Marine Policy 36 (2012) 839–843

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Marine Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

Improving marine environmental health through marine citizenship: A call

for debate
Emma McKinley a,n, Stephen Fletcher b,1
a
School of Enterprise, Management and Leadership, University of Chichester, Upper Bognor Road, Bognor Regis, West Sussex PO21 1HR, UK
b
Centre for Marine and Coastal Policy Research, University of Plymouth, Portland Square, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: This paper presents an evaluation of the role of marine citizenship in improving marine environmental
Received 10 October 2011 health and marine governance. Marine citizenship describes the rights and responsibilities of an
Received in revised form individual towards the marine environment, which support the achievement of marine policy
2 November 2011
objectives at the national level. It is argued that marine citizenship requires an enhanced awareness
Accepted 2 November 2011
of marine environmental issues, an understanding of the role of personal behaviour in creating and
Available online 28 December 2011
resolving marine environmental issues, and a shift in values to promote marine pro-environmental
Keywords: behavioural choices. It is concluded that the value shift is likely to be produced by the development of
Marine citizenship an altered relationship between the state and the individual, in which the expectations placed on
Education
citizens by the state are extended to include marine pro-environmental behaviour. The paper is
Public participation
intended to stimulate debate and the authors invite and encourage replies to the ideas contained within
Coastal management
Role of the individual the paper.
Crown Copyright & 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
This paper seeks to initiate a debate about the role of individual
citizens in resolving the challenges facing the marine environment.
Historically, the role of individual citizens in marine issues has been
very limited. The reasons for this are difficult to determine defini-
tively, but may relate to perceived or actual citizen disinterest,
uncertainty over how to engage citizens in marine issues, and the
sense that given the scale of the oceans, individual ability to act
appears limited. In parallel, most coastal and marine governance
programmes have focused at international, regional sea, national, or
local scale, and have not directly engaged with individuals. This is
clearly a wide-ranging debate that encompasses crucial issues of
marine governance, democracy, accountability, social justice, perso-
nal responsibility, and capacity to act. In this paper, the focus is on
considering how individuals can be engaged in marine issues within
the context of achieving national-level marine policy goals.
At the national level, marine policy is generally focused on a
variety of organisations, mostly state agencies, non-governmental
organisations, and multi-sector partnerships. Very few marine poli-
cies focus on the individual citizen as the vehicle through which
policy is implemented. In order to initiate a debate about a stronger
n
Corresponding author. Tel./fax:þ 44 1243 793429.
E-mail addresses: e.mckinley@chi.ac.uk (E. McKinley),
steve.fletcher@plymouth.ac.uk (S. Fletcher).
1
Tel.: þ44 1752 5 86177.
role for citizens in marine policy, this paper proposes marine citizen-
ship, in which citizens take greater personal responsibility for the
oceans, as a policy channel to support the delivery of a healthy
marine environment and to enhance marine governance. The justifi-
cation for this proposal is three-fold: first, marine problems are
partially rooted in individual behavioural choices, which whether
directly or indirectly mediated through the global market, have the
potential to produce a significant impact on the marine environment,
such as through food, waste, and product choices [1–3]. By making
different choices, individuals can make a difference to the health of
the marine environment; second, centralised policies to protect the
marine environment do not encompass all of the causes of marine
problems precisely because they do not generally address public
behaviour; third, there is a transition towards greater public mobili-
sation to collectively address environmental problems, which could,
and arguably should, also be applied to the marine environment.
Marine citizenship builds upon the existing model of citizenship,
the central component of which is the relationship between an
individual member of society and the state to which he belongs. In
this relationship there are rights and responsibilities [4,5]. Rights may
include opportunity to vote on state matters, access to medical
treatment and education, and protection against aggression from
other states. Responsibilities typically include abiding by the laws of
the state, respecting authority figures, and working to maintain a safe
community. Citizen responsibilities are increasingly taking an envir-
onmental emphasis, with governments and other policy-making
bodies recognising individual behaviour as a policy channel through

0308-597X/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright & 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2011.11.001
840 E. McKinley, S. Fletcher / Marine Policy 36 (2012) 839–843
which environmental problems can be addressed. Valencia-Saiz [6]
has termed this the ‘turn to citizenship’ in which the state reforms its
relationship with its citizens to incorporate environmental rights and
responsibilities to its model of citizenship to achieve national level
policy goals.
Through having an agreed set of rights and responsibilities, the
state and its citizens can work towards a common good, which
(depending upon the state) may include sustainable development,
energy self-sufficiency, or military security [7]. Creating a healthy
and productive marine environment is a common good identified by
many states through national and international marine legislation
and policy. For example, the UK is working towards the policy goal
of ‘‘clean, healthy, safe, productive, and biologically diverse oceans
and seas’’ [8]. Given the role of individuals in creating and solving
marine problems, encouraging changed public values and behaviour
represents a legitimate, but currently under-utilised policy channel
to achieve improved marine environmental health. By encouraging
marine citizenship as a distinct policy agenda, the public is encour-
aged and supported to alter everyday behavioural choices to benefit
the marine environment. This may take a variety of forms, including
lifestyle preferences, travel patterns, food choices, and consumer
behaviour [9].
Finding new policy channels to support efforts to improve
marine environmental health is important as the challenges facing
the marine environment are significant. The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment identified the marine environment as one of the most
diverse, productive, yet highly threatened ecosystems on Earth [10].
Threats include resource over-use, ongoing coastal development and
habitat loss, climate change adaptation, and tourism and recreation
[11,12]. These threats result from the widespread reliance of global
society on the marine environment [10,13–15]. Furthermore, tradi-
tional sector-based management strategies and a public disconnect
with the marine environment hamper marine conservation and
management efforts [16,17]. Therefore the need for additional policy
channels to address marine environmental challenges is urgent.
2. Marine citizenship, awareness, values, and action
2.1. Marine citizenship
Marine citizenship is located within the broader concept of
environmental citizenship, which has been visible in the research
literature since the 1990s [18–20]. The concept of environmental
citizenship is firmly centred on traditional definitions of citizenship,
in which individual and societal rights and responsibilities towards
the environment are focused on achieving the environmental goals
determined by a state [18,19]. Roth [18] defines an environmental
citizen as one who recognises environmental issues when they arise
and attempts to prevent and resolve problems through his indivi-
dual behavioural choices. This emphasises the importance of citizens
being able to understand their role in environmental issues and
being able to take action to address any problematic impacts,
although any such behaviour should be within the context of the
state’s environmental policy [21–23].
Given the scale of the challenges facing the marine environment
there is both opportunity and need for a marine ‘brand’ of citizenship
that can utilise individual behaviour as a policy channel to achieve
marine environmental health benefits. This requires a greater under-
standing of how marine citizenship can be defined, how it can be
encouraged within a population, and which citizen level pro-envir-
onmental behaviours might be considered beneficial to marine
environmental health. McKinley [24] describes marine citizenship
as the rights and responsibilities of an individual towards the marine
environment, with individual marine citizens exhibiting an aware-
ness of, and concern for, the marine environment, an understanding
of the impacts of personal and collective behaviours on the marine
environment, and is motivated to change personal behaviour to
lessen its impact on the marine environment.
The key benefit of marine citizenship for a state is a citizenry that
exhibits pro-marine values and behaves in such a way so as to
reduce environmental impacts on the marine environment, which
delivers state-level marine policy. Citizens therefore act as a policy
channel to deliver the state-driven common goal of a healthy marine
environment. It is possible that a spin-off effect of this will be
greater public willingness to become directly involved in marine
governance processes. This opportunity is enhanced by the transi-
tion in marine governance from centralised approaches to more
inclusive approaches advocated by ICZM and Marine Spatial Plan-
ning (MSP). Examples of this can be seen in the UK’s Marine and
Coastal Access Act (2009), the EU Marine Strategy Framework
Directive (2009), EU ICZM Recommendation (2002), the identifica-
tion of Marine Conservation Zones in England, and internationally,
Canada’s Oceans Act of 1996 [25] and Australia’s Ocean Policy [26].
At present, there is no consensus over the main factors that
constitute marine citizenship, although models of environmental
citizenship can be used as a foundation for establishing its key
elements. Hawthorne and Alabaster’s [19] model of environmental
citizenship is perhaps the most helpful starting point as it illustrates
the complexity of the interlocking influences that shape environ-
mental citizenship. Their model, presented in Fig. 1, illustrates the
diverse range of social, cultural, and economic factors that influence
an individual’s sense of environmental citizenship [19,20]. Their
model clearly shows that citizenship is multi-faceted, with a suite of
influences that collectively shape individual behaviour and attitude
towards the environment. Key amongst the influences is awareness
and knowledge, which underpins the ability to make informed
choices about their personal behaviour and its implications on the
environment [19,20,27,28].
2.2. Awareness, values, and action
Dr. Earle has described the greatest threat facing the oceans as
‘‘ignorance’’ and asserted that ‘‘you have to know about it to care
about it’’, which are powerful arguments for knowledge and educa-
tion being at the heart of marine citizenship [29]. Public perception
studies suggest that awareness and knowledge of the marine
environment is poor, awareness of what behaviours can reduce
personal impact on the marine environment is low, and considera-
tion of the implications of personal behaviour on the marine
environment is rare [30–33]. Despite this, a general sense of
admiration for the marine environment and desire to take a more
active role in marine management has been noted amongst the
public [32]. However, it has also been found that the public do not
feel they have sufficient information to become fully engaged in
marine issues [32,34]. These present serious challenges to the
application of marine citizenship as a policy channel given the key
role of awareness in both McKinley’s [24] marine citizenship and
Hawthorne and Alabaster’s [19] environmental citizenship models.
The observed lack of marine awareness and knowledge has
partially been attributed to a lack of information available to
individuals, limited marine education in schools, and the perception
that individual changed behaviour will be futile [35,30,32]. More
broadly, previous studies have noted that the value of the marine
environment to society is significantly underappreciated [35,30,36],
which is partially attributable to a lack of evidence of the full range
of beneficial services provided to the society by the marine
environment [37,38].
In order to overcome the lack of public awareness and knowledge
of the marine environment, Steel et al. [30] and Castle et al. [35]
suggested that the currently limited levels of public marine educa-
tion should be improved. This recommendation was not restricted to
 E. McKinley, S. Fletcher / Marine Policy 36 (2012) 839–843 841

Fig. 1. Model of environmental citizenship.

Source: Hawthorne and Alabaster [19].

Table 1
SWOT analysis of marine citizenship and its potential role in marine governance (Source: McKinley [24]).

Strengths Weaknesses
The application of marine citizenship could be strengthened by: The application of marine citizenship could be weakened by:
 Encouraging an enhanced public sense of responsibility for their individual/  Currently low levels of public awareness and knowledge of the marine
societal behaviour towards the marine environment; environment;
 Enhancing public understanding of the marine environment;  A lack of accessibility of marine specific information;
 Encouraging public participation in marine governance;  Currently low levels of public capacity for involvement in marine governance;
 Improving the use of local knowledge in marine planning and governance;  A lack of support for effective public inclusion in marine governance;
 Ensuring better evaluation of issues facing users of the marine environment as  A lack of guidelines for the inclusion of the wider public in marine governance.
a result of more inclusive consultation and participation approaches.

Opportunities Threats
The application of marine citizenship will encourage opportunities to The application of marine citizenship could be threatened if
 Improve public responsibility for behaviour towards the marine environment;  The public reject approaches to engender marine citizenship;
 Improve public trust in marine governance bodies;  There is a lack of acceptance among traditional stakeholders that the wider public
 Enhance public acceptance of marine governance strategies; should be included in marine governance;
 Empower the public by encouraging transparency and wider engagement  Formal and informal mechanisms for providing marine education are not
with marine governance; improved;
 Allow consideration of the public as stakeholders of the marine environment;  More effort is not made to improve public awareness, responsibility, and concern
 Prevent conflicts or protests by increasing the capacity for greater inclusion; for the marine environment;
 Improve public understanding of local, regional, national, and international  Strategies for promoting marine citizenship are not made available and accessible
marine issues. in all areas, regardless of proximity to coast and socio-economic factors.

formal education but includes all forms of raising marine awareness,
including community education and outreach programmes [11,7].
Examples of small scale community marine education programmes
in Indonesia [39] and Scotland [40] have demonstrated an increased
understanding of community impacts on the marine environment
and resulted in more ‘marine-aware’ communities [41]. These find-
ings support the view that higher levels of public awareness and
understanding are fundamental to improve marine environmental
health through prompting changed behaviour [11,30]. But impor-
tantly, several authors point out that other factors play a role in
changing personal behaviour, including age, gender, income, and
family background, which suggests that awareness and knowledge
are not the only important considerations in developing marine
citizenship [42,19,43–47]. Socio-economic and demographic variables
therefore present potential barriers to marine citizenship by under-
mining personal capacity to act.
842 E. McKinley, S. Fletcher / Marine Policy 36 (2012) 839–843
Although marine awareness and capacity to act are important
pre-cursors to altered behaviour, it can be argued that these alone
are insufficient to engender marine citizenship or, ultimately,
improve marine environmental health. For example, an individual
might understand the causes of a marine problem and has the
capacity to act to limit his personal contribution to that problem, but
choose not to act, perhaps because he does not value the marine
environment, or obtain no personal benefit from the changed
behaviour. Thus, knowledge and capacity to act are insufficient to
initiate personal behavioural change as it cannot be assumed that
once people are aware of the problems facing the marine environ-
ment and have the capacity to act, that they will act. Instead,
personal values become critical to the application of knowledge.
Personal attitude to life, behaviour, and responsibility will shape
how the knowledge is used within the constraints of personal
capacity to act. This has important implications for marine citizen-
ship, as it implies that raising awareness and understanding of
marine issues must be supported by encouraging a value shift
towards taking personal responsibility for the marine environment.
As such, marine citizenship must have a component focused upon
changing values with respect to the marine environment, as
improved awareness and knowledge are in themselves unlikely to
deliver significant benefits for marine environmental health.
As with any new concept, there are potential strengths and
weaknesses associated with the inculcation of marine citizenship
into society. Table 1 presents a Strength, Weakness, Opportunity,
and Threat (SWOT) Analysis of these factors. The analysis shows that
the potential benefits available from marine citizenship are wide-
ranging and go beyond improvements to marine environmental
health, potentially also including greater levels of public awareness
of the marine environment, a greater degree of public accountability
in marine governance, and recognition of individuals and the wider
public as legitimate marine stakeholders. In order to unlock these
benefits, marine citizenship must overcome barriers including low
levels of public marine environmental awareness, limited public
knowledge of the role of individuals in addressing marine environ-
mental issues (including which behaviours are detrimental and
which are beneficial to the marine environment), socio-economic
barriers to individual capacity to act, and a lack of a coherent
strategy to mobilise individuals as a policy channel.
3. Conclusion
The key assertion of the paper is that through encouraging
marine citizenship within society, individuals can have a tangible
beneficial impact on the health and governance of the marine
environment, particularly when this is considered to be a common
goal of society. Marine citizenship therefore represents a significant
policy opportunity in two principal ways. First is through encoura-
ging a citizenry that is well informed about marine issues with
values that encourage personal responsibility for action that pro-
motes marine environmental health. In order for this change in
societal behaviour to take place, clear agreement on a healthy
marine environment being a common goal of society is required,
as this will be necessary to marshal the required determination from
both politicians and the public. Second, is through encouraging
active involvement in marine governance processes, which would
encourage the development of balanced marine management
regimes that take into account the public view and can use public
behaviour as a policy delivery channel.
These policy opportunities will need to be supported by a
strategy which 1) promote awareness and knowledge of marine
environmental issues; 2) clearly identify and promote individual
scale marine pro-environmental behaviour; 3) assist individuals in
overcoming socio-economic constraints on their personal capacity
to act; 4) to encourage a value-shift in society towards choosing
marine pro-environmental behaviour. The value shift is likely to
come from the development of an altered relationship between the
state and the individual in which the expectations placed on citizens
by the state to which they belong are extended to include marine
pro-environmental behaviour. This is unlikely to be an easy transi-
tion, however, in the view of the authors, there is compelling
evidence that individual behaviour is a key policy channel that at
present is largely unused. It is hoped that the ideas presented in this
paper will prompt reconsideration of the potential role of individual
citizens in marine policy development and implementation. Con-
tributions to this debate are invited and encouraged.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Dr Rebecca Jefferson of the
Centre for Marine and Coastal Policy Research of Plymouth Uni-
versity for her comments on an earlier draft of this paper.
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