CHAPTER 2 EXPRESSION AND PRODUCTION OF PIANO TIMBRE ACCORDING TO ‘TREATISES This chapter is mostly derived from the article published (in French) in the journal Recherche en éducation musicale (Bernays, 2012). 2.1 Introduction Virtuoso piano playing, in all its nuances and subtleties that serve the expressiven of the performance, is bestowed upon the audience as a manifestation of sheer brilliance. Behind the ease and genuineness often transpiring from the greatest pianists of the last two centuries — Chopin, Liszt, Rachmaninov, Busoni, Field, Cortot, Horowitz, Schn- abel, Anton and Arthur Rubinstein, Gould, Brendel, Argerich, and so many more — lie hours and hours of intensive work, both technical and artistic, for them to bring out musically their personal sensibility towards the work performed. Master piano teachers (often renowned pianists themselves) have often documented their ideas on piano playing techniques and pedagogy in treatises. ‘Their precepts and theories could thus be spread farther and conserved in time thanks to the written medium. The diversity in empirical experiences between different teachers has yielded as many different ideas and methods. Some remained grounded in conservatism and inspired by old traditions of piano performance, Others followed the Zeitgeist and the most fashion- able ideas of their time. A few proposed revolutionary methods, sometimes predicting or influencing the future of performance. Amongst the various subjects treatises deal with, from the most mechanical to the farthest abstraction, the question of timbre some- times arises. In respect of this essential musical component, what advice could help & pianist both find his/her “sound” and modulate it for colouring different expressive per-31 formances in the most appropriate timbre? This challenge involves even more complex pedagogical constructs, as the sheer communication and verbal expression of something that subtle and abstract is problematic. As we saw in Chapter 1 (Section 1.1, p. 10), even defining timbre is an arduous task, as every point of view yields a different definition and different terms denote essentially the same concept. We shall therefore investigate how the pedagogues envision timbre, and from which level of sound production they believe piano timbre takes its source. We shall also trace the evolution of these ideas in history through the perspectives of pianists, composers and teachers, as they are represented in treatises. I will conduct towards this aim a critical analysis of the most renowned treatises published since the dawn of the twentieth century — a time by which pianos had become sufficiently modern, technically and mechanically, to stand comparison with present-day instruments (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2, p. 20). The point of views of prominent pianists will also be considered, as presented in interview collections as well as in relevant musicological studies and analyses. The focus will be particularly set on the written works which deal with the process of shaping timbre and tone-quality through the subtleties of pianistic gesture and their holistic integration within the performance. ‘We shall see that, depending on treatises, dominant thinking has evolved or shifted about the approach to the instrument itself, the focus of gesture (from hands to arm and body) and even the abstract perspective (mental conception, musical ear and feeling, aesthetic criteria and integration into the work). Still, even the personal understand- ings of timbre that pianists may have come to, through both their empirical experience and the influence of their specific pianistic upbringing, will intersect in some aspects, and common conceptions of timbre will show through, On the basis of these shared, empirically-formed perspectives, hypotheses will be proposed about the possible com- monalities in the expression of piano timbre, according to different aspects — auditory perception, verbal description, production and expressive control. These hypotheses will be tested in a scientific, quantitative fashion in the later parts of this dissertation.32 2.2 Gesture The instillation of timbre, or tone-quality, in piano performance is of paramount importance for pianists and teachers, be it in practice or in the learning process. Such a marked concer from pianists and teachers about timbre stands despite the controversy about the degree of control one has over timbre production and the sound of a piano performance (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2, p. 20). This is consequently highlighted in treatises by the detailed descriptions and advice about the various approaches to gesture best suited to obtaining the desired sound and timbre. 2.2.1 Hands and touch The definition of a “good” performance and of the corresponding technical methods has changed in time, and can still differ between pianists and treatises. Likewise, meth- ods for controlling timbre can differ. Gesture is crucial to timbre control, the way for 4 pianist to create his/her “sound”. For instance, the pianist Maria Curcio, a disciple of Artur Schnabel, was said! to be able to recognise the generating gesture from the sound, She could detect technical errors in her students’ gesture without watching their hands. Hands can be “pattes de velours ({...] velvet paws)”, as Liszt said “when [he] heard for the first time Henselt, who had an extraordinary ‘velvet’ tone” (Neuhaus, 1973, p. 56). Neuhaus (1973, p. 72) also explained how different touches can yield different tone qualities: To get a [sic] tender, warm, penetrating tone, you have to press the keys very intensively, deeply, keeping the fingers as close to the keys as possible [... But to get an open, broad, flowing tone [...] you have to use the whole swing of the finger and hand. Meanwhile, Tobias Matthay developed revolutionary ideas at the dawn of the twen- tieth century. He especially insists on touch, and on novel use of the hand and fingers. 1. As cited in Xardel (2002, p. 63).33 In particular, he underlines the necessity of musical sound control, which he attributes to “accurately applyling] the right degree of force required for each key-descent”, while “sensing the varying resistance the key itself offers during descent” (Matthay, 1913, p. 12). Those notions are respectively surnmarised as concepts of “Work-sense” (or “Muscular-sense”) and “Key-sense” (or “Key-resistance-sense”). Consequently, he ad- vocates that one should avoid striking the finger on the key, instead applying a soft contact enhancing the tactile sensation. This advice is to be supported by pedagogy: the conscientious teacher shall diagnose all errors in tone and explain how to avoid them by respecting the rules of touch (Matthay, 1913, p. 117). He later insists further on the wrongfulness of striking the key, and command the enhanced control of timbre varia- tions induced by an appropriate touch. He thus takes as example the audible difference between a solid, rigid chord produced in a sharp arm movement, a sound that “kills mu- sic”, and a chord played with relaxed elbow and forearm, clearing out the “nasty noise”. He also separates timbre and tone-quality from dynamics. Contrary to natural tendencies present even in the performances of virtuosi, he advocates playing forte relaxed and with a soft touch for improving dynamic control and gradation. A struck touch ought to be reserved for a voluntarily “ugly” sound (Matthay, 1932, pp. 135-139).? Around the same time in France, the great pianist Marie Jaéll was developing her ‘own method. Inspired by the budding science of physiology, her method stands on the harmony of touch (Jaéll, 1897, 1899). It emphasizes a relation between the part of the finger in contact with the key and the sound colour obtained, and even defends the influ- ence on sound color of the orientation of papillary lines in fingerprints. In regard to the part of the fingers that should come in contact with the keys, the great Russian pianist and teacher Josef Lhevinne (1924, p. 18) advises one to “see that the key is touched with 4s resilient a portion of the finger as possible, if lovely, ringing, singing tone is desired instead of the hard, metallic one”, That is, one should use the cushions of flesh above the fingertips, “more elastic, less resisting, more springy” and offering a larger surface 2. Citing his own article published in The Musie Teacher, March 193134 than the bony ends. Still, for “a passage requiring a very brilliant, brittle tone [one shall] employ a small striking surface, using only the tips of the fingers” (Lhevinne, 1924, p. 19). Philipp (1969, p. 43) emphatically assesses that “the varying shades of touch or strike intensity are tone production”. Technically, with tone and touch thus coupled, she advocates that “good tone and touch can be created with curved fingers, with weight or without weight. It can also be produced by playing on the cushions of the fingers held comparatively straight, @ Ja Chopin”. ‘The second part of that sentence is in agreement with the guidance on touch advocated by Matthay, Jaéll and Lhevinne, while its begin- ning (curved fingers) is rather at odds with them, and more akin to older principles of piano playing. The finger strategies for obtaining the best touch may thus vary between methods. ‘Touch had taken on a central role in timbre production by the 1900s. However, fo~ cusing on touch requires keeping the fingers in contact with the keys as much as possible (for tactile feedback), and generally staying close to the keyboard at all times. The am- plitude of movements is thus restrained, which results in limitations in dynamic register. Moreover, according to a more modern perspective (Séndor, 1995, p. 60), “the tone {quality tends to become rather bland and dull”. Consequently, in order to access a larger ‘dynamic range and control a richer palette of timbral nuances, the role of the arms and body in expressive piano performance must also be considered, 2.2.2 Arms and body In the twentieth century a school of thought developed that favours the involvement of the arms and body and their articulations in piano playing. Indeed, in the late nine- teenth century, Ludwig Deppe proposed that “tone must be produced, not by finger stroke — that is, not by requiring unnatural strength ftom the relatively weak muscles of the hand and fingers — but by coordinated action of all parts of the arms” (Kochevitsky, 1967, p. 8). The French pedagogue Monique Deschaussées (1982, p. 43) explains that “the combination of those articulations [wrist, elbow, shoulder] in motion creates varied35 attacks and an infinity of sonorities”.? Likewise, the degree of flexibility in the artic~ ulations directly influences tone, as for instance “it is next to impossible to produce a good singing tone with a stiff wrist”, although the stiff wrist is considered “absolutely necessary” to a brilliant tone (Lhevinne, 1924, p. 19) ‘The control of body weight and the position of its centre of gravity is also essential for tone production, The Californian piano teacher Christie Skouser (2012, pp. 96-97) for instance advises, when playing Chopin, that: To produce a rich and deep tone that utilizes the weight of the arm, [you should} sit with your full body weight centred on the bench so you sense a solid centre of gravity. This will help you to feel the power come up through your back, to your shoulders and down through your arm. The arm must be relaxed, with the weight coming from this solid, strong core, not just from the arm itself. We can actually notice how the way to use the body depends on the school and time. In the late eighteenth century, the prevailing method of Muzio Clementi asked for the ‘utmost rigidity and immobility from the hands up, with only the fingers left to play, About a century later, the German pianist Heinrich Ehrlich still advised one to keep the arms still and stuck to the body, Even in the twentieth century, Arthur Rubinstein con- sidered that the body ought to remain still, with the straightest posture, and the whole ‘weight projected into the hands for better sound control, Yet S4ndor warns against still- ness, rigidity and tense playing: “some may think that itis easier to achieve control with tensed-up muscles and with fixed hands, but under these circumstances not only the flow of music suffers, but the tone quality as well” (Séndor, 1995, p, 70). Muscular relaxation thus became paramount in piano teachings of the twentieth century. For Neuhaus (1973, p. 69), “the condition sine qua non for a good tone is complete freedom and relaxation of the arm and wrist from the shoulders to the tips of the fingers”. 3. “La combinaison de ces articulations [poignet, coude, épaule] en mouvement evée des attagues variées et une infnité de sonorités.”36 Through his physiological approach to piano playing, Schultz (1936) asserted the conjoined and indivisible muscular involvement of fingers and arms in piano playing, Inspired by Ortmann’s (1929) scientific research on the physiological mechanics of pi- ano technique (which he integrated in his pedagogical theory), he highlighted the impor- tance of finger coordination in obtaining good tone control, and insisted on the complex combinations of muscles — to coordinate through the arm down to the weaker finger muscles — required to apply physiologically appropriate types of movements. Yet as his theory required stabilising and fixating joints for better control, some degree of mus- cular tension was inevitable. This ran contrary to the predominant recommendation of complete arm relaxation — while not reaching however the extreme stiffness advised by the old finger-school. Still, whichever the approach, the arms can be technically engaged in the control of tone-quality with articulation, For the American pianist and professor Seymour Fink (1992, p. 142), “the arms facilitate the control, accuracy, sonority, and speed of the fingers managing connected lines” 2.3 Piano techniques Thus, the gestural control of piano timbre does not solely rely on the body disposi- tion, as it can be conceived of at the level of piano technique. Indeed, technical elements in playing a chord and in timing and rhythmic considerations such as rubato are largely involved as well, 2.3.1 Chords ‘A chord ean be understood as a sound molecule, made up of atom notes of musical content (Neuhaus, 1973, p. 58). This metaphor underlines the emerging properties of sound and timbre that can arise at the molecule-chord level, thus creating a new musical identity that goes beyond its constitutive notes. For instance, a C-major triad (C-E-G)37 cannot be reduced to the simple sum of three independent notes C, E and G, nor does it coincide with the [C-E-G] component in the [C-E-G-Bb] C7 chord. Matthay likewise insists on the importance of the balance in sound colour between notes in a chord, as the right combination of the colours in each note will provide the intended, emerging overall tone-quality. Risset (2004, p. 146) further details this point of view, taking example on the notorious pianist Alfred Cortot: ‘We often talk about the sound of a pianist. Alfred Cortot was renowned for his exceptional tone: when he started playing after teaching his students, he would transfigure the timbre of the piano and would give the impression he was playing on a different instrument. However, for each note, a pianist can only control intensity and the duration of key depression. Yet he can gauge the respective intensities in the notes of a chord, and also shift them imperceptibly in time. * Yet finding the right balance in tone between notes in a chord is not that easy. Philipp (1969, p. 46) remarks that “if the dynamics of the fingers are not under strict control, the longer fingers may produce more tone than the shorter ones. This produces uncalled-for overtones”. But once gotten right, playing one of the components in a chord louder will result in different timbral nuances: “if we play the top note louder, the chord sounds brilliant; if we bring out the bass, it will sound warmer; but if one of the middle tones comes out more strongly, the sound will be harsh” (Philipp, 1969, p. 46). This remains a broad picture, as many more subtleties are involved in producing such timbral nuances, but it gives nonetheless a fair indication of the role in timbre production of balancing tones in a chord. Meanwhile, balancing tones is also crucial for voicing (in counterpoint especially), in order for each melodic line to be distinguished in a proper tone quality. 4. “On parle souvent de Ta sonorité d'un pianiste, Alfred Cortot était répuié pour sa sonorité excep tionnelle : lorsqu’il se mettait au piano aprés ses éldves lors de ses cours d'interprétation, il rransfigurait Te timbre du piano et donnait U'impression qu'il jouait sur un autre instrument, Or, pour chaque note, Te pianiste ne peut consrdler que V'intensité et la durée d'enfoncement. Mais il peut doser les intensités respectives des notes d'un accord, et aussi les décaler insensiblement dans le temps.”38 2.3.2 Setting the notes in time Moreover, the temporal delays between each note in a chord may also be involved in timbre production, Many treatises actually mention a relation between tone-quality and rhythm. For example, the notion of “Time-spot” (Matthay, 1932, p. 29) defines the instant at which a note ought to best respect the intended musicality. This holds a prime role in controlling the sound, as does the haptic information from the tactile sensation transmitted from the resistance of the key. Matthay also insists on continuity in performance, both rhythmical and timbral, and especially relevant to rubato playing. Neuhaus later follows on this point of view, insisting on the relation between tone and rhythm in rubato tis impossible to determine the degree of rhythmic freedom of a phrase if the correct nuances have not been found. Tone and rhythm go hand in hand, help each other and only jointly can they solve the problem of ensuring an expressive performance, (Neuhaus, 1973, p. 53). In short: “everything [tone, rhythm, expression] is part of one whole” (Neuhaus, 1973, p.53). 2.3.3. Dynamics Interdependency between timbre and dynamics is also featured. Philipp (1969, p. 43) refers to “Hermann [von] Helmholtz, the great physiologist and physicist, [who] claimed that tone color changes with the varying speed of the hammer”. Likewise, for Séndor (1995, p. 15), pianists “are able to modify the dynamic level and tone quality by altering the speed with which the hammer strikes the key”. Matthay thus advocates presenting, by way of dynamics, a wide range of tone-qualities in a musical passage. One shall thus reach pianissimo with a very soft sound, so that the timbre in forte may stand out. Hence, he warns against teachers who may demand the loudest sounds instead of looking for “Tone-contrasts” (Matthay, 1913, p. 117).39 2.3.4 Pedals Finally, pedals are of the utmost importance for timbre, as “the pedal gives color” to the performance, according to the late American pianist John Browning (cited in Noyle, 1987, p. 30). With the soft (or una-corda) pedal, “a contrasting, slightly muffled tone color is ereated” (Fink, 1992, p. 69). According to Josef Hofmann (1920, p. I-43), former pupil of Anton Rubinstein, the soft pedal should actually “serve to change the quality of tone, not the quantity”, and “be employed only when the softness of tone is, coupled with a change of colouring”. On the other hand, the damper pedal is “one of the greatest means for colouring” (Hofmann, 1920, p. 11-39). Seymour Fink (1992, p. 66) further describes its effect on tone: ‘The tonal characteristics of the piano are greatly enhanced by its ability to enrich and sustain the tones produced [with the damper pedal] [,..] [whose] inflections and transformations are unique to the instrument, allowing it to sing in ways no other instrument can. Technically, anticipatory pedalling is advised for tonal richness, as “depressing the pedal before starting to play will produce a richer sound than will striking the note or chord first and depressing the pedal a split second later, since with the dampers already raised, the sympathetic partials will vibrate fully” (Banowetz, 1985, p. 70) 2.3.5. Articulation Fink (1992, p, 126) presents articulation as another key to timbral colouring: Few skills contribute to the quality of piano sound more than a pianists ability to vary and manage the degree of connection between tones. [...] The ability to perform a consciously controlled, overlapping finger legato enables pianists to enrich their sound in ways that are more subtle than the use of the pedal alone40 ‘The articulation between tones essentially depends on key release as, still accord- ing to Fink (1992, p. 173), “the ability to control the timing and speed of finger releases vastly increases your potential for tonal control. (...] For example, {pianists] often over- lap fingers (finger pedaling) as a subtle means of enriching the sonority”. Controlling note releases and finger overlap techniques thus provides a finer, complementary way to pedalling in inflecting timbral nuances, 2.4 Mental conception Yet beyond these technical and physical perspectives, George Kochevitsky proposed at the end of the 1960s a theory of piano playing inspired by physiology. His theory gives the central nervous system a primary role (Kochevitsky, 1967, pp. 21-27). Regarding timbre, “the kind of movement (its form) and amount of energy exerted for producing this or that tone ate of secondary consideration” (Kochevitsky, 1967, p. 38). Walter Gieseking goes even farther: “itis useless to look for the reason of the beautiful tone in some particular finger position or hand position” (Kochevitsky, 1967, p. 38). ‘That is why, for most pianists and pedagogues (especially in the twentieth century), the key to inflecting a performance with the right timbre resides in one’s mind. Kochevit- sky thus declares “the quality of a pianist’s tone depends mainly on his mental concep- tion, his inward imagination of the tone which has to be produced” (Kochevitsky, 1967, p.38), According to him, such capacity for the mental conception of timbre does not rely on gesture analysis, He relates the case of John Field, a pianist lauded for his singing tone, the particularity of which was explained at the time by his fingers positioning, almost perpendicular to the keyboard — an idea that Kochevitsky adamantly rejects. Kochevitsky also criticises the extreme idea according to which a pianist’s sound stems from the physiognomy of his/her hands. He thus completely rebukes Lechetizky’s “ridiculous” [sic] explanation of Anton Rubinstein’s sound by his broad and thick fin- gers. It drives him to conclude: “it is hopeless to look for beauty of tone in some kind of