Air Circulations Affect Climate
Rain Shadow Effect
 The Earth’s surface affects climate.
Biomes
 Biomes:
 Major life zones characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial biomes) or physical environment
(aquatic biomes)
 Climate is very important in determining why terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas
 Climate affects the latitudinal patterns of terrestrial biomes
 Biomes are affected not just by average temperature and precipitation, but also by the pattern
of temperature and precipitation through the year
 Leads to formation of tropical (hot), temperate (moderate) and polar (cold) regions – deserts,
grasslands and forests

 Terrestrial Biomes:
 Often named for major physical or climatic factors and for vegetation
 Characterized by distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, and animals
 Usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries which may be wide or narrow
 Climb a tall mountain from its base to the summit, you’ll see changes as you might as you
travel from the equator to the poles
Figure 52.9

30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
30°S

Tropical forest Temperate broadleaf forest

Savanna Northern coniferous forest
Desert Tundra
Chaparral High mountains
Temperate grassland Polar ice
Biomes Based on Elevation
Biomes
 Similar characteristics can arise in distant biomes through Convergent Evolution
 For example, cacti in North America and euphorbs in African deserts appear similar but
are from different evolutionary lineages
Tropical Rain Forest
 Tropical Rain Forests:

 Hot temperature, moisture laden air rises resulting in constant rainfall (200 inches per year)
 Temperature is high year-round (25–29C) with little seasonal variation
 High Biodiversity: home to millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–30 million still
unknown species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
 2% of the land but ½ of world’s species; single tree can have several thousand insect species
 Dominated by broadleaf evergreen plants; their dense tops block out most of the sun not
reaching the forest floor
 Ground has little vegetation (those that do have large leaves); vines (lianas) grow on trees to
reach the sun
 Little wind because of the dense vegetation; plants depend on bats, birds, bees and other
species for pollination
 Rapid human population growth is now destroying many tropical forests
Tropical Rain Forests
Olinguito
 New mammal species in the cloud forests lining the Andes Mountains of South
America - Olinguito and classified it in the Procyonidae family, the same as raccoons.
Temperate Rain Forest

 Coastal Coniferous Forest or Temperate

Rain Forests:
 Found in scattered coastal temperate
areas that have ample rainfall or
moisture from dense ocean fogs
 Douglass firs and redwoods
Deserts
 Desert:
 Annual precipitation is low; often scattered unevenly throughout the year
 Heat of day bakes the earth causing evaporation of water from leaves and soil
 Soils have little vegetation and moisture to store the heat so you can roast during the day and
freeze at night

 Tropical Deserts:
 Hot and dry most of the year; few plants and a hard wind blown surface of rocks and some
sand

 Temperate Deserts:
 Daytime temperatures are high in the summer and low in winter; more precipitation than in the
topical deserts; drought resistance vegetation - cacti

 Cold Deserts:
 Vegetation is sparse; winters are cold; summers warm or hot and precipitation is low; plants
and animals have adapted to stay cool and get enough water

Fragile Ecosystem: slow plant growth; low species diversity; slow nutrient recycling and lack
of water
Deserts
Deserts
Savannah

 Savannah
 Equatorial and subequatorial regions
 Warm temperatures year round with wet and dry seasons
 Precipitation is seasonal
 Temperature averages (24–29C) but is more seasonally variable than in the tropics
 Contains widely scattered clumps of trees (aracia with thorns to prevent being eaten)
 Grasses and make up most of the ground cover; fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought
 Plants have adapted to survive drought and extreme heat
 Grazing animals (grass and herb eating; wildebeest) and browsing animals (twig and leaf
eating; giraffe) along with predators (lion)
Savannah
Chaparral
 Chaparral:
 Occurs in mid-latitude coastal regions on several continents
 Summer is hot (30C+); fall, winter, and spring are cool (10–12C)
 Close to sea provides a slightly longer winter rainy season than nearby temperate deserts
 Precipitation is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers
 Fogs in the spring and fall reducing evaporation
 Consist of dense growth of low growing evergreen shrubs and occasional small trees with
leathery leaves to reduce evaporation
 Dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; adapted to fire and drought
 Prone to fires in the dry season
 Many plants produce seeds that only germinated after a wildfire
 Animals include amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects, small mammals, and browsing mammals

 People like to live here because of its moderate, sunny climate with mild wet winters and warm dry
summers; risk losing their homes to frequent fires and mud slides
Chaparral
Chaparral
Temperate Grasslands

 Temperate Grassland
 Found on many continents
 Precipitation is highly seasonal
 Winters are cold (often below –10C) and dry; summers are hot (often near 30C) and dry
 Dominant plants are grasses and adapted to droughts and fire
 Little tree growth
 Large grazers such as bison and wild horses and small burrowers such as prairie dogs
 Most grasslands have been converted to farmland (Midwest)
Temperate Grassland
Mountains
 Mountains:
 Some of the world’s most spectacular environments are high on Mountains, steep or high
lands that cover ¼ of the Earth’s surface; dramatic changes in altitude, slope, climate, soil and
vegetation occur in a very short distance
 1.2 bil people (18% of the world’s population) live on them or their edges; 4 bil (59%) depend
on mountain systems for all or some of their water
 Majority of the world’s forests; habitats for biodiversity and contain endemic species found no
where on Earth
 Help regulate the earth’s climate: mountains covered in ice and snow help to reflect solar
radiation back into space helping to cool the plant and offset global warming
 Can affect sea levels: storing or releasing water in glaciers; as the earth warms, water can be
released in oceans causing them to rise
 Major storehouses of water

 Despite their significance, mountain ecosystems are not a high priority for governments
and/or environmental groups
Mount Rainier National Park
Forests
Northern Coniferous Forest

 Northern Coniferous Forest or Taiga:

 Spans northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on
Earth
 Cold forests are often found just south of Artic tundra and above certain altitudes
in the High Sierras or Rockies
 Precipitation varies; some have periodic droughts and others, especially near
coasts, are wet
 Winters are cold; summers may be hot (Siberia ranges from –50C to 20C)
 Subarctic climate: winters are long, dry and extremely cold; sunlight may only be
available 6-8 hrs; summers are short, with cool to warm temperatures; sun shines
19 hrs
 Plant diversity is low as few species can survive the winters when soil moisture is
frozen
 Conifers such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock dominate; conical shape of
conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating and breaking their branches
 Migratory and resident birds; large mammals such as moose, brown bears, and
Siberian tigers
Northern Coniferous Forest
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
 Temperate Broadleaf Forest:
 Found at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand
 Significant amounts of precipitation fall during all seasons as rain or snow
 Winters average 0C; summers are hot and humid (near 35C)
 Long warm summers, cold but not severe winters and abundant moisture, often fairly spread
throughout the year
 Dominated by deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere; evergreen eucalyptus in Australia
 Broad-leaf trees: oak, hickory, maple and beech; survive cold winters by dropping their leaves
in the fall and becoming dormant; each spring, new leaves form and turn colors in the fall
 Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest
 Eastern US were home to bears, foxes and pumas (many have been killed) and the dominant
mammal often is deer
 In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter
 Impact of human activities: disturbed more than any other for growing of crops, wood or cities;
within 100-200 years after it’s left undistributed, it can return to forest
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
 Tundra

 Tundra:
 Covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at
all latitudes
 Precipitation is low in arctic tundra and higher in alpine tundra
 Winters are cold (below –30C); summers are relatively cool (less than 10C)
 Treeless and bitterly cold
 Swept by cold winds and covered by ice and snow
 Winters are long and dark
 Little precipitation
 Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration
 Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, and
lichen) and supports birds, grazers, and their predators; alpine can be flowers
 Most of the growth occurs in the 7-8 week summer when the sun shines almost 24
hrs
 Mammals include musk oxen, caribou, reindeer, bears, wolves, and foxes; many
migratory bird species nest in the summer
Tundra
Water

 Earth is covered with water - known as the “Water Planet”

 Saltwater covers 71% of the Earth
 Freshwater 2.3%
• Aquatic Life Zones: determined by the amount of salinity – amount of salt (NaCl)
in the water

 Saltwater:
 Marine: brackish which is a combination of salt and freshwater and are
considered to be saltwater and include
 Global ocean is a single and continuous body of water
 4 oceans: Atlantic, Arctic, Indian and Pacific; Antarctic
 Oceans and estuaries, coastlands and shorelines, coral reefs and mangrove
forests

 Freshwater
 Lakes, rivers and streams and inland wetlands
Water Planet
Aquatic Biomes
 Aquatic Biomes:
 Account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
 Marine biomes have salt concentrations of about 3%
 Largest marine biome is made of oceans, which cover about 75% of Earth’s surface and
have an enormous impact on the biosphere
 Freshwater biomes have salt concentrations of less than 0.1%
 Freshwater biomes are closely linked to soils and the biotic components of the surrounding
terrestrial biome

 Stratified into Zones or layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth:
 Pelagic Zone:
 Photic Zone has sufficient light for photosynthesis; most animals live here
 Aphotic Zone receives little light; extensive with little life
 Deep in the Aphotic Zone lies the Abyssal Zone with a depth of 2,000 to 6,000 m

 Benthic Zone:
 Organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones
 Communities of organisms are collectively called the Benthos
 Detritus:
 Dead organic matter, falls from the productive surface water; important source of food
Aquatic Biomes
Figure 52.15

30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S

Oceanic pelagic and benthic zones

Intertidal zones
Estuaries
Coral reefs
Rivers
Lakes
Lakes
 Lakes:

 Natural bodies of freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff or groundwater that fill in
depressions in the surface caused by glaciers (Bear Mountain), volcanoes (Crater Lake) or
other ways such as supplied with water from rain (precipitation) or streams
 Size varies from small ponds to very large lakes

 Oligotrophic Lakes:

 Nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich

 Small supply of plant nutrients
 Generally deep with steep banks; fed by glaciers and mountain streams with little sediment;
crystal clear

 Eutrophic Lakes:
 Nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter
 Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in shallow and well-lighted area close to shore
 Water is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called zooplankton
graze on the phytoplankton
 Invertebrates live in the benthic zone; Fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen
Lakes
Lakes
Wetlands
 Surface Water: precipitation that does not sink into the ground or evaporate

 Runoff: precipitation that runs into a stream

 Watershed, Drainage Basin: land that delivers runoff, sediment and dissolved substances into a
stream; small streams form rivers and rivers flow downhill to the ocean

 Aquatic Life Zones:

 Source Zone:
 Headwaters or mountain highland streams; usually shallow, cold, clear and swift flowing;
waterfalls and rapids
 Not productive because of lack of nutrients and producers; food is from decomposition;
algae; fishes
 Transition Zone:
 Middle; become wider, deeper and warmer; slower; more turbid (cloudier)
 Producers; both cold and warm water fish (black bass)
 Floodplain Zone:
 Over time, they shape the land including leveling or cutting through mountains forming
canyons; streams can join others, forming wider and deeper rivers
 Large amount of producers and fish; rivers end in a mouth or delta; absorb the floodwaters
and add nutrient rich land
Human Activity
Human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecological and economic services provided
by fresh water rivers, lakes and wetlands:

 Dams and Canals on rivers fragment about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers
 Alter or destroy aquatic wildlife habitats by reducing water flow and increasing damage from
coastal storms

 Flood Control Levees and Dikes:

 Built along rivers and disconnect the rivers from their floodplains
 Destroy aquatic habitats and alter or reduce the function of nearby wetlands
 Hinders the spawning cycle of fishes and birds and can disrupt food chains; species are lost
and the biodiversity is threatened
 Interrupts sediment flow and distribution

 Pollutants from cities and farms add excess nutrients causing algal explosions (blooms) and
depleting the oxygen

 Wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or covered to build buildings or roads
Wetlands
Wetlands

 Wetlands
 Habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that
supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
 High organic production and decomposition and have low dissolved
oxygen content
 Can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on coasts of
large lakes and seas
 Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on Earth
 Plants include lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce
 Wetlands are home to diverse invertebrates and birds, as well as otters,
frogs, and alligators
 Humans have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands; wetlands purify water
and reduce flooding
Wetlands
Restoration of Wetlands
Streams and Rivers

 Streams and Rivers:

 Most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current
 Headwaters are generally cold, clear, turbulent, swift, and oxygenrich;
they are often narrow and rocky
 Downstream waters form rivers and are generally warmer, more turbid,
and more oxygenated; they are often wide and meandering and have
silty bottoms
 May contain phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants
 Diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and
streams
 Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of stream and river
ecosystems
Streams and Rivers
Coastal Wetlands
 Estuaries:
 Where rivers meet the sea; partially enclosed bodies of water where sea water mixes with
fresh water as well as nutrients from streams, rivers and runoff from the land

 Coastal Wetlands:
 Coastal land areas covered with water all or part of the year
 Combined with Estuaries, they are some of the Earth’s most productive ecosystems because
of nutrients, rapid flow of water and ample sunlight:

 Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: include river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, salt marshes and
mangrove forests

 Seagrass Beds:
 Species of plants that grow underwater in shallow marine and estuaries along the coastline
 Highly productive and support a variety of marine species
 Stabilize shorelines and reduce wave impact

 Life is harsh; adapt to daily and seasonal changes in tidal and river flow; water temperatures and
salinity; and runoff from the land including soil sediment and pollutants; because of this, they may
have low plant diversity but high productivity
Coastal Wetlands
 Mangrove Forests:
 Found along 70% of gently sloping sandy and silt coastlines in the tropics and sub-tropics
 Grow in salt water and have extensive root systems that can support during changes in water
levels

 Coastal Aquatic Systems provide important ecological and economic services:

 Maintain water quality by filtering toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments and
absorb other pollutants
 Provide food, habitats and nursery sites
 Reduce storm damage and coast erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water
produced by storms and tsunamis
 Provide timber and wood for fuel

 UN estimates that between 1980 and 2005 at least 1/5 of the mangrove forests were lost due
mainly to human coastal development

 Loss of mangroves can lead to polluted drinking water caused by inland intrusion of saltwater into
fresh water aquifers used to supply drinking water
River Delta
Estuaries
Mangrove Trees
Life in Coastal Wetlands
Coastal Shoreline
 Intertidal Zone:
 Area between high and low tides (gravitational pull of the moon and sun)
 Organisms must adapt to movement of water; high tides to drying out at low tides
 Oxygen and nutrient levels are high
 Deal with daily salinity and moisture changes
 Organisms need to “hold on”:

 Rocky Shores:
 Pounded daily by waves
 Numerous pools and other habitats with a great variety of species; marine algae
 Animals have adapted to attach themselves to the hard surface
 Sandy Shores:
 Barrier beaches
 Many organisms are hidden from view by burrowing, digging or tunneling in the sand;
home to shore birds that feed on crustaceans – sea grass and algae
 Barrier Islands:
 Narrow islands that form offshore parallel to the coast
Intertidal Zones
Life Along the Coast
Importance of Sand Dunes
 Importance of Sand Dunes:
 Sand is held in place by plant roots
 1st line of defense against the sea
 Often removed by developers; and when large storms hit and cause damage, they are
incorrectly called “Natural Disasters”
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
 Oceanic Pelagic Zone:
 Constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents
 Oxygen levels are high
 Turnover in temperate oceans renews nutrients in the photic
zones; year-round stratification in tropical oceans leads to lower
nutrient concentrations
 Biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface
 Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in
this biome; also found are free-swimming animals
 Zooplankton includes protists, worms, copepods, krill, jellies, and
invertebrate larvae
 Other animals include squids, fishes, sea turtles, and marine
mammals
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
Coral Reefs
 Coral Reefs:
 World’s oldest, most diverse and most productive ecosystem
 Known as “Natural Wonders”
 Biodiversity – marine equivalent of Tropical Rain Forests
 Formed by tiny animals known as polyps – jellyfish; calcium
carbonate
 Occupy only 0.2% of the ocean’s floor
 15% have been destroyed and another 20% damaged
 They provide important ecological and economic services;
 Moderate atmospheric temperatures
 Act as natural barriers protecting coasts from erosion
 Provide habitats
 Support fishing and tourism businesses
 Provide jobs and building materials
Coral Reefs
Life on a Coral Reef
Death of a Coral Reef
Marine Benthic Zone

 Marine Benthic Zone:

 Consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal
zone
 Organisms in the very deep benthic zone are adapted to
continuous cold and extremely high water pressure
 Mainly soft sediments; some areas are rocky
 Shallow areas contain seaweeds and filamentous algae
 Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic
ridges are surrounded by unique chemoautotrophic prokaryotes,
as well as echinoderms and arthropods
 Benthic communities include invertebrates and fishes
Marine Benthic Zone
Human Problem
 Human activities are causing major threats to marine systems, especially
coastal wetlands, shore lands, mangrove forests and coral reefs; threatened
by man is the biological diversity and ecosystems provided by the oceans
that cover 71% of Earth:

 Coastal Development: by 2006, 46% of the world’s population (more

than ½ of US) lived along or near coasts; by 2040, up to 80% may
 Overfishing: depletes population of commercial fish
 Pollution: fertilizers or animal waste; sewage from ships; oil spillage
 Habitat Destruction: development but also, trawler fishing
 Introduction of Invasive Species (non-native)
 Climate Change from Human Activities: rise in levels
 Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries