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    Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Kramer 1996

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    GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING STEVEN L. KRAMER Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL SERIES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING MECHANICS, William J. Hall, Editor ‘Au and Christiano, Fundamentals of Sructural Analysis ‘Au and Christiano, Structural Analysis Barson and Rolte, Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures, 2/e Bathe, Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis Berg, Elements of Siructural Dynamics Biggs, roduction o Structural Engineering Chajes, Structural Analysis, 2/ Chopra, Dynamics of Sructures: Theory and Applications to Earthquake Engineering Collins and Mitchel, Prestressed Concrete Structures Cooper and Chen, Designing Steel Structures Corting et a, The Art and Science of Geotechnical Engineering Gallagher, Finite Element Analysis Hendrickson and Au, Project Management for Construction Higdon etal, Engineering Mechanics, 2nd Vector Edition Hultz and Kovacs, Inoduction in Geotechnical Engineering Humar, Dynamics of Sructures Joliston, Lin, and Galambos, Basie Steel Design, 3/e Kelkar and Sewell, Fundamentals of the Analysis and Design of Shell Structures Kramer, Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering MacGregor, Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design, 2 Mehta and Monteiro, Concrete: Stcture, Properties and Materials, 2/e Melosh, Structural Engineering Analysis by Finite Elements Meredith et al. Design and Planning of Engineering Systems, /e Mindess and Young, Concrete Nawy, Prestressed Concrete Nawy, Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach, 2e Prefer, Solid Waste Management Popov, Engineering Mechanics of Solids Popov, Iniroduction to the Mechanics of Solids Popov, Mechanics of Materials, 2/e Schneider and Dickey, Reinforced Masonry Design, 2/e ‘Wang and Salmon, introductory Structural Analysis Weaver and Johnson, Siructural Dynamics by Finite Elements Wolf, Dynami Soil-Siructure Interaction Wray, Measuring Engineering Properties of Soils Yang, Finite Element Structural Analysis Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Steven L. Kramer University of Washington Prentice-Hall International Series in Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 teary Congres Catan Pubeton ate ee opm heey de Acqison stor BULL STENQUIST Proguctonedioe IRWIN ZUCKER (Cover aiecoe JAYNE CONTE: Boyes JULIA MEEHAN ator assistant: MEG WEST £1956 Pence Hal In Sion & Schuster A Vico Company Sale River, NIGTASS All igs served No part ofthis book iy be reproduced in ny fr or by ary means ‘witout permission a wr the puishe ‘The author and publisher ofthis ok have wed thei bst efor in prepaing this book. These efor ince the developmen rer al stg ofthe thewies and pogo deerme tet efeeveness The sue nd blr make no wary of any kind expresed or pie, with regan these pogras oe he dcumetaton ‘tained this bok. The thr apis shal at be able in any even fore elo conse rages ‘mconneton wih or arnng oa of the ashing perfomance, ewe of hee Progr Printed in he Unite Stes of America ost esas ISBN 0-23-374943-6 ‘Preice Hal keratin (LK) Lite, Loon rence Hal of Austais ty. Lied. Shey rome Hal Cana Ine, Tera rence Hall Hipuaeamesicinn, SA. Meco Preice Hal of fa Private Limited, Now Delhi rece Halo Japan, le. Tokyo Sioa & Schuster Asa Pe Lu Singapore ators Prentice Hal do Bras, La Ro de Janeiro To my parents Contents Preface wv Introduction to Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering 1 L1 Introduction 1 12 Background 1 13° Seismic Hazards 2 13.1 Ground Shaking, 2 12.2 Siruetural Hazards, 3 133° Liquefaction, § 134° Landslides,9 13.5 Retaining Structure Failures, 11 136 Lifeline Hazards, 11 13.7 Townamt and Seiohe Hazards, 13 4 Mitigation of Seismic Hazards 14 LS Significant Historical Earthquakes 4 Contents Seismology and Earthquakes 18 21 Introduction 18 22 Internal Structure of the Earth 18 22.1. Seismic Waves, 19 22.2 IntemalStrctur, 20 23 Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics 23 23,1 Plate Tectonics, 24 23.2 Plate Boundaries, 29 24 Faults 33 24.1 Fault Geometry. 33 24.2 Fault Movement, 34 25 Elastic Rebound Theory 36 25.1 Relationship 10 Earthquake Recurrence, 39. 252 Relationship 1o Tectonic Environment, 41 25.3 Seismic Moment, 42 26 Other Sources of Seismic Activity 42 27 Goometrie Notation 43 28 Location of Earthquakes 44 29 Size of Earthquakes 45 2.9.1 Earthquake Intensity, 45 2.92 Earthquake Magnitude, 46 29.3 Earthquake Energy. 50 210 Summary 51 ‘Strong Ground Motion 54 3.1 Introduction $4 32 Strong-Motion Measurement 56 321 Seismographs, 56 322 Data Acquisition and Digitization, 39 323° Surong-Motin Processing, 61 324 Strong-Motion Instrument Arrays, 62 325. Swrong-Motion Records. 66 33. Ground Motion Parameters 65 33. Ampliude Parameters, 66 332 Frequency Content Parameters, 70 33.3 Duration, 79 334 Other Measures of Ground Motion, 82 33S Discusion, 84 Contents ix 344 Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters 84 34.1 Magnitude and Distance Egects, 85 342 Development of Predictive Relationships, 86 343° Esimation of Amplitude Parameters, 88 S44 Estimation of Frequency Content Parameters, 91 34.5 Esimationof Duration, 95 346. Estimation of Other Parameters, 95 35 Spatial Variability of Ground Motions 100 36 Summary 102 4 Seismic Hazard Analysis 106 4.1 Introduction 106 42 Identification and Evaluation of Earthquake Sources 107 42.1 Geologie Bvidence, 107 42.2 Tectonic Evidence, 13 423° Historical Seismicity, 113 424 Instrumental Seismicity, 14 43 Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis 114 44° Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis 117 44.1 Earihquate Source Characterisation, 118 44.2 Predictive Relationships, 126 443 Temporal Uncertainty, 127 444 Probability Computations, 129 45 Summary 138 5 Wave Propagation 143 5.1 Introduction 143 52 Waves in Unbounded Media 14 52.1 One-Dimensional Wave Propagation, 144 52.2 Three-Dimensional Wave Propagation, 149 5.3. Waves in a Semi-infinite Body 156 S31 Raleigh Waves, 156 532 Love Waves, 162 52.3 Higher-Mode Surface Waves, 164 SSA Dispersion of Surface Waves, 166 SIS Phase and Group Velocities, 165 SA Waves in a Layered Body 165 341 One-Dimensional Case: Material Rowndary in an Infinite Rad, 165 542 Three-Dimensional Case: Inclined Waves, 170 55 Attenuation of Suess Waves 174 551 Material Damping, 175 5532 Radiation Damping, 179 36 Summary 180 x Contents 6 Dynamic Soil Properties 184 6.1 Introduction 184 62 Representation of Stress Conditions by the Mohr Circle 185, 6.2.1 Principal Siresses, 187 622 Siress Paths, 188 63 Measurement of Dynamic Soil Properties 191 6.3.1 Field Tests 197 632 Laboratory Tests 215, 6.3.3 Inerpretaion of Observed Ground Response, 228 64 Suess-Struin Behavior of Cyelically Loaded Soils 228 64.1 Some Basic Aspects of Particulate Matter Behavior, 228 64.2 Equivalent Linear Model, 230 643 Cree Nonlinear Models, 240 644 Diseusion, 244 65 Strength of Cyeclically Loaded Soils 244 65.1 Definitions of Ftlur, 244 63.2 Crtie Stengih, 245 63.3 Monotonic Strength, 246 66 Summary 248 7 Ground Response Analysis 254 7.1 Introduction 254 712 One-Dimensional Ground Response Analysis 255 7.21 Linear Approach, 256 7.22 Nonlinear Approach, 275 7.23 Comparison of One-Dimensional Ground Response Analyses, 279 73 Two-Dimensional Ground Response Analysis 280 7.3.1 Dynamic Finte-Element Analsis,281 7.32 Equivalent Linear Approach, 284 7.33 Nonlinear Approach, 286 7.34 Other Approaches 10 Two-Dimensional Ground Response Problems, 286 7.35 Comparison of Two-Dimensional Ground Response Analyes, 201 74 Three-Dimensional Ground Response Analysis 291 74d Equivalent Linear Finite-Element Approach, 292 742 Nonlinear Finite-Element Approach, 292 743 Shear Beam Approach, 293 744 Comparison of Three-Dimensional Ground Response Analyse, 24 75 Soil-Stucture Imeraetion 294 75.1 Illustration of Soil-Structure Imeraction Feet, 295 752. Methods of Analysis, 300 7.6 Summary 303 Contents 8 Local Site Effects and Design Ground Motions 8.1 Introduetion 308 8.2 Bifeets of Local Site Conditions on Ground Motion 309 82.1 Evidence from Theoretical Ground Response Analyses, 309 822 Evidence from Measured Amplification Functions, 310 823 Evidence from Measured Surface Motions, 372 824 Compilations of Data on Local Se Effects, 317 52.5. Effects of Surface Topography and Basin Geometry, 319 83 Design Parameters 323, 831 Design Earthquakes, 324 83.2 Design Spectra, 325 84 Development of Design Parameters 327 84.1 Site Specific Development, 327 842 Code-Based Development 328 85 Development of Ground Motion Time Histories 340 85.1 Modification of Actual Ground Motion Records, 340 852 Time-Domain Generation. 341 85.3 Frequency Domain Generation, 43 854 Green's Function Techniques, 343 855 Limitations of Arial Ground Motions, 345 86 Summary 345 9 Liquefaction 9.1 Introduction 348 9.2 Liquefaction-Related Phenomena 349 92.1 Flow Liquefaction, 349 922 Cyclic Mobily, 349 9.3 Evaluation of Liquefaction Hazards 350 94 Liquefaction Susceptibility 351 D4.) Historical Criteria, 352 942 Geologie Criteria, 353 943 Compositional Criteria, 354 944 State Criteria, 355 95 Initiation of Liquefaction 361 95.1 Flow Liquefaction Surface, 361 952 Influence of Excess Pre Pressure, 355 95.3 Evaluation of ition of Liquefaction, 268 9.6 Effects of Liquefaction 397 96.1 Alteration of Ground Motion, 398 962 Development of Sand Boils, 409 963° Selemont 402 964 Instatiley, 408 97 Summary 417 Contents 10 Seismic Slope Stability 423 10.1 Introduction 423 10.2 ‘Types of Barthquake-Induced Landslides 424 10.3 Farhquake-Induced Landslide Activity 426 10.4 Evaluation of Stope Stability 429 10.5 Satie Slope Stability Analysis 430 10.3.1 Limit Equiiriam Analysis, 430 1052 Sivess-Deformation Analyses, $33 10.6 Seismic Slope Stability Analysis 433, 10.1 Anatsis of Inertial Instability. 433 105.2 Analysis of Weakening fntbiliy, 450 107 Summary 462 11. Seismic Design of Ret 466 us 116 118. 119 Introduction 466 Types of Retaining Walls 466 ‘Types of Retaining Wall Failures 467 Static Pressures on Retaining Walls 469 Hh Rankine Theory, 469 1142 Coulomb Theory, 72 143° Logariehmie Spiral Method, 474 LA. Stress Deformation Analisis, 76 Dynamic Response of Retaining Walls 477 Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls 477 1146.1 Yielding Walls, 478 1.6.2 Nomielding Walls, 484 116.3 Effects af Water om Wall Pressures, $86 1164 Fioite-Element Analysis, 489 Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls 489 H121- iehards-Bins Method, 389 11.22 Whiimas-Liao Method, 92 11.7.3. Finie-Blemene Analysis, 493 Seismic Design Considerations 494 HBS Gravity Walls, 498 1182 Canmitever Walls, 195 118.3 Braced Walls, 95 TSA Reinforced Sot Walls, 300 Summary 503 Contents 12 Soil Improvement for Remediation of Seismic Hazards 506. 12.1 Inroduetion 506 122 Densification Techniques 507 122.1 Vibro Techniques, 508 12.22 Dynamic Compaction, $10 3 Blasting, 512 4 Compaction Growing, 313 1225. Aveal Extent of Densification $14 123 Reinforcement Techniques $15 12.3.1. Stone Columns, 515 1232 Compaction Piles, 516 1233 Drilled Inclusions, 516 124 Grouting and Mixing Techniques 517 P41 Growing, S18 1242 Mixing, 519 125 Druinage Techniques 521 12.6 Verification of Soil Improvement 5: 126.1 Laboratory Testing Techniques, 5 1262 InSitu Testing Techniques, 523 1263 Geophysical Testing Techniques, 523 127 Other Considerations 524 128 S24 A Vibratory Motion 527 Al Introduction 527 A2 —Typesof Vibratory Motion 527 21 Simple Hannonic Motion, 328 422 Trigonometrc Nowation for Simple Harmonie Motion, 329 A23 Other Measures of Moron. 533 AB FourierSeries 536 ABI Trigonometric Form, 536 A32 Exponential Form, 539 AS3 Diserete Fourier Transform. 541 ABA Fast Power Transform, S41 ABS Power Spectrum, S42 B Dynamics of Discrete Systems 543 But Introduction 543 B2 Vibrating Systems S44 B3 —Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 544 Contents B4 Equation of Motion for SDOF System 545, B4.1 Equation of Moron: Exemal Loading, 545 BA2 Equation of Moron: Vibration of Support (Base Shaking), $47, BS Response of Linear SDOF Systems 547 BSI Undamped Free Vibrations, 548 BS2 Damped Free Vibrations, S51 BS3_ Response of DOF Systems to Harmonic Loading, $53 BSA Response of SDOF Systems to Periodic Loading, $61 BSS _ Response of SDOF Systems to General Loading, 564 B6 Damping 567 B61 Viscous Damping, 567 B62. Other Measures of Energy Dissipation, 569 B63 Complex Siffuess, 570 B7 Response Spectra $71 B8 Response of Nonlinear SDOF Systems to General Loading $72 BSI Incremental Equation of Motion, 572 BS2 Numerical Integration, 574 9 Multiple-Degree-of Freedom Systems $75, B.A Equations of Motion, 575 B92 Undanped Free Vibrations, 577 B93 Mode Superposition Method, 379 B94 Response Spectrum Analysis, $8] BIS Discussion, 582 Probability Concepts 583 C1 Introduction $83 C2 Sample Spaces and Events 583 C3 Axioms of Probability 584 C4 Probabilities of Events $85 C5 Random Variables 588 C6 Expected Values and Standard Deviations 589 7 Common Probability Distributions 590 C71 Uniform Distribution, 390 C72 Normal Disribuion, $91 C73 Lognormal Distribution, $94 References 596 Index 643 Preface ‘Compared to most disciplines of civil engineering, geotechnical earthquake engineering is Quite young. While the damaging effects of earthquakes have been known for centuries, the strong contribution of soils to the magnitude and pattern of earthquake damage was not widely appreciated until relatively recently, Following damaging earthquakes in 1964 in Niigata, Japan and Alaska, and spurred by the growth of the nuclear power industry in the 1960s and 1970s, the field of geotechnical earthquake engineering has grown rapidly Although much remains to be learned, the field has matured tothe point where generally ‘accepted theories and analytical procedures now exist for many important problems. ‘The purpose of this book isto introduce the reader tothe concept, theories, and pro- cedures of geotechnical earthquake engineering. Its intended for use as a text in graduate courses on geotechnical earthquake engineering and as a reference book for practicing engic neers, Recognizing that geotechnical earthquake engineering is a broad, multidisciplinary field, the book draws from seismology, geology, structural engineering, risk analysis, and ‘other technical disciplines, ‘The book is writen a a level suitable fr students with knowledge equivalent to that of a senior (fourth-year) civil engineering student, The student should have had basic courses in soil mechanics, structural engineering, and hydraulics; introductory courses in geology and probabilty/statstcs would also be helpful. Many graduate students will have wi Preface ‘had courses in structural dynamics or soil dynamics by the time they begin study of geo- technical earthquake engineering. For those readers without prior exposure, introductions to the nomenclature and mathematics of dynamic systems, structural dynamics, and prob- ability ate presented in tree apper ORGANIZATION ‘The subject matter falls into two main categories. The appendices and the frst six chapters present fundamental principles of seismology, ground motion, dynamics, and sol behavior. Applications ofthese principles tothe practical problems most commonly encountered in eotechnical earthquake engineering practice are presented in the last six chapters, Caper 1 introduces the reader to the types of damage that can occur during earth- ‘quakes and tothe problems they present to geotechnical earthquake engineers. Basic con- ‘cept of earthquake seismology and the terminology used to describe earthquakes and their effects are described in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 describes ground motion measurement, the ‘parameters used to characterize strong ground motion, and methods for prediction of those ‘parameters. Deterministic and probabilistic seismic hazard analyses are presented in Chap- ter 4. Chapter 5 introduces the reader to wave propagation, beginning with simple one- «dimensional body waves in homogeneous materials and extending to surface waves and ‘multidimensional, layered systems. The properties of soil that control their wave propaga tion behavior ae described in Chapter 6, Field and laboratory techniques for measurement ofthese properties are also described, ‘Chapter 7 presents methods for analysis of ground response during earthquakes, beg ning with one-dimensional ground response analysis and moving through two- and three- «dimensional dynamic response analyses. Both frequency’ and time-domain approaches are described. Chapter 7 concludes with an introduction tothe basic concepts and elfects of soil- Structure interaction. The effects of local soil conditions on ground motions and earthquake damage are described in Chapter 8. Chapter 8 also introduces the concept of design ground ‘motions, and how they are obtained from site-specific analyses and from building codes. ‘Chapter 9 deals with iquefsetion—it begins with a conceptual framework for understanding various liquefaction-related phenomena and then presenis practical procedures for evalua tion of iquetaction hazards. Seismic stability of slopes is covered in Chapter 10, and seismic design of retaining structures in Chapter 11. Chapters 10 and 11 address thei respective topics initially from pseudo-staic and then from permanent displacement standpoints (Chapter 12 introduces commonly used soil improvement techniques for mitigation of seis- ‘mic hazard, PEDAGOGY ‘This book isthe first to deal explicitly withthe topic of geotechnical earthquake engi ing. During its preparation, a great deal of time and effort was devoted to decisions regan ing content and organization. The final form naturally reflects my own preference, but the texthas been reviewed by many engineers ftom both academis and professional practice. Preparation of the text also involved a great deal of interpretation of information from a Preface vil ‘wide variety of sources. While the text efleets my own interpretation of tis information, it is heavily referenced to allow readers o explore background or more detailed information ‘on various geotechnical earthquake engineering topics. ‘A couple features are noteworthy. Two ground motions from the Loma Prieta earth- «quake, one from a rock outcrop and one from the surface of a nearby deep soil deposit ae used to illustrate a number of concepts throughout the book. Differences in the amplitudes, frequency contents, and durations ofthe motions are emphasized in Chapter 3. The reasons for these differences later become apparent jn Chapters 7 and 8, Te book also emphasizes the use of ansfer functions, particulary in te solution of ground response problems. The transfer function approach helps students form a more complete understanding of ground response—in the frequency domain as well asthe time domain. With the advent of com- puter programs such as MATLAB, MathCad, and Mathematica, the Fourier analyses ‘required in the transfer function approach are quite simple; students use MATLAB exten- sively in my soil dynamics and geotechnical earthquake engineering courses. ‘The book contains worked examples and homework problems. The example prob- Jems are intended to illustrate the basic concepts of the problems they address; to allow the results to be checked, @ number involve calculations carried out to more significant Figures than the accuracy of the procedures (and typical input data) would justify. Many of the ‘important problems of geotechnical earthquake engineering, however, do not lend them= selves tothe type of short, well-lefined homework problem that is readily placed ina book. My preference isto assign longer, project-oriented assignments based on actual case histo- ries, and {recommend thatthe homework problems inthis book be supplemented by such assignments unrrs As in many other fields, the use of units in geotechnical eathquake engineering is neither uni- {orm nor consistent. The current state of knowledge in geotechnical earthquake engineering dnas resulted from advances in a variety of technical fields and a variety of counties, many of ‘which customarily use different unis. Fortunately, most conform to relatively standard met- ric or British systems. Rather than attempt to force the use of ane system or the other, this book uses dual unit, In recognition oftheir origins, the most common units for each quantity is listed first withthe alternative following in parentheses. The approach is intended to allow all readers to proceed through the material without stopping to convert (mentally or other- wise) from one set of units to another. To encourage familiarity with both sets of units, some ‘example and homework problems ate specified in metric units and some in British units. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: ‘A number of people have helped directly and indirectly in the preparation of this book. The professional and academic portions of my career have benefited greatly from a number of people that I have worked closely with, particulary (in chronological order) Bill Houston, ‘Tom Tejima, H.B. Seed, Joe Mahoney, and Bob Holtz. Their assistance, advice, and encouragement has taken many forms, and Tam grateful . each, iit Preface As this book evolved from a collection of lecture notes and handouts, it was contin- ually improved by comments and suggestions from many students in my soil dynamics and geotechnical earthquake engineering courses. Their assistance is greatly appreciated, 1am also grateful to many colleagues who provided constructive ertical reviews of different parts ofthe book, including Dr. Donald G, Anderson, Pr. Juan Baez, Mr. David Baska, De. Gopal Biswas, Prof, Ross W. Bovlanger, Dr. C.B. Crouse, Prof, Emeritus William J. Hall, ‘Ms. Karen Henry, Prof. Carlton L. Ho, Prof, William D, Kovacs, Prof. Roberto 'T. Leon, Prof. Gregory R: MacRae, Dr. Lelio H. Mejia, Dr. Robert Pyke, Prof, Peter K, Robertson, Prof. Raj Siddharhan, Prof. Stewart Smith, Prof. Timothy D. Stark, and Prof. George M. Turkiyyah. Each made suggestions that improved the quality ofthe book. Prof, Geoflrey R. Martin and Prot.T, Leslie Youd reviewed substantial portions ofthe book; theirefforts are particularly appreciated, Finally. Lam most grateful to my wife, Diane, and to my daughters, Katie and Megan, Preparation of this book involved several years of long working hours; { could not have \done it without their cheerful understanding and encouragement, Introduction to Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Leese | 1.1 INTRODUCTION Earthquake engineering deals withthe effects of earthquakes on people and their enviton- ment and with methods of reducing those effects tis very young discipline, many ofits ‘most important developments having occurred inthe past 30 040 years, Earthquake engi> neering isa very broad field, drawing on aspects of geology, seismology. geotechnical engineering, strdtural engineering, isk analysis, and other technical fields ls practice also requires consideration of social, economic, and politcal factors. Most earthquake engineers have entered the field from structural engineering or geotechnical engineering back. ‘rounds, a fact that is reflected in the practice of earthquake engineering. This book covers feotechnical aspects of earthquake engineering. Although its primary audience is geotech~ nical engineering students and practitioners, it contains a great deal of information that should be of interest to the structral engineer and the engineering seismologist 1.2 BACKGROUND ‘The study of earthquakes dates back many centuries. Written records of earthquakes in China date s far back as 3000 years. Japanese records and records from the eastern Med. iterranean region go back nearly 1600 years. In the United States the historical record of 1 2 Introduction to Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Chap. 1

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