Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08409-9

A method overview in smart aquaculture

Zhuhua Hu & Ruoqing Li & Xin Xia & Chuang Yu &
Xiang Fan & Yaochi Zhao

Received: 13 August 2019 / Accepted: 4 June 2020

# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Abstract Aquaculture is an important part of agricul- the dynamic mechanism between the changes of water
tural economy. In the past, major farming accidents quality factors and the fish body characteristics and
often occurred due to subjective experience. There are behavior. Meanwhile, the work can also provide valu-
many factors affecting the water quality of aquaculture. able reference for promoting the smart, ecological, and
Maintaining an ecological environment with good water efficient development of aquaculture.
quality is the most critical link to ensure the production
efficiency and quality of aquaculture. With the continu- Keywords Precision agriculture . Artificial intelligence .
ous development of science and technology, intelli- Water quality prediction . Fish behavior . Fish body
gence and informatization in aquaculture has become a characteristics
new trend. Smart aquaculture cannot only realize real-
time monitoring, prediction, warning, and risk control of
the physical and chemical factors of the aquaculture
Introduction
environment but can also conduct real-time monitoring
of the characteristics and behaviors of the fish, which
As a country dominated by agriculture, aquaculture is an
infers the changes of the aquaculture ecological envi-
important part of the economy. Taking the development
ronment. In this paper, the research achievements over
of aquaculture in China as an example, smart, precise,
past two decades both are summarized from four as-
and ecological aquaculture is one of the important di-
pects: water quality factor acquisition and pre-process-
rections of inclined funding for Chinese aquatic science
ing, water quality factor prediction, morphological char-
(National Development and Reform Commission 2017;
acteristics, and behavioral characteristic recognition of
National Natural Science Foundation of China 2015). In
fish and the mechanism between fish behavior and water
2017, the Chinese government issued the “opinions on
quality factors. The advantages and disadvantages of
promoting green development of agriculture through
existing research routes, algorithm models, and research
innovative systems and mechanisms,” which was pro-
methods in smart aquaculture are summarized. The
posed to vigorously promote the healthy aquaculture
work in this paper can provide a well-organized and
system and prevent and control aquaculture pollution.
summative knowledge reference for further study on
The guidance reflects that the construction of green
ecological and precise aquaculture has aroused the at-
Z. Hu : R. Li : X. Xia : C. Yu : X. Fan : Y. Zhao (*) tention of the decision-making level of the Chinese
School of Information and Communication Engineering, School government.
of Computer Science and Cyberspace Security, State Key
Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea,
As early as in the twentieth century, there have been a
Hainan University, Haikou, China large number of studies on aquaculture informatization.
e-mail: zhyc@hainanu.edu.cn With the steady development of economy and the
 493 Page 2 of 25
continuous progress of science and technology, the
informatization and intelligence of aquaculture has be-
come an inevitable trend of the development of contem-
porary aquaculture industry. In the case of mariculture
in Hainan Province of China, outbreak of bacteria fre-
quently occurs before harvest, leading to drastic changes
in water quality. Such drastic changes not only disrupt
the balance of algae and bacteria in the water but also
cause fish to reduce or even stop eating. The destruction
of the ecological balance of aquaculture may also pro-
duce physiological stress to the organisms, resulting in
disease in the fish and even causing a large number of
deaths. In 2016 and 2017, in the Port of Xincun, Hainan
Province, China, due to the deterioration of water qual-
ity and the sharp decline of dissolved oxygen saturation,
large-scale death accidents of one million catties of
fishes were caused (Ao 2016; He 2017). Therefore, if
the change trend of water quality can be accurately
predicted through relevant big data and intelligent algo-
rithms, risk control can be achieved through technolog-
ical means to greatly improve the production efficiency
of mariculture. In addition, aquaculture informatization
cannot only obtain relatively accurate real-time infor-
mation of aquaculture environment parameters but also
provide farmers with early warning of abnormal param-
eters and even automatically deal with the correspond-
ing anomalies. It can be seen that smart aquaculture,
formed by deep integration of artificial intelligence,
Internet of Things technology, and traditional aquacul-
ture, can control aquaculture risks, improve the quality
of aquatic products, and ensure the survival rate of fish
fry, which is conducive to the sustainable development
of the aquaculture industry. The topology structure of
the Internet of Things (IoT) commonly used for smart
aquaculture is shown in Fig. 1 (Liu et al. 2020). The
main contributions in this paper are summarized as
follows:
(1) We outline several typical methods of water qual-
ity data acquisition in the past decade and sorted
them out. Meanwhile, the issues about data loss,
data anomalies, and noise reduction caused by
wireless transmission way are discussed and ana-
lyzed in detail.
(2) For the prediction of water quality parameters, we
give a comprehensive taxonomy and comparison
from the perspective of evolutionary calculation,
matrix analysis, machine learning, neural network,
optimization theory, and chaos theory, etc.
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493
Meanwhile, the advantages and shortcomings of
these methods and theories are discussed and ana-
lyzed, and the directions of further research are
given.
(3) Water quality parameters have influence on mor-
phological characteristics and behavior of fish.
Therefore, we outline issues associated with the
morphological characteristic measurement and fish
behavior recognition and provide an in-depth re-
view. In addition, we also review the mechanism
between changes of water quality parameters and
fish behavior. Finally, we discuss the cost control
method of IoT equipment used for smart aquacul-
ture, and also prospect several potential research
points in the future.
The organization of this paper is shown in Fig. 2. The
rest of this paper is organized as follows: “Acquisition
and pre-processing of water quality parameters” gives
the current common methods of obtaining and pre-
processing physical and chemical factors of water qual-
ity environment. It compares several typical wireless
sensor networks and analyzes the advantages and dis-
advantages of several methods and effects. “Prediction
of Water quality parameters” lists some common water
quality prediction and warning models, the algorithm
models and effects, and discusses the application of
some prediction methods. “Morphological measure-
ment of fish characteristics and recognition of fish be-
haviors” mainly summarizes the common morphologi-
cal characteristics of fish and the common methods of
target background separation in the process of fish be-
havior monitoring. “Interaction mechanism between
water quality parameters and fish behaviors” describes
the behavior characteristics of fish in different polluted
environments and analyzes the current research status
on the mechanism of water quality factors and fish
behavior. Finally, “Conclusions and prospects” summa-
rizes the current situation of smart aquaculture and
points out the future development trend.
Acquisition and pre-processing of water quality
parameters
In open breeding environment, physical and chemical
factors (such as dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen,
pH, water temperature and light, etc.) change dynami-
cally and are easily affected by extreme climate. This
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493
Fig. 1 A typical topology
structure diagram of the smart
aquaculture IoT system
effect may bring great breeding risk to the aquaculture
industry. In the field of information of aquaculture in-
dustry, real and reliable water quality environmental
factors need to be obtained through collection and pro-
cessing. The process not only plays a decisive role in
water quality detection and prediction but also makes an
important premise and guarantee for exploring water
quality factors and fish characteristics and behavioral
mechanism. The acquisition process of high-quality data
sets requires remote intelligent monitoring equipment
based on the Internet of Things and pre-processing
technologies such as data repairing and noise reduction
to clean the acquired data. Figure 3 shows the common
Internet of Things equipment for obtaining water quality
data.
(a) System of Internet of Things.
(b) Water quality multi-sensor node.
Fig. 2 The organization of this paper
Page 3 of 25 493
Water quality monitoring system in foreign countries
developed early and is widely used. Through the inte-
gration of monitoring equipment and high-tech embed-
ding, the intelligent management of data is realized. In
the early years, leading companies in this field were
GREENSPAN in Australia, GIMAT in Germany, and
ISOC and HYDROLAB in the USA (Zhang 2007). The
two most famous systems abroad are Fleck in Australia
and EMNET in the USA (Lv 2015). However, these two
systems are only suitable for scientific research due to
their low communication rate, large product volume,
and high power consumption. In addition, 5–12 online
parameter monitoring systems developed by Siemens
and YSI’s YSI5200 aquaculture monitoring system can
continuously monitor six water quality parameters (Shi
et al. 2011). Although these two systems have both
achieved scale, they adopt wired way to realize data
 493 Page 4 of 25
Fig. 3 A kind of Internet of
Things equipment for obtaining
water quality data
(a) System of Internet of Things
communication between monitoring terminal and the
control center computer. The circuit is easily damaged
and corroded, the maintenance cost is high, and the
monitoring scope is limited. Therefore, in aquaculture,
the establishment of the Internet of Things environment
for water quality parameters monitoring is more and
more likely to use wireless sensor network (Ridha and
Cruz 2001; Pule et al. 2018). It is of great advantages in
high intelligence, strong timeliness of information, wide
coverage area, support for synchronous collection of
multi-channel sensor data, and good scalability.
Communication technologies available in wireless sensor
networks include GPRS/CDMA/LTE Zhu et al. 2010, b),
Zigbee, Bluetooth (Gungor and Hancke 2009), remote wide
area network (LoRaWAN), SigFox, EnOcean, z-wave, etc.
Table 1 lists part of information about several mainstream
wireless communication technologies. In the field of water
quality factor acquisition in the early years, Zigbee technol-
ogy was mostly adopted because of its flexible networking,
low cost and fast speed (Liu 2017; Yang et al. 2015; Jiang
et al. 2013; Huang et al. 2013a; b; Yan and Shi 2014;
Simbeye et al. 2014). In some studies, GPRS/CDMA was
also adopted to achieve mobile terminal data acquisition
while Zigbee was used (Liu 2017; Yang et al. 2015; Jiang
et al. 2013; Huang et al. 2013a; b; Yan and Shi 2014; Li et al.
2018a; b; c; d). Although, Zigbee is widely used in wireless
sensor network for water quality monitoring, it still has
certain limitations such as poor stability and high of energy
consumption in long distance transmission. A few scholars
have made appropriate improvements in the application of
Zigbee, but with the maturity of 4G technology with long
transmission distance, fast communication speed and high
transmission quality, 4G wireless transmission mode has
been widely applied in the wireless sensor network for water
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493
(b) Water quality multi-sensor node
quality monitoring. The application of 4G and Zigbee in the
field of aquaculture is also shown in Table 1. Absolutely,
with the increasingly mature 5G technology, the smart
aquaculture mode based on 5G will be rapidly applied and
popularized in the next few years.
In the process of data perception and acquisition, due
to the reasons of frequent equipment aging, unreliable
transmission link, the influence of natural environment,
etc., the parameters of signal obtained by wireless sensor
network are of instability, uncertainty, and large delay.
Therefore, data quality needs to be improved by data
pre-processing technology to support the subsequent
analysis. Data pre-processing mainly contains data
cleaning, data integration, data transformation and data
reduction, etc. (Fang 2009). According to the character-
istics of water quality monitoring system and water
quality prediction, data pre-processing mainly includes
data repair and noise reduction.
In the process of water quality environment factors
acquisition, the data missing often occurs, as a result of
which data repairing is necessary. Some scholars pro-
pose improvements in transmission reliability, such as
request retransmission mechanism (Xie et al. 2012; Chi
et al. 2010; Omiwade and Zheng 2012; Li et al. 2014a;
b; Srouji et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2008; Donoho 2006;
Zhao 2015), distributed storage mechanism (Omiwade
and Zheng 2012), multi-path disjoint data transmission
mechanism (Li et al. 2014a; b), data redundancy backup
mechanism (Srouji et al. 2011), etc. However, the above
methods will add extra burden to nodes, consume high
energy, and increase costs; they are not suitable for
water quality monitoring. Other researchers use interpo-
lation to solve the data missing, such as k nearest-
neighbor (KNN) algorithm (Wang et al. 2008), singular
Table 1 Several mainstream wireless communication technologies

Technology Typical The evaluation index Characteristics Application field Application in aquaculture industry
operating
frequency band Common Maximum transmission Application Implementation Reference
transmission rate effect
distance
Environ Monit Assess

4G TD-LTE, up/down, 1000–3000 m Up 500 Mbps Down Long distance, high Environmental monitoring, smart Samples in the range of Remote monitoring Li et al. (2018a),
555~2572 MH- 1 Gbps communication speed, home, positioning, information 0~300 mg/L at the b, c, d)
z, and and high quality collection (Li et al. 2018a, b, c, detection points of
2300~2320 M- d; Zhang 2017; Yi 2014) various water inlets in
Hz river basins are tested
Data transmission related Realize on-line Lu et al. (2018)
to water quality is monitoring and
(2020) 192:493

completed by database
4G-DTU. management of
water quality
information in
remote monitoring
center.
A distributed real-time Solve the problem that Yu et al. (2018))
water environment the damage of
monitoring system is centralized single
designed and point model may
implemented based affect the data
on 4G network. transmission of
other monitoring
points.
Zigbee 2.4 GHz, 100 m 250 and 20 kbps Short distance, low power Industry, medical treatment, home Systematic modeling is Reduce energy Zhong et al.
868 MHz, consumption, low cost, automation, agricultural completed based on consumption of the (2016)
915 MHz self-organization, low informatization, fishery radial basis function whole system.
complexity informatization, business neural network and
informatization, remote control state space
(He et al. 2019; Yi et al. 2019; expression.
Wang 2019; Li 2019; Liu et al. Based on Low-Energy Balance electric Huang et al.
2019) Adaptive Clustering quantity of each (2013a), b)
Hierarchy (LEACH), node.
the cluster head is
selected by the base
station according to
the estimated residual
power of each node.
Develop node The stability and Yang et al.
application based on reliability of the (2015)
Z-stack protocol system are
stack. improved.
Bluetooth 2.4 GHz 20–200 m 2100 kbps Short distance, low power Loss prevention, health care, Mobile water quality It can quickly Su (2017)
consumption, low cost, transportation, data testing equipment is complete the water
fast connection transmission of positioning, completed based on quality test and has
mouse, headset, etc. (Peng et al. the advantages of
Page 5 of 25 493
 493 Page 6 of 25 Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493

Note: EnOcean technology is a wireless passive green wireless communication technology with energy collection function that has emerged in recent years. This technology has not been
spectrum analysis (SSA) algorithm (Donoho 2006),

Reference
compression sensing algorithm (Zhao 2015). Based on
spatio-temporal correlation theory (Akyildiz et al.
2004), LIN algorithm (Pan et al. 2010) and AKE algo-

–
rithm (Pan and Li 2010; Altan and Ustundag 2012) are

consumption, and
Implementation

cost, low power

small size, low
proposed. However, most of these studies only roughly
Application in aquaculture industry

modularity.
estimate the spatio-temporal correlation of nodes and do
not fully consider the complex changes of wireless
effect

sensor networks. At present, the research of perceptive

–
data recovery based on estimation is for single attribute
Arduino and Android

feature. However, with the integration of multi-

functional sensors and the increase of perceived data
Application

platform.

dimensions, the correlation between these multiple at-

tributes is becoming more and more important in wire-
less perceptive networks. This correlation can be com-
–

bined with the spatio-temporal correlation of perceptual

Intelligent lighting control system,

control, green building, energy

2016; Qian et al. 2014; Einsen

management (Wu et al. 2017;
Aschendorf 2016; Song et al.

data to improve the accuracy of missing data recovery.

intelligent home, electrical
2019; Wen et al. 2019)

Therefore, how to mine and utilize the correlation be-

tween these attributes is also a problem worthy of study-
Application field

ing (Chen 2016).

In order to eliminate the error and noise interference,
applied in smart aquaculture industry, but it has obvious advantages and considerable application prospects
2014

the scholars put forward many noise reduction and feature

extraction methods, the current noise reduction methods
mainly contain moving average method, smoothing meth-
Truly realize wireless, no

transmission distance,
power consumption,

od, basis function least square method, quadratic bilinear

battery, ultra-low

less interference

time frequency analysis, Fourier transform, and wavelet

Characteristics

transform. Among them, wavelet analysis (Pan et al.

2007; Parmar and Bhardwaj 2013; Gavrovska et al.
2014; Wickersham et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2013; Li
et al. 2013) can perform non-stationary description of
Maximum transmission

dynamic signals and extract local information of frequen-

cy domain and time domain of signals at the same time.
Meanwhile, it can realize the separation and extraction of
characteristic frequencies of water quality signals. With
multi-scale analysis and “mathematical microscope” char-
125 kbps
The evaluation index

acteristics (Melkonian et al. 2012), it is an efficient and

transmission rate

convenient tool for noise reduction and data cleaning of

water quality. Wavelet analysis has become a hotspot of
Common

50–300 m
distance

data noise reduction and feature extraction in hydrological

and water quality prediction (Zhou et al. 2012; Yu et al.
2014a; b; c; Ebrahimi et al. 2013).
frequency band

868, 902, and

315 MHz
operating
Technology Typical
Table 1 (continued)

Prediction of water quality parameters

After pre-processing the obtained water quality environ-

mental factors, more accurate and reliable water quality
EnOcean

data can be obtained. However, these data only reflect

the current state of water quality in aquaculture, where
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493
environmental challenges are often sudden. If the phys-
ical and chemical factors of key water environment can
be accurately predicted through comprehensive environ-
mental factors and meteorological factors, and the trend
of changes can be mastered, then the farmers can better
control the risk and make more efficient and accurate
regulation of water quality. At present, experts and
scholars have done a lot of researches on the prediction
of water quality parameters and made a lot of achieve-
ments. Table 2 summarizes and analyzes the prediction
of several common parameters and their effects.
As for traditional prediction methods, water quality
model prediction methods have poor self-adaptability,
while the mathematical models of other methods (such
as the Markov method (Zhu and Nan 2011; Xue et al.
2012; Yue and Li 2011), regression prediction method
(Abaurrea et al. 2011; Zhu et al. 2012; Tu et al. 2016;
Yang and Jin 2010), time series method (Zou and Yu
1996; Wu et al. 2009), etc.) are simple to operate and
easy to implement. A few years ago, Xue et al. (2012)
adopted the Markov method to correct error residual
value when applying gray neural network to water qual-
ity prediction. The experimental results showed that
compared with the traditional gray neural network, the
relative error could be reduced from 68.44~4.69 to
41.96~2.23%. However, such accuracy is far from
enough. With the development of computational
intelligence and bionic technology, plenty of new
prediction methods based on computational
intelligence emerge, which promotes the rapid
development of water quality prediction methods. Ju
et al. (2017) have built a BP neural network model for
the prediction of water quality in the Yellow River by
monitoring data of upstream section to predict the
change of water quality in the downstream. The predic-
tion accuracy of the experimental results is high, and the
average relative error is 5.66%. Liu et al. (2015) make
comprehensive use of ARIMA prediction model, artifi-
cial neural network model, and exponential smoothing
method to predict water quality data and put forward a
combined prediction model based on optimal weighting
method. The model obtains a good application effect in
the water quality prediction work of Changzhou,
Guangzhou. At present, new types of water quality
prediction methods mainly include (Li et al. 2012) gray
theory method, artificial neural network (Cho et al.
2014; Yang et al. 2012; Gao et al. 2008; Miao et al.
2011; Wang et al. 2011; Xu and Liu 2013; b), the
prediction method based on least squares support vector
Page 7 of 25 493
regression machine (Tan et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2011;
Preis and Ostfeld 2008), the combined forecasting meth-
od (Preis and Ostfeld 2008; Ma 2013), the prediction
method of mathematical statistics (Gao 2007), water
quality prediction method based on chaos theory (Zhu
and Qin 2012), and so on. The above methods provide a
fair way to solve the problem for water quality predic-
tion but are still not perfect enough. Because the aqua-
culture water environment system is influenced by mul-
tiple factors, the interaction mechanism between water
environment parameters is complex, and the state of
aquaculture water quality parameters is changeable.
There is still much room for research on how to improve
the calculation efficiency, prediction accuracy, and gen-
eralization performance to better meet the demand of
aquaculture for accurate prediction of water quality.
These methods are shown in Table 3.
For the nonlinear prediction of water quality, scholars
have proposed many prediction modeling methods,
such as the support vector machine (SVM) based on
the statistical principle and structural risk minimization
and the extended and improved least squares support
vector regression (LSSVR). These two methods have
solved the defects of traditional methods like small
samples, high dimensions, over-learning, and easy to
fall into local extremum. They achieve good application
results in the study of water quality prediction of aqua-
culture (Liu et al. 2013a; b; c; Liu et al. 2014a; b; c).
However, the parameter setting of LSSVR model re-
stricts the prediction performance and universality of the
model, and there are still no mature theories about the
optimal selection of parameter combination. Genetic
algorithm, ant colony algorithm, particle swarm
algorithm, improved particle swarm algorithm, cultural
fish swarm algorithm, and other swarm intelligent
optimization algorithms have the characteristics of
distributed computing, positive feedback, global
optimization, and heuristic search, which are very
suitable for combinatorial optimization problems. Liu
et al. (2012) use ant colony algorithm to optimize the
model parameters of least squares support vector regres-
sion machine. In water quality prediction, Shen (2008)
proposes an adaptive particle swarm optimization algo-
rithm based on group adaptive value variance and opti-
mal adaptive value variation error. The author combines
it with support vector machine to simulate and predict
river water quality. In addition, many scholars have
combined the clustering intelligent optimization algo-
rithm with the least squares support vector regression
Table 2 Common predictive models
493

Parameter Breeding objects Prediction model Detailed methods Effect Advantages/problems Reference
solved

Dissolved oxygen Crabs ACO-LSSVR c = 94.27, σ = 1.43 RMSE is down 67.9%. The traditional prediction Liu (2014)
Page 8 of 25

8 The running time T is method is not suitable

> Y −bI reduced by 2.3464 s. for small sample and
>
< b
a¼
Ω þ C −1 E  high dimension.
>
>
I T Ω þ C −1 E Y Parameter optimization
:bb ¼ T 
I Ω þ C −1 E I is greatly influenced
by human subjective
i factors.
by ¼ f ðxÞ ¼ ∑ b b
ai K ðxi ; xÞ þ b
i¼1
IPSO-LSSVR C = 156.9108, σ = 2.1054 RMSE decreases by 29.36%. Traditional forecasting Liu (2014)
8 MAE is down 67.46%. methods have slow
> Y −bI convergence and
>
< b
a¼
Ω þ C −1 E  low accuracy.
> I T Ω þ C −1 E Y
>
:bb ¼ T 
I Ω þ C −1 E I
i
by ¼ f ðxÞ ¼ ∑ b b
ai K ðxi ; xÞ þ b
i¼1
WA-CPSO-LSSVR N
Multi-scale analysis of Traditional methods are Liu (2014)
∑ ðxt −X Þðxt−m −X Þ water quality characteristics, subject to large noise
r¼m
rm ¼ ðN −mÞϑ2 has better prediction interference, low
effect, and is more prediction accuracy,
suitable for high-density and easy to get into
aquaculture. local extremum.
Freshwater pearl WNN 0 x−xmax MAPE reduces to 3.822%. The model has high Xu and Liu (2013), b)
x ¼ xmax −xmin learning speed,
  improves accuracy
a
Ψ a;b ðxÞ ¼ p1ffiffia Ψ x−b and robustness of
prediction.
Fish BPNN Xk + 1 = xk − akgk The correlation coefficient Accurately obtain and Zhu et al. (2010), b)
Δωk + 1 = γ ⋅ Δωk − (1 − γ) ⋅ ak ⋅ gk R reached 0.91. predict multi-parameter
Environ Monit Assess

The predicted error of water quality

RMSPD reached 1.56%. information for long
The warning accuracy rate distance and online
reached 81.4%. monitoring.
pH Crabs PCA-MCAFA-LSSVM Get the optimal combination of The sample accuracy Reduce the stress effect Liu (20140
parameters: reaches 93.05 with an of pH value on the
C = 184.36, σ2 = 2.079 absolute error of less metabolism and
(2020) 192:493

Build a nonlinear pH prediction than 8%. physiological

model and complete the prediction. function of aquatic
products.
Table 2 (continued)
Parameter Breeding objects Prediction model Detailed methods
South-American FABPM The topological structure is the
white prawn feed forward and reverse
transmission of 3 layers of
40-14-4. The prediction
variables of 10 consecutive
time units are the input layer,
the number of nodes in the
hidden layer is 14, and the
variables of the output layer
are temperature, pH value,
dissolved oxygen, and
REDOX potential.
Fish LSTM “Cell state” handler is added
to the hidden layer, calling
state c (cell state).
N −1
yðt Þ ¼ N1 ∑ xðt−k Þ
K¼0
SRU The hidden layer part adds
“cell state” to judge and filter
the effective information in
the training process.
xt
ct ¼ f t ⊙ct−1 þ ð1−f t Þ⊙e
st = rt ⊙ g(ct) + (1 − rt) ⊙ xt
Bi-S-SRU Data are preprocessed through
threshold processing, mean
value approach wavelet
filtering and improved
smoothing method. The
method of Pearson
correlation coefficient is
used to reveal the correlation
between water quality to be
predicted and other dynamic
parameters. The correlation
coefficient is used to weight
the training data, and a
Bi-S-SRU deep learning
prediction model is
constructed.
Effect Advantages/problems Reference
solved
The average relative The traditional BP neural Ding et al. (2017)
error is less than 2.5% network has some
Environ Monit Assess
shortcomings, such as
slow convergence
speed, easy to fall into
oscillation, and weak
generalization ability.
(2020) 192:493
Short-term prediction The traditional method Hu et al. (2019a), b)
accuracy can reach has low precision,
98.56%. poor generalization,
The accuracy of long-term and high time
prediction can reach complexity.
95.76%.
The time cost is 0.273 s.
The average prediction of Compared with RNN, Liu et al. (2018)
each data needs 11.3 the accuracy is higher
ms, and the prediction and the prediction
accuracy can reach effect is better.
98.91%.
It takes an average of Compared with the Liu et al. (2020)
12.5 ms to predict the method based on
data, and the accuracy recursive neural
can reach 94.42% in network (RNN) or
the next 3–8 days. long-short memory
(LSTM), the method
has higher prediction
accuracy and less
computational
complexity.
Page 9 of 25 493
Table 2 (continued)
493

Parameter Breeding objects Prediction model Detailed methods Effect Advantages/problems Reference
solved

Qiantang River RNNs-DS The optimal values of penalty RMSE = 0.0383, The existing water quality Li (2006)
parameter c and kernel MAE = 0.0303, prediction methods are
Page 10 of 25

function parameter g are MAPE = 0.0040, based on a single shallow

11.3137 and 0.1768. NSEC = 0.7196. layer model, which
The proposed model cannot capture the
exp−aeji
ωji ¼ n ði ¼ 1; 2; …; nÞ effectively improves long-term dependence
∑ exp−aejm
m¼1 the stability and in the historical time
accuracy of the series and are more
P ¼ mðP1 ÞP1 þ mðP2 Þ model, and the likely to lead to high
prediction effect is false alarm rate and
P2 þ mðP3 ÞP3 þ mðθÞ relatively better. missing alarm rate in
practical water
Pθ Pθ ¼ P1 þP32 þP3 monitoring applications.
Water temperature PSO-BPNN  Compared with support It is flexible, simple, Xu et al. (2016a), b)
k
 k k
V kþ1
iD ¼ ωV iD þ c1 ξ1 PiD −X iD vector regression (SVR) accurate, easy to
 
and traditional BP implement, and has
þ c2 ξ2 PkgD −X kiD
neural network, RMSE good prediction ability.
decreases by 64.4 and
k kþ1
X kþ1
iD ¼ X id þ rV iD neti 86.7%, respectively.
n
¼ ∑ wtj x j −θyi ¼ f ðneti Þ
j¼1
Fish LSTM “Cell state” handler is added to Short-term prediction The traditional method Hu et al. (2019a), b)
the hidden layer, calling state accuracy can reach has low precision,
c (cell state). 98.97% poor generalization,
The accuracy of long-term and high time complexity.
N −1
yðt Þ ¼ N1 ∑ xðt−k Þ prediction can reach
K¼0 96.88%
The time cost is 0.257 s.
SRU The hidden layer part adds The SRU spends 479.176 Compared with traditional Liu et al. (2018)
“cell state” to judge and filter s in 2000 training methods, the prediction
the effective information in sessions. accuracy and fitting
Environ Monit Assess

the training process. The water temperature degree are higher.

error is less than 0.05.
xt
ct ¼ f t ⊙ct−1 þ ð1−f t Þ⊙e
st = rt ⊙ g(ct) + (1 − rt) ⊙ xt
Salinity Marine life AquariudSAC-D Using long band radiometer to The spatial resolution is Traditional methods are Le Vine et al. (2004)
measure remotely, salinity 100 km and the small in scope. The
inversion is carried out to average monthly proposed method
(2020) 192:493

draw global salinity precision is 0.2 psu. provides salinity trends

field map. on a global scale.
ADV
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493 Page 11 of 25 493

LSSVM, principal component analysis-modified cultural artificial fish-swarm algorithm-least squares support vector machine; FABPM, improved adaptive variable step size BP-neural
network algorithm based on fuzzy method; LSTM, long- and short-term memory network; SRU, simple recurrent unit network; RNNs-DS, new model combining recursive neural network
ACO-LSSVR, ant colony optimization-least square support vector regression; IPSO-LSSVR, improved particle swarm optimization-least square support vector regression; WA-CPSO-LSSVR,
wavelet analysis-Cauchy particle swarm optimization-least square support vector regression; WNN, wavelet neural network; BPNN, back propagation neural networks; PCA-MCAFA-
machine to achieve more accurate prediction results and

Pedocchi (2019)
stronger generalization ability. Obviously, the methods

Mosquera and
with complementary advantages are an important re-
Reference

search direction of aquaculture water quality prediction

method. Figure 4 is a typical flow chart of water quality
prediction based on deep neural network (Hu et al.
a reliable salinity estimation
2019a, 2019b).

of estuarine environment.
environment and provide

method for routine study

variation of estuarine
Advantages/problems

This method can well

Morphological measurement of fish characteristics

reflect the salinity

and recognition of fish behaviors

The most extensive and representative aquaculture ob-

solved

ject is fish. In addition, fish is one of the most important

indicators of water quality. Fish is very sensitive to
(RNN) with improved Dempster/Shafer (d-s) evidence theory; PSO-BPNN, BP neural network based on particle swarm optimization
changes in water environment parameters such as pH
level, temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitro-
of salinity is 4.0 psu.
The standard deviation

gen, nitrite, salinity, etc. The movement characteristics,

physiological characteristics, and other information of
fish directly indicate the quality of water quality envi-
ronment. The dynamic changes of fish movement state
parameters (including swimming speed, acceleration,
Effect

turning frequency, wagging frequency, wall collision

frequency, gill cover movement frequency, cough fre-
quency, spatial position relation, etc.) and the changes of
social behavior parameters of fish swarm contain the
correlation between salinity
and changes in estuarine

most important information of fish movement behavior

Salinity is estimated by

affected by dynamic changes of environmental factors.

Morphological and behavioral characteristics of fish and
Detailed methods

environment.

stress response are closely related to the quality of water

environment. By monitoring the real-time change laws
of behavioral parameters of fish, the water quality
changes can be comprehensively obtained. At the same
time, the data of fish characteristics and behaviors can
also provide relevant data support for the model training
Breeding objects Prediction model

of water quality prediction. Therefore, the detection of

morphological and behavioral characteristics of fish is
of great significance for smart aquaculture.
Note: AquariudSAC-D is a microwave sensor

Detection of morphological characteristics of fish

Morphological characteristics of fish are dynamic and

closely related to water quality. When establishing the
correlation model of water quality factors and morpho-
Table 2 (continued)

logical characteristics of fish, morphological character-

istic parameter data of fish at each stage should be
obtained automatically without causing any harm to
Parameter

fish. However, traditional measurement methods are

easy to cause damage to the fish, and measurement
results are easily affected by subjective factors. In
 493 Page 12 of 25
addition, due to the change of water quality factors in the
same indoor factory, pond or cage have a relatively
small longitudinal impact on the characteristics of fish;
it is necessary to comprehensively consider the trans-
versal impact of environmental changes in different
factories, ponds and cages on fish. Therefore, accurate
detection of morphological characteristics of fish body
is of vital significance. The automatic and accurate
acquisition of morphological characteristics is of great
help to selective breeding and academic research in the
laboratory. Image processing technology is often used
for quantitative analysis of morphological characteris-
tics of fish body in aquaculture (Duan et al. 2015). Body
weight, body length, caudal peduncle length, caudal
peduncle width, fish-eye diameter, pupil diameter, and
iris are measured. These methods are shown in Table 4.
The morphological characteristics of fish has been
studied and discussed. The research trend on fish body
and schools is generally as follows: the characteristics
tend to be overall from single, and the species tend to be
multiple from single. First, Xie et al. (2019) detect dead
fish using Faster-RCNN and computer vision in the
warning system of dying fish, and then extract the
detection results and calculate the main characteristics
of the fish body. Jeong et al. (2013) use sensor technol-
ogy to measure part of the characteristic indexes of the
fish body. Wu et al. (2014) use Snake algorithm of
active contour model to extract the external contour of
fresh water fish images obtained by machine vision and
obtain the aspect ratio of fresh water fish. Wang et al.
(2012) use computer vision technology and clustering
method to separate fish body and background, and
calculate fish body area and mass according to their
models. Zhang et al. (2011) established a quality pre-
diction model for freshwater fish. Then, Yu et al.
(2014a), b; c) design a system that can automatically
detect the quality, body length, and body width of large
yellow croaker combined with machine vision and
weighing sensor technology. The process of detecting
fish body, extracting contour, and calculating feature is
integrated into a whole system to achieve automation.
After the detection and calculation of a single species or
a single fish body target, the scholars begin to turn their
research direction to the classification and identification
of multiple species and multiple fish groups and separate
the fish body from the complex background by k-means
clustering algorithm (Yao et al. 2013). And then Support
vector machine (DAGMSVM) based on directed acy-
clic graph is used to realize the recognition of fish
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493
species based on color and texture features. The mem-
bers of this project team have already achieved automat-
ed batch acquisition of fish body length, body width,
and caudal peduncle width through image processing.
There are few researches for fish caudal peduncle
length, fish eye diameter, pupil diameter, and iris auto-
matic measurement. Hu et al. (2017a), b, c) measure the
caudal peduncle length through corner detection and
least squares straight line fitting. Furthermore, Hu pro-
poses a pupil diameter automatic measurement method
combining weighted constraint AdaBoost and improved
Hough circle transform (Cook et al. 2014). In addition,
the author also uses the least square ellipse fitting to
achieve a more accurate automatic measurement of the
pupil diameter and iris diameter (Hu et al. 2017a; b; c).
Identification of behavioral characteristics of fish
In addition to the morphological characteristics of the
fish, the behavior of the fish can reflect the change of
water quality quickly. The correlation studies between
the change of fish behavior intensity and water environ-
ment quality, as well as the judgment and prediction of
water quality by fish behavior characteristics, all require
accurate identification of fish behavior characteristics.
The detection method of fish body behavior is mainly
based on the processing of video images. According to
its shape features, texture features, background features
and color features, the swimming speed, swimming di-
rection, fin beating frequency, feeding condition, and
metabolic rate of fish are detected (Cook et al. 2014;
Yang et al. 2013). Xia et al. (2019) propose a fish target
location and behavior tracking algorithm based on multi-
domain deep convolutional neural network to accurately
locate fish target. Papadakis et al. (2012) and Fan et al.
(2011) use fixed camera to continuously shoot videos on
transparent fish tank to obtain images. Cha et al. (2012)
measure the swimming speed of fish body with particle
image velocimeter. Video image acquisition systems in
other references are similar to these two systems with
minor differences. However, these two systems are not
very applicable to the aquaculture cage and cannot be
used for underwater 360° photography, which may also
cause great interference to the growth activities of fish.
There are three main methods to separate the fish
body from the background: background modeling, tem-
poral difference method, and optical flow method.
The disadvantages of these methods are obvious.
Some scholars consider combining the algorithms to
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493 Page 13 of 25 493

Table 3 Common prediction methods

Prediction method Characteristics Applicable occasions Reference

Mathematical It is divided into single-factor prediction and multi-factor Long/medium term Liu (2014) and Gao (2007)
statistics prediction comprehensive prediction, which requires more measured
method parameter information. The multi-factor comprehensive
prediction is more complex.
Gray system theory It requires less-measured parameter information, low Medium/short term Li (2006), Hu et al. (2019a),
GM(1,1) accuracy and limitations. b), and Song et al. (2018)
Artificial neural Parallel distribution processing, strong adaptability, Medium/short term Zeng et al. (2018), Li et al.
network ANN, BP self-learning ability, difficult to control sample size. (2018a), b, c, d), and Zha
neural network et al. 2018)
Chaos theory It requires a lot of measured parameter information with Medium/short term Shi et al. (2017), Zhu and
sensitivity and randomness. Qin (2012), and Song and
Zhang (2011)
Support vector Small sample, nonlinear, overfitting, high dimensional, Medium/short term Han et al. (2007), Kang et al.
machine SVM strong generalization ability (2018), and Zhang et al.
(2018))
Regression analysis It requires a lot of measured parameter information and can Long/medium term Meng (2018) and Zhang
prediction method get the correlation degree of each data quickly and et al. (2015a), b)
intuitively, which is simple and convenient.
Exponential It requires less measured parameter information and easy to Medium/short term Chen (2013), Li et al.
smoothing operate, so it is generally used in combination with other (2014a), b), and Rong and
prediction method methods. Wang (2013)

better separate objects. Fan et al. (2016) combine the
temporal difference method with the background
modeling method, so as to obtain the fish location more
accurately. Zhang et al. (2015a), b) propose a computer
vision algorithm to measure the Medaka pectoral fin and
fish caudal fin oscillation frequency. They apply
background subtraction, automatic threshold
segmentation, image convolution and skeleton
thinning method to extract the skeleton model and
obtain pectoral fins and caudal oscillation parameters.
In addition, Hu et al. (2014) apply the temporal differ-
ence method and the improved distance rule level set
evolution (DRLSE) method to the segment moving
targets, which can obtain the moving target contour
more accurately and quickly. Aiming at poor accuracy
of frame difference when detecting moving targets,
Zhao et al. (2014) propose a multiple information fusion
model and a new algorithm of moving target detection
based on the model, which has higher accuracy and
lower time complexity than existing methods. Later,
Zhao et al. (2016) propose the adaptive Otsu method
and the improved DRLSE multi-video object segmen-
tation method, which once again improved the segmen-
tation accuracy. In addition to the consideration on the
combination of the algorithms, Zhao et al. (2013)
propose an unconstrained underwater video fish trajec-
tory analysis method, which uses principal component
analysis method to analyze the characteristics of fish
body motion trajectory and carries out abnormal trajec-
tory clustering analysis. This method has a good detec-
tion effect on low-resolution video and fish motion
characteristics with unstable motion state. Kim et al.
(2011) propose a combined shape and feature-based
non-rigid target tracking algorithm, which is tightly
coupled with the generated adaptive background and
overcomes the limitation of block matching.
Interaction mechanism between water quality
parameters and fish behaviors
Fish body behavior and its stress response are closely
related to the quality of water environment (Iryna et al.
2013). By monitoring the real-time variation of fish
behavior parameters, it is possible to comprehensively
obtain and even predict the water quality changes.
Therefore, it is of great significance to study the rela-
tionship between the dynamic changes of aquaculture
environmental factors and the dynamic behavior param-
eters of fish. Under the stimulation of water environmental
pollutants, the change of fish movement behavior
 493 Page 14 of 25
Fig. 4 A representative water
quality prediction process
Obtaining
Data repair ing
S tart water quality
and preprocessing
data
intensity shows certain regularity. According to this regu-
larity, biologists establish a theoretical model of environ-
mental pressure threshold for fish. Under the interference
of certain concentration of pollutants, the change of fish
movement behavior is correlated with time. Within certain
exposure time, the exercise intensity of fish is correlated
with pollutant concentration. If the threshold of tolerance
of fish to water pollutants is taken as the basis, the change
of behavior intensity shall go through four stages: no
effect, regulation, adaptation and toxic effect (Zhang
et al. 2013), and the behavior of fish varies in each stage
(Cheng et al. 2015a; b). Table 6 shows the different
behaviors and the changes of behavior intensity of fish
under different pollutant concentrations.
With the continuous development of fish behavior
characteristic detection, the researchers are not limited
to the study of water quality and environmental factors,
but also the detection of fish movement state parameters
and the water quality evaluation model. Cheng et al.
(2015a), b) study the influence of water environment
change on fish motion trajectory, and select
characteristic parameters such as velocity, acceleration
and motion curvature to conduct experiments.
Bernatowicz et al. (2009) achieve the purpose of evalu-
ating water quality by analyzing and studying
characteristic parameters such as average movement
speed, average movement height, and average
movement distance and position distribution of fish.
Fen (2014) study the group behavior parameters such
as average swimming speed and nearest neighbor
distance, and quantified the normal and abnormal
water quality by quantifying the group performance of
fish by the nearest neighbor distance. Chen et al. (2009)
propose a tail frequency activity model of the center line
of fish skeleton, which is used to obtain tail frequency,
velocity and acceleration of fish body, and to
characterize the activity degree of fish body in water.
Han (2013) propose a semantic description model of
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493
Adjust
training
model
parameters
NO
Correlation analysis Divid e the
Train the
based on Pearson training training Target
LSTM
correlation and testing set accuracy ?
model
coefficient method sets
YES
Model file
Test the Prediction r esults
test set LSTM comparative
model analysis
fish behavior on the basis of quantitative analysis of fish
behavior characteristics, and establish a semantic
description of the relationship between fish behavior
characteristics and water quality. Jeon et al. (2013)
propose a hidden Markov model to identify the behav-
ioral characteristics of fish and to monitor the change of
water quality. None of the above has taken into account
the hysteresis effect of dynamic changes in aquaculture
environmental factors on changes in morphological
characteristics of fish body, it is necessary to consider
the effect of hysteresis on accuracy. However, according
to Chinese and foreign references, research
achievements in this field are generally realized under
specific conditions at present. For example, Vassilis
et al. (2012) conclude through a 6 full-day video sur-
veillance that the greater the density of culture, the more
frequent the fish aggressive behavior will be. Re-
searches of this type focus on a single fish characteristic
or the relationship between a single behavioral state
parameter of fish and a certain water quality parameter
or drug. For the study of fish body characteristics and
movement state water quality evaluation methods, most
of them stay in semantic description stage of qualitative.
There are few studies on the interaction mechanism
between multiple water quality parameters and
multiple characteristics and multiple behavioral
characteristics of fish by quantitatively describing.
Peng (2017) designs and implements a fish body move-
ment state system based on biological water quality
monitoring. By collecting fish body movement state
parameters, the detection model of fish body movement
state parameters and the model of state parameters and
water pollution situation are established to monitor wa-
ter quality. However, they do not study the quantitative
relationship between the behavior state of fish and var-
ious water quality parameters. The method can only
monitor the “polluted” or “unpolluted” state of water
quality, but cannot predict the specific quantitative value
Table 4 Fish body characteristics and its acquisition method

Measuring Measurement Measuring methods Detailed methods Effect Reference

characteristics object

Body length Flounder Take morphological image Edge detection to find the edge point measurement The length of the flounder is 267 mm. When the Jeong et al.
processing algorithm to length. measured average length of the flounder is (2013)
Environ Monit Assess

measure body length.      266.844 mm, the standard deviation is

xm cosθ−sinθ X m 0.351 mm, the coefficient of variation (CV) is
¼ T LE ¼ LJCP þ LCPT
ym sinθcosθ Ym 0.131%, and the maximum error is 0.87 mm.
The error is 0.2% when measuring flounder of
different sizes.
Pacific hake, Underwater camera The measured values are obtained by identifying the The deployment is simple, the processing is Boldt et al.
Walleye pixel coordinates of corresponding points (such as efficient, the measured length of fish body is (2018)
(2020) 192:493

Pollock fish mouth or fish tail) in the still frame images of longer than the actual length of fish body, and
the upper and lower cameras. The 3-dimensional the camera angle has a certain degree of
coordinates of real-space points are solved by influence on the measurement results.
triangulation method.
Trachinotus Fish image segmentation and Calculate the ratio of the actual length of the photo It can be used to segment fish under pure Yu et al. (2020)
ovatus fish morphological area (560 mm) to the number of pixels on the background and complex background, and the
characteristics corresponding side of the photo segmentation effect is remarkable.
measurement scheme In the pure background, the average relative error
based on mask R-CNN θ ¼ Ln (AREs) of the measured indicators is less than
The trained model is used to generate an accurate 2.8%, and the average relative error (AREs) of
recognition framework for each segmented body length and body width is less than 0.8%.
feature region. The length and width of the Under the complex background, the average
recognition framework are a and b, respectively. height of each indicator is less than 3%, and the
The actual length can be multiplied by h by average height of body length and body width
calculating the number of pixel points. is less than 1.8%.
Fish eye Crucian carp Use digital image processing Add the R component of the RGB color model and It can effectively make up the disadvantage of Huang et al.
technology to segment the V component of the HSV color model to low robustness of gray threshold segmentation (2013a), b)
and extract. obtain the composite image for fish eye iris method due to the color change of single
segmentation. channel image before and after.
Grouper Image segmentation Use the formula F = P2/4πA The fish eyes can determine the position of the Xu et al.
to determine if there is a circle and find the center fish mouth, and make an important basis for (2016a), b)
coordinates. the abnormal behavior of the fish, with an
accuracy rate of 84%.
Caudal Snapper, Adaptive resolution imaging On this basis, the identification accuracy of Chen et al.
peduncle yellow-eyed sonar (ARIS) Scan the contour section from the second half of the freshwater fish species can reach more than (2018)
width mullet, blue fish body contour to the tail column by column, 94.97%. The method can accurately identify
cod and mark the coordinates of the upper and lower four kinds of freshwater fish species, including
contour points scanned
  by each column as bream, crucian carp, bighead carp, and grass
respectively, xi ; yhi ; xi ; ydi , hi ¼ ydi −yhi , and carp.
H = min(hi).
Page 15 of 25 493

Gold pompanos
 493 Page 16 of 25 Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493

(2017a), b, c)

(2017a), b, c)
of a certain water quality parameter (such as pH, dis-
Reference solved oxygen, etc.). What is more, the system men-

The average measurement time of this method is Hu et al.

The edge detection is carried out first, and then the Iris detection takes an average of 364.57 ms. The Hu et al.
tioned above does not study the relationship between
morphological characteristics of fish bodies and water
quality parameters. In another papers, Fen (2014) estab-

detection errors are 12.179 mm (1 ± 14.05%)

1.01 s, the average measurement deviation is
0.34 mm, and the measurement accuracy is
more than 95%.
lishes the “water quality monitoring model of red carp
tail frequency and wall collision behavior”, which is
similar to the previous paper and fails to realize the
quantitative study on the two-way interaction mecha-
nism between fish behavior characteristics and water
quality parameters. Zhong et al. (2017) also analyze
and study the kinetic principles among water quality
parameters. The relationship between fish behavior

and water quality factors remains to be explored.

Effect

Conclusions and prospects

solving the Euclidean distance between the right

The intelligence, precision and ecologicalization of

The ranging of caudal fin line can be converted to

aquaculture are an inevitable trend of its development.

Smart aquaculture can improve the efficiency of aqua-
culture, promote sustainable development of aquacul-
ffi inflection by

ture, improve the quality of aquatic products, and min-

contour fitting method is used.

imize losses in the aquaculture process. Modern infor-

mation technology will be combined with aquaculture
industry. In the future, researchers can actively intervene
of contour
dis ¼ jPc j þ jPR j.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

in the aquaculture process, effectively prevent serious

Detailed methods

imbalance of water quality environment, and greatly

improve aquaculture production efficiency through the
end points

wireless sensor network, computer vision, and image

processing technology, compressed sensing theory, ar-
tificial intelligence and other technical methods.
In terms of water quality detection, the traditional
Based on image processing

Based on computer vision

detection methods have low accuracy and are influenced

by subjective factors. At present, most of the sensors for
Measuring methods

and linear fitting

data collection in the field of intelligent aquaculture

have single function with high cost, and there are many
water quality factors that affect the health status of water
quality and the growth environment of fish. The modu-
lar combination can select hardware according to the
demand, and the cost can be minimized while meeting
Measurement

the demand. The modular design of wireless sensor

Trachinotus
ovatus

network equipment greatly reduces its economic cost

characteristics object
Table 4 (continued)

and maintenance cost. The wireless sensor network

deployment environment in the field of aquaculture is
more complex than that on land, and the maintenance
peduncle
Measuring

cycle of sensor nodes is shortened due to seawater

length
Caudal

corrosion and fish collision, which results in the consump-

Iris

tion of human and material resources. The non-toxic and

Table 5 Comparison of main separation methods

Separation Advantages Disadvantages Application

methods
Detailed methods Effect Reference

Inter-frame difference Low time complexity Threshold selection is difficult Binarization of foreground graph The boundary of fish is relatively clear, but there is a Fan et al.
Environ Monit Assess

method |Ft(x, y) − Ft − 1(x, y)| > Th lot of lack of internal information, and the time (2011)
complexity is very low. The average detection time
is 5.36 ms/frame.
Optical flow method Good robustness High time complexity Due to the influence of light, there is a lot of noise in Fan et al.
−∑I 2y ∑I x I y þ∑I x I y ∑I y I t ∑I x I t ∑I x I t −∑I 2x ∑I y I t the detection results, and the time complexity is (2011)
x y x y
V x ¼ ∑I 2 ∑I 2 −∑I I ∑I 2 V y ¼ ∑I 2 ∑I 2 −∑I I ∑I 2
x y y x y y relatively high with an average detection time of
53.34 ms/frame.
Lucas-Kanade optical flow algorithm is used to estimate The accuracy of the detection results of abnormal Yu et al.
(2020) 192:493

Background Simple and effective, the extracted
modeling target image is more complete.
noise due to the change of light intensity, and the
Watershed Respond well to weak edge
segmentation information
method
Adaptive threshold Strong robustness to light
method
Edge detection Accurate positioning. Combining it
with the regional segmentation
method can solve the problem of
over-segmentation and improve
the quality of separation.
K-means algorithm Simple, fast, and effective clustering
the motion vector of target fish shoal through 2 frames behaviors can reach more than 99.5% by NMI and (2014a),
of differential light flow of continuous 2 frames of LDOF. b, c)
video images.
It is easy to be disturbed by Moving average background modeling: The trailing shadow is produced in the rear of several Fan et al.
external conditions and fast-moving fish, but the detection effect is (2011)
needs to model the Btþ1 ðx; yÞ ¼ aF t ðx; yÞ þ ð1−aÞBt ðx; yÞ satisfactory and the time complexity is very low.
foreground in advance. Btþ1 ðx; yÞ ¼ Bt ðx; yÞ The average detection time is 19.32 ms/frame.
Mixed Gaussian background modeling The detection results of some images have a lot of Fan et al.
(2011)
b
time complexity is high. The average detection time
B ¼ argminb ∑ ωk > T is 121.9 ms/frame.
k¼1
It is easy to over-segmentation. Based on the multi-scale watershed segmentation, the It can effectively inhibit watershed over-segmentation Cheng et al.
target motion region is obtained by the frame difference and accurately segment fish motion video targets. (2011)
of two adjacent frames.
gmark = imimposemin(g, Ao|Ab)contour = watershed(gmark)
Once a misclassification / The adaptive threshold method can segment fish more Xia et al.
occurs, it is easy to reduce effectively, because it estimates the threshold value (2016)
the difference between the of each pixel in the adjacent region.
target and background.
Noise sensitivity b = − xa + y The closed and complete edge is obtained. The method Song (2015)
2
basically keeps the shape of fish group and saves
∂G y x 2 2 2
∂G −x2 −y2 the computer memory efficiently.
¼ kxe−2σ2 e−2σ2 2σ
¼ kxe 2σ e
∂y ∂x
¼ h1 ðyÞh2 ðxÞ ¼ h1 ðxÞh2 ðyÞ
It is sensitive to the selection of It is found that the selection of clustering category Shao (2017)
initial value, which may min∑Ki¼1 ∑x∈ci distanceðci ; xÞ2 number and the complexity of environmental
cause the target to be region will affect each other. When the background
separated and the algorithm environment is relatively uniform and there are
has a large time cost. many categories, the fish target may not be
segmented completely. When the background
environment is different from each other and there
are fewer categories, the fish target may be
classified into the same category as other
backgrounds.
Guo (2017)
Page 17 of 25 493
 493 Page 18 of 25 Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493

Reference
harmless coating on the surface of the sensor nodes can
effectively avoid the high-density attachment of marine
organisms while preventing seawater corrosion, which

The model can be updated at all levels during training

cannot only reduce the maintenance cost but also improve

detection, which not only improves the speed but

the accuracy of water quality collection. In addition, most
also achieves very good detection results
wireless sensor networks are equipped with redundant
nodes for fault prevention, and the communication mod-
ules with high power consumption in sensor nodes are
generally communication modules (communication mod-
ules consume a lot of energy when sending and receiving
data), and the energy consumption level of communica-
tion modules will have a direct impact on the service life
of the nodes. Find a point with the highest cost perfor-
Effect

mance in the working mode and sleep mode of the com-

munication module of the sensor node, so that it can
dimensions, classification and boundary regression are

reduce energy consumption as much as possible and

standard CNN is extracted and pooled/convoluted

reduce energy burden and prolong its life under the pre-
The network structure is more After selecting candidate areas and CNN features,

mise of effective operation. What i’s more, it should be

according to different inputs, and then fixed

taken into consideration that the use of these redundant

nodes and other nodes to rotate the work sleep mode, so
that the energy consumption of each node is balanced and
the life cycle of the network is greatly extended. The
future researches can focus on the following aspects:
Detailed methods

(1) In terms of water quality prediction, the trained

Application

prediction model should have the ability to in-

output.

tegrate the data obtained from real-time moni-

toring into the model and improve itself through
complex than the traditional

continuous iteration. In addition, the current wa-

computational complexity

ter quality prediction methods have high com-

NMI, normalized mutual information; LDOF, local distance outlier factor

putational complexity and low accuracy. There-

algorithm and the
Disadvantages

fore, it is a research direction to realize a real-

is higher.

time prediction method with low computational

complexity, high prediction accuracy and high
generalization ability.
(2) In the aspect of morphological feature measure-
It is applied to detect moving objects
in dynamic background and static

ments and behavior recognitions of fish, due to

the low visibility and unstable light in the under-
water environment, the images obtained by the
underwater camera are seriously disturbed by the
background.

environment, and the recognition effect can be

Advantages

greatly reduced. If combined with imaging sonar

technology, the impact of environmental interfer-
Table 5 (continued)

ence on recognition can be well avoided. In addi-

tion, the characteristics of the same aquatic fish are
likely to be different at different time and different
R-CNN series
algorithms
Separation

places, which makes image segmentation, feature

methods

extraction and background separation very diffi-

cult. If deep convolution level set networks and
Environ Monit Assess (2020) 192:493 Page 19 of 25 493

Table 6 Behavior of fish bodies at different concentrations of pollutants

Pollutant concentration Changes of behavioral Fish behavior Reference

intensity

Lighter No effect Almost no changes caused by the stimulus Zhao (2014) and Huang (2011))
Early stage of Adjust and adapt With purposeful avoidance, the fish’s motion state
pollutant stress changes, such as increasing speed, turning
frequency and wagging frequency, etc., so as to
adapt to the changes of the environment, and
then the “first stress threshold” is passed.
More than the tolerance Toxic effect Fish organs and tissues are damaged and
range of fish eventually die, experiencing the second
stress threshold.

Convolutional 3D (C3D) models are applied, good
results may be obtained.
(3) At present, there have been many studies on aqua-
culture water quality monitoring, prediction, fish
body characteristic measurement, and fish behav-
ior recognition. However, to achieve full control
and precise aquaculture, it is necessary to find out
the dynamic change characteristics of aquaculture
environmental factors, and the interaction mecha-
nism between water quality parameters, fish body
characteristics, and fish behaviors. Therefore, it is
very important to explore and analyze the semantic
understanding and related expression of abnormal
behavior parameters of fish. Through manual la-
beling, the corresponding relationship between ab-
normal behavior parameters of fish and water qual-
ity factors is obtained, thereby obtaining the la-
beled training data. Then, based on the methods
of CNN + RNN, the spatial structure relationship
and time series relationship in the training data are
mined synchronously, and then the mechanism
between the dynamic change of water quality fac-
tors and the abnormal behavior patterns of fish can
be established.
(4) There is also a correlation between the morpholog-
ical characteristics of fish body and the variation of
water quality parameters. However, the effect of
water quality parameters on morphological charac-
teristic of fish body has a long periodicity. This
relationship is affected by multiple factors, and it is
characterized by multiple variables, nonlinearity,
large time delay and dynamic uncertainty. In par-
ticular, the differences in fish body characteristics
should be considered under the same and different
culture environments. Therefore, it is also a good
scientific problem to establish a complex nonlinear
model, which can describe the relationship be-
tween dynamic change of water quality and the
characteristic parameters of fish.
Funding information This work was funded by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 61963012), the
Hainan Province Key R & D Project of China (Grant No.
ZDYF2018015), and the Hainan Province Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (Grant No. 619QN195). The authors would like to
thank the referees for their constructive suggestions.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no com-
peting interests.
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