METAMORPHISM AND

METAMORPHIC ROCKS,
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY AND
SEAFLOOR SPREADING, AND PLATE
TECTONICS
Part 1

By:

Maeke A. Maandig
Erich John Y. Dela Torre
Niña S. Estaño
Keith Lourd V. Pacana
John Mark F. Hinaut
Jerrymia F. Baynos

Group 3

CE_2M_CE13
Group Leader : Jerrymia F. Bayos
Group Members : Maeke Maandig
Erich John Y. Dela Torre
Niña Estaño
Keith Lourd V. Pacana
John Mark Hinaut

Powerpoint Creator/s : Maeke Maandig

Erich John Y. Dela Torre
Niña Estaño
Keith Lourd V. Pacana
John Mark Hinaut
Jerrymia F. Baynos

Document Creator/s : Maeke Maandig

Erich John Y. Dela Torre
Niña Estaño
Keith Lourd V. Pacana
John Mark Hinaut
Jerrymia F. Baynos
What is Metamorphism?

Metamorphism is the alteration of the structure of a rock through:

▪ Heat

▪ Pressure

▪ Chemically reactive fluids

METAMORPHIC ROCKS are made from:

 Igneous Rock
 Sedimentary Rock and other metamorphic rocks..

METAMORPHISM

 Changes rock thru temperature (heat), pressure, chemically active fluids..

 All Metamorphic rocks has its parents (the rock from where it formed)
 Parent rock can be recognized as Sedimentary, Igneous..

It progresses incrementary from:

 Very-Low Grade
 Low-Grade
 Medium Grade
 High Grade
New minerals are formed from pre-existing minerals by RECRYSTALLIZATION

 Known as "Deformation of Existing Minerals" that changes the rock's shape and
orientationWHAT DRIVES METAMORPHISM?

 HEAT- Energy required to produce chemical reaction that causes existing minerals to
undergo recrystallization
 PRESSURE- "Squeezes the rock equally in all direction causing spaces between minerals
grains closer that produces more compact rocks that have greater densities
 DIFFERENTIAL STRESS- Forces that deforms the rocks are different in different
directions
 CHEMICALLY ACTIVE FLUID- Enhance metamorphism by dissolving and
transporting ions from one site in the crystal structure to another

METAMORPHIC ROCK

Metamorphic Rocks started out some other type of rock, but have been substantially changed
from their ORIGINAL IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY or earlier metamorphic form

MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION

The composition of a mineral can be expressed as a CHEMICAL FORMULA, which simply

gives the proportions of the different elements and groups of elements in the mineral. The latter
notion (groups of elements) comes into play for those minerals which have a restricted range of
composition.

Broad groups of minerals formed during metamorphism are;

 Stress Minerals
 Anti-stress Minerals

STRESS MINERALS

 Various types of metamorphic processes on the pre-existing igneous and sedimentary

rocks involving changes in textures, structures, and mineralogical composition
 The minerals, which are produced from metamorphic rocks under a stress factor, are
known as stress minerals
 They are described as flaky, platy, flattened, lamellar, and elongated forms
 Minerals that are characterized as stress minerals are; Kyanite, staurolite, muscovite,
chlorite, and some amphiboles
ANTI-STRESS MINERALS

 Metamorphic minerals that are produced primarily under the influence of temperature
factor
 Such minerals are generally of a regular equidimensional outline. Minerals that are
known as anti-stress are sillimanite, olivine, cordierite, and many pyroxenas

TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Crystalloblastic textures
 Palimpsest textures

The textures which have developed newly during the process of metamorphism are called
CRYSTALLOBLASTIC TEXTURES. The other textures which belong to parent rocks but are
still retained in metamorphism rocks are called PALIMPSEST TEXTURES.

CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Foliated rocks have platy or elongate minerals aligned in roughly parallel planes or in wavy
bands or planes.

Non foliated rocks may show colored bands that reflect minute impurities in the rock, but the
dominant minerals show no visible alignment.
IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Slate
 Schists
 Gneiss
 Quartzite
 Marble
SLATE

Definition

 Slate is a fine-grained, metamorphic rock formed by compression of sedimentary shale,

mudstone, or basalt.
 Gray slate is common, but the rock occurs in a variety of colors, including brown, purple,
green, and blue.
 Slate consists mainly of silicates (silicon and oxygen), phyllosilicates (potassium and
aluminum silicate), and aluminosilicates (aluminum silicate).
 The term "slate" also refers to objects made from the rock, such as slate tablets or roofing
tiles.
 The phrases "clean slate" and "blank slate" refer to slate's use in chalkboards.

Composition

 Slate is a metamorphic rock of sedimentary origin. Is mainly composed of quartz, sericite

and minerals of the chlorite group.
 Has been used as a construction material since the ancient Egyptians.
 Its color depends on the mineral structure and size of the mineral grains that define its
composition.
Origin

 Slate is formed by a metamorphosis of clay, shale and volcanic ash that results to a fine-
grained foliated rock, resulting in unique slate textures. These forces and heat modify the
clay minerals in the shale and mudstone.

Uses

 It is popular for a wide variety of uses such as roofing, flooring, and flagging because of
its durability and attractive appearance.
SCHIST

Definition

 Often derived from metamorphism of claystone or shale; metamorphosed under more

heat and pressure than phyllite
 Is a medium-grained metamorphic rock showing pronounced schistosity. This means that
the rock is composed of mineral grains easily seen with a low-power hand lens, oriented
in such a way that the rock is easily split into thin flakes or plates.

Varieties

a) Low-grade schist

 Formed under conditions of regional metamorphism at low temperature

 These are rich in minerals like albite, muscovite, and chlorite that are unstable at high
temperature
 Examples: Mica-schist, Chlorite-schist, and Talc-schist

b) High-grade schist

 Formed under conditions of regional metamorphism and are rich in minerals that are
stable at high temperatures such as andalusite, cordierite, game, staurolite, and sillimanite
etc.
 Examples: Gamet-schist, Cordierite-schist, and Stal`rolite-schist

Composition

 Most schists are composed largely of platy minerals such as muscovite, chlorite, talc,
sericite, biotite, and graphite; feldspar and quartz are much less abundant in schist than in
gneiss.

Origin
 It usually forms on a continental side of a convergent plate boundary where sedimentary
rocks, such as shales and mudstones, have been subjected to compressive forces, heat,
and chemical activity.

Uses

 Schist is formed from shale or mud but at a much higher temperature than slate. Schist is
not a very strong rock, so it is not often used as a building material. However it can be
used for garden decoration, paving and sometimes sculpture.
GNEISS

Definition

 A medium- to high-grade metamorphic rock that commonly has a banded structure and is
generally medium- to coarse-grained with poorly developed schistosity
 a metamorphic rock with a banded or foliated structure, typically coarse-grained and
consisting mainly of feldspar, quartz, and mica.

Varieties

 Orthogneiss- Found as a result of metamorphism of granites and other igneous rocks

 Paragneiss- These are formed from the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks like
sandstones
 Banded gneiss - Typical gneiss in which the tabular and flaky minerals are segregated in
very conspicuous pands of alternating dark and light colors

Composition

 Gneiss is a medium- to coarse-grained, semischistose metamorphic rock. It is

characterized by alternating light and dark bands differing in mineral composition
(coarser grained than schist). The lighter bands contain mostly quartz and feldspar, the
darker often contain biotite, hornblende, garnet or graphite.

Origin
 Gneiss is a coarse to medium grained banded metamorphic rock formed from igneous or
sedimentary rocks during regional metamorphism.

Uses

 Metamorphic Gneiss has many uses as a building material such as flooring, ornamental
stones, gravestones, facing stones on buildings and work surfaces.
QUARTZITE

Definition

 Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz. It

forms when a quartz-rich sandstone is altered by the heat, pressure, and chemical activity
of metamorphism.

 Metamorphism recrystallizes the sand grains and the silica cement that binds them
together. The result is a network of interlocking quartz grains of incredible strength.

Composition

 Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz. It

forms when a quartz-rich sandstone is altered by the heat, pressure, and chemical activity
of metamorphism. Metamorphism recrystallizes the sand grains and the silica cement that
binds them together.

Origin
 A metamorphic rock derived from sandstone that is distinguished from sandstone by its
fracture. ... The intense heat and pressure of metamorphism causes the quartz grains to
compact and become tightly intergrown with each other, resulting in very hard and dense
quartzite.

Uses

 Quartzite is a decorative stone which is used for kitchen countertops, to cover walls, as
roofing tiles, in flooring, and for stair steps. Quartzite is extremely popular due to its
marble-like appearance and granite-like properties, which make it an ideal choice to be
used in kitchens.
MARBLE

Definition

 Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most

commonly calcite or dolomite. In geology, the term marble refers to metamorphosed
limestone, but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed
limestone.

 Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to the heat and
pressure of metamorphism. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite (CaCO3) and
usually contains other minerals, such as clay minerals, micas, quartz, pyrite, iron oxides,
and graphite

 The name "marble" is used in a different way in the dimension stone trade. Any
crystalline carbonate rock that has an ability to accept a polish is called "marble." The
name is sometimes used for other soft rocks such as travertine, verd antique, serpentine,
and some limestones.

Composition

 Marble is composed primarily of calcite, dolomite, or perhaps serpentine. The chemical

composition of marble is composed of the following major constituents: 38–42% Lime
(CaO), 20–25% Silica (SiO2), 2–4% Alumina (Al2O3), 1.5–2.5% oxides (NaO and
MgO), and 30–32% (MgCO3 and others).

Origin
 Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when limestone is exposed to high temperatures
and pressures. Marble forms under such conditions because the calcite forming the
limestone recrystallizes forming a denser rock consisting of roughly equigranular calcite
crystals.

Uses

 Marbles are used principally for buildings and monuments, interior decoration, statuary,
table tops, and novelties. Color and appearance are their most important qualities.
Continental Drift Theory
- A hypothesis that states that continents have moved slowly to their current locations over
millions of years.
- It states that the continents are slowly drifting around the earth and was once a large mass
called Pangaea. This super continent called Panagaea was divided into two super continents
named Laurasia and Gondwana islands. Pieces of Laurasia drifted to the North while pieces
of Gondwana drifted to the South. And eventually drifted in today seven continents.

Evidences

1. The shape of continents. Apparent fit of the continents. The coastlines of the continents
appear to fit together like the pieces of a puzzle.
2. Fossil correlation on matching up of similar fossil found in distant location.
3. Matching up of similar rocks from distant location. Identical rocks and mountain structures
have been found on either side of the ocean.
4. Evidence of glaciers. Glacial striations of deep scratches in the rock that shows the
direction where the ice moves.

Sea Floor Spreading

- It is a logic process in which lithosphere split apart from each other.

Harry Hammond Hess – a professor of geology at Princeton university (USA) . Together with his
team they carefully examine maps of the mid-ocean ridge system. He is one of the scientists who
use sonar to study the ocean floor during World War II.

Sonar is helpful for exploring and mapping the ocean with the use of sound waves.

How it works?
- Hot molten melted rock is less dense than the Earth’s crust so it rises upward to the surface
at the mid-ocean ridges. Then, it pushes the crust up and sideways carrying the seafloor
away from the ridge, as the seafloor spreads apart, the process repeats. Magma moves up
to the surface and flows from the cracks, cools and forms new seafloor.

Evidences
 Youngest rocks are located closest to mid-ocean ridges.
 Reversals of Earth’s magnetic field are recorded by rocks in strips parallel to ridges. So,
when magma comes up and cools and hardens that makes new rocks so that rock is
younger.

Did you know?

Seafloor spreading and subduction keeps the shape of the Earth. Why? Because seafloor
spreading creates new crusts while subduction destroys old crust. So the two forces roughly
balance each other, so the shape of and diameter of the earth remain constant.
How is seafloor spreading disproves and supports Continental Drift Theory?
Supporters of continental drift originally theorized that the continents moved through
unmoving oceans. Seafloor spreading proves that the ocean itself is a site of tectonic
activity.
Plate Tectonics of the World

Plate Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the lithosphere is divided into eight major plates
(North American, South American, Pacific, Nazca, Eurasian, African, Antarctica and Indian-
Australian) and several smaller plates (Arabian, Scotia, Juan de Fuca) that fits together like the
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
These plates are mobile, moving in constant motion, slow motion measured in rates of
centimeters per year. The movements of plates over a million of years resulted in the opening and
closure of oceans and the formation and disassembly of continents.

Two types of plates

 Continental – Thicker and less dense. It is composed of granite rocks.
 Oceanic – Thinner but denser compared to continental plate. It is composed of basalt rocks.
 Due to convection of the asthenosphere and lithosphere, the plates move relative to each
other.
 Convection – a process by which heat is transferred by movement of heated fluid such as
air and water.
Himalaya Mountain Range East African Rift San Andreas Fault
East African Rift
Himalaya Mountain Range

 The interaction of tectonic plates is responsible for many different geological

formations (refer to photos above).
 Active margins – Continental margins that are characterized by volcanism and
earthquakes.
 Passive margins – Continental margins that are free from volcanism and
earthquakes
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Ocean floor being pulled or pushed into the mantle where it was heated to from
magma which is generated into volcanoes. The destruction of the oceanic lithosphere cause
earthquake down to depths of 700 to 800 km.
 Subduction zone – It is where the Earth’s tectonic plates dive back into the mantle.
Plate tectonics theory proposed that:
 The plate boundaries are mainly represented by oceanic ridges and trenches.
 Interactions at plate boundaries cause volcanic activity and earthquake.
 The plates are in motion, moving away from ridges and towards trenches.
 Plates descend into the mantle below trenches in subduction zones.
 Plates contain both oceanic and continental lithosphere.
 Oceanic lithosphere is continually created and destroyed.
 Continental lithosphere cannot be destroyed but continents can be subdivided and
assembled into supercontinents.

How do plates move?

 Slab pull – newly formed oceanic plates became denser
 Ridge push – As the lithosphere formed at divergent plate margins is hot, and less
dense than the surrounding area it rises to form oceanic ridges.
 Types of plate boundaries
 Divergent Plate Boundary – Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from
each other. These types of boundary create ridges. (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge, separated the
North American and Eurasian Plate)

 Convergent Plate Boundary- The crust is destroyed as one plate drives under another. It
can create volcanoes, mountain ridges and trenches.

Three types of Convergent Plate Boundary

o Oceanic VS. Oceanic Plate Convergence
o Oceanic VS. Continental Plate Convergence
o Continental Vs. Continental Convergence

Oceanic vs Oceanic Plate Boundary Oceanic vs Continental Plate Boundary

 Continental vs Continental Plate Boundary

Examples of Convergent Plate Boundaries:

Andes Mountain Ranges Himalayas Mountain Ranges Tibet Plateau

 Transform-fault Boundary - The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one
another (e.g. San Andreas Fault zone in California).

 Hotspot volcanism/Plate Boundary Zones – this produces island arcs.

o Hotspot – section in the Earth’s crust where magma is able to push its way through.
(e.g. Hawaiian Islands)
Example of a hotspot volcanism