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    The Hydraulic Trainer - Volume 3 - Planning and Design of Hydraulic Power Systems

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    Clarence Smith

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Planning and Design of Hydraulic Power Systems A training manual for the planning and design of hydraulic power systems Authors P. Drexler * H. Faatz * F. Feicht * Dr.-Ing. H. Geis * Dr.-Ing. J. Morlok * E. Wiesmann Mannesmann Rexroth AG, Lohr am Main/FRG A. Krielen Hydrocare B.V., Boxtel/Holland Dr.-Ing. N. Achten ¢ M. Reik HYDAC GmbH, Sulzbach/FRG Editors Hans H. Faatz * Rudi A. Lang Mannesmann Rexroth AG, Lohr am Main/FRG Publisher Printer Lithography Photographs and diagrams Publication number Mannesmann Rexoth AG a-97813 Lobe. Main Jahnstrae 3-5 » 0-97816 Lobe, Mann Prone 093 52118-1036 Fax 093 52/18-10.40 Telex 6 89.418rred Hinkel Druck met Halbrunnenineg 12 D-O7877 Werte wartoerg Held GnbH Offserreprodultion May-von-Lave StreBe 36 p.97080 Wurebure HYDAC GmbH, Suzbach Mannesmann Rexath AG, Lohr RE 00 28110489 ist Econ) ISBN 3 8023-0266-4 @ 1988 by Mannesmann Rexroth AG All ight reserved Foreword Modern hydraulic drives and control systems have achieved wide-ranging significance. Together with mechanical, electrical and pneumatic drives they are “state-of-the-art” equipment and have some important advantages which make them outstanding Since hydraulic systems are being used in almost every branch of industry there has naturally been a growth in the demand for good, useful information on the subject. This explains the numerous publications dealing with the components of hydraulic systems and their applications. Ithas become apparent, however, that it is no longer sufficient to study individual components in isolation. The correct interplay of the various parts of a system is more and more the princigal, overriding factor. Users expect, and quite rightly so, that firms who markethydraulic systems should also be accountable for those systems. Of course, this presupposes full competence in the technology. And, increasingly, the users of hydraulic systems are having to acquire the same technical competence. A large number of excellent books have already been written on the subject of hydraulics but none of them deal specifically with hydraulic “systems”; most of them confine themselves to the components. This manual Planning and Design of Hydraulic Power Systems attempts to fill the gap. The manual deals with the way in which the components of hydraulic systems work together. The authors describe exactly what should be involved in the planning, design, manufacture and execution of hydraulic systems. There are numerous tables, diagrams and illustrations to clarify the functional relationships and interdependent aspects of the systems. They are a very useful aid in day-to-day working. Practical examples and the principal relevant standards will be found at the end of each chapter. The manual is not only intended for users, it can also be very useful to those undergoing initial training or retraining. ‘The framework of professional training for hydraulic drive and control technology is constantly expanding. This manual will prove a valuable aid to those interested in keeping their knowledge of the subject up-to-date. The manual is the result of a team effort and thanks are due to all the authors for their contributions, Special thanks must go to Messrs. Hans H. Faatz and Rudi A. Lang who undertook the general coordination of the project. Mannesmann Rexroth AG Lohr am Main, Contents Foreword Contents Planning Hydraulic Systems Dr. Harald Geis Introduction Planning procedure . ‘A description of the flowchart Documentation of practical experience ... Economics A guide to proect design... ‘An example of project design ‘Symbols and subscripts. References Hydraulic Fluids Peter Drexler Introduction ... Requirements: of hydraulic fluids - Propeties and selection criteria of mineral oiLbas Fire-resistant fuids and their selection Designing hydraulic systems... Changing fluids The major relevant standards References. The Thermal Design of Hydraulic Systems Hans H. Faatz Introduction Basic principles ........ Heat gain through heating .. Heat gain through losses Heat loss through components Heat balance for hydraulic systems Controlling the thermal status ... Hardware for thermal control .. Practical applications and typical calculations ‘Symbols and subscripts References ..... Hydraulic Accumulators Dr.-Ing. N. Achten Introduction Types of hydro-pneumatic ‘accumulator . Design of hycro-pneumatic accumulators Typical Calouations....... Typical applications. Safety regulations Accessories for hydropneumaic “accumulators . ‘Symbols and subscripts Symbols .... References Safety Regulations for Accumulators in Hydraulic Systems Hans H. Faatz 1. Introduction . 433 2 Terms... 134 3. Typical circuits 137 4 The relationship between the sections cf this chapter and the official regulations 144 5 Acceptance specifications for hydraulic accumulators in various countries. 142 Filtration in Hydraulic Systems Martin Reik 1 Introduction .. 147 2 Functions of filters in hydraulic systems... 148 3 Requirements for hydraulic filters 52 4 The hydraulic fluid teas 167 5 Designing hydraulic fiters 174 6 Practical examples of filter design ... 198 7. Instructions for operation and maintenance. 196 8 Symbols and subscripts leneen 198 9 International standards .......-..m10- 199 Steelwork Design for Power Units Hans H. Faatz 4. Introduction . a 201 2 Design of steelwork suitable for welding . 201 3. Design of hydraulic power units 204 4 Sub-assemblies eoronne 206 5 References 220 Noise Reduction Dr. Joachim Moriok 1 The task .. 223 2 First a itie physics. 223 3 Source and effect 228 4 Noise emission from displacement pumps and its reduction 280 5 Noise emission from valves and its reduction . 296 6 Reducing system noise 298 7 Summary 250 8 Symbols and boars - 51 9 References. 252 The Sizing of Pipework in Hydraulic Systems Dr-Ing. Norbert Achten Introduction ... Determning the inside diameter or bore Selecting the material Nominal. pressures Calculating the wall thickness Calculating the pressure losses ... Examples sn Mechanical properties of tube materials and tube solecton tables . Sybase ah References .. Sooronaens The Production and Installation of Pipework Amold Krielen and Hans H. Faatz 1. Introduction 275 2 Planning 275 B PIPES oe 276 4 Pipe fitings 276 5 Accessories... 285 8 Producion of tydraulic pipework 297 7 Installation of hydraulic pipework 306 & Flushing hydraulic. systems... 310 Internal Protection of Hydraulic Components and Power Units Erhard Wiesmann General .. Methoes of protection Protective fluids A, B and C Internal protection procedure Extemal protection procedure . opens "1 External Corrosion Protection by Painting Erhard Wiesmann 1 General 2 Anti-comosion design... 3 Surface preparation... 4. Selecting paints according to coroding media ard environmental factors 5 Single-component paint systems. : 6 Two-component paint systems 7 Applying paint 8 Methods of painting. 9. Paintwork for hydraulic power unils and equipment for hydraulic engineering . 40 Special customized painting . Danger classes and warning signs The principal relevant standards References iataind este on Packing and Transport Erhard Wiesmann General Corrosion protection for packed hydraulic equipment Load dmensions, limits and regulations ... Ling points for hydraulic equipment Packing hydraulic equipment Packing hydraulic power units eaten mer 8 References .. i Noasens Commissioning Hydraulic Installat Franz X. Feicht 1 Preparations: fr ‘oommnisoring 339 2 Commissioning. 340 3 The most common errofs in COMMISSION vcr nnnnnnnn ooo ne 342 4 Summary ‘ 342 Maintaining Hydraulic Installations Franz X. Feicht 4. Introduction 2 Maintaining hycraulic installations... 3. Summary . Keyword Index 13 Planning Hydraulic Systems Impetus/Order/Marketing L Precise statement of task ¥ Funcion diagram and circuit diagram of planned system solutions to similar problems’, Data bank Prepare state diagam and Grout diagram Design output drive Estabish power flow x z Establish signal flow ¥ x Select control unit x Select power unit _Projest desion phase Tritial calculations Business of technical strategy necessary? No Prepare quotation {ssue_quotation Customer agreed? Fig. 2 Flowchart for the planning and job progressing of hydraulic systems 17 Planning Hydraulic Systems ‘The frst step of the planning procedure fs to gather al the data and arrange it in a clear, easily-aocessble way. A sensible course of action is to prepare a general ques- tionnaire to which extra questions relating to specific projects can be added when necessary. This question- naire will form the framework of the planning procedure ‘and, amorgst other things, t should contain the following facts: The motion sequence with the force or torque require- ments of each motion and the necessary dynamic re- sponse ard natural frequency. The load sequence, ie. including the intervals when there is no fluid or pressure requirement or where only pressure is required. This Is particularly advantageous for optimum design when con- sidering hydraulic accumulator systems, for example. ‘Amotion sequence expressed in words is often difficut to Understand, incomplete and, primarily, unclear. This is particularly true of difficult sequences involving several actuators whose motions overlap. A diagram, on the other hand, provides both user and ‘manufacturer with a common, simple and clear means of communication with brief notes inserted where necessa- ry for even better understanding. ‘Take a plastics moulding machine as an example. Here Wwe use a movement-time diagram in which the motion sequence is shown as in Diagram 1. The ram moves in rapid traverse up to the moulding charge, ie. as quickly as possible, is decelerated and then compresses the charge with a force which increases in a predetermined time sequence. The forward motion has to be stopped when a certain force is reached but the force must to be sustained for a short time, ‘After curing comes controlled decompression followed by the ram travaling back to its starting position. This is followed by a fixed interval for ejection and the introduc tion of a new charge of plastic. Itis easy to see that the diagram provides a good over- view of this procedure, especially when there are several similar and overlapping sequences in a system, Sustain pressure 18 Planning Hydraulic Systems There are basically 2 types of function diagram [1] a Movement diagram This shows the interplay of the various elements. It is suitable for simple sequences, draft designs and tender sketches. b State diagram This shows the sequence of functions of the elements involved as a motion diagram with its interlocking con- trols. Station Components Driver Nama Code Status | Unit”) Value| Unit | ' | 1A.| Hydraulic pimp | m2_-| rotating. | revimin’ 1800) - of n aed i Boring’ spindle m1 | rotating’ revimin 1000] asian 0} 7 i Slide ‘unit! 1A | forward mm | 500} Hydraulic. cylinder | "C1 | t 400;- 4 back Direetional teria ‘control valve 0 } 81.10 Directional 12) | -stza | : aia contel valve | e120 | SE Diagiam 2: State diagram for a hydraulic cylinder [2] ‘The actual design of the hydraulic system can begin once the Ist of requirements and function diagram have been established, 19 Planning Hydraulic Systems 3.2 Des ig the output drive Deciding on the value of operating pressure is very important in selecting a suitable hycraulic actuator, ie. linear of rotary. Together with the forces and speeds required for the particular tas it helps determine the size of the machine and therefore its cost. In selecting @ maximum operating pressure {t must be remembered that it must be at least equal to or greater than the sum of the rated pressure of the system and is losses, Prinaxt ® Prax. = Pinstaation + Poa a) 3.21 Estimating the maximum system pressure required A useful first step is to make a rough estimation of the rated pressure from the nominal forces required. in practice, a correction based on experience and depen- ding on the particular type of system (open or closed loop), would then be added to this value. Itis, in fact, an estimat- ed pressure drop. A more accurate determination of Pra we CAN Only be made wien the type of equipment to be used in the system has been decided Determining the system pressure needs experience. Table 1 can be used for guidance for some common types of system. The following example of a cylinder shows how an approximate theoretical determination of the operating pressure is performed: ‘The required nominal force F, neglecting the losses in the cylinder, can be calculated from the following formula: Fyopra @ for continuity of flow: Q-V A> A= av 3 and substituing Equation 3 in 2 gives a Fun (4) This simple example shows how, when certain forces are required for example, the level of operating pressure in- fluences bath the volumetric flow (adapting the displace- ment or deivery to the particular task) and the size of equipment, Also, maximum values of operating pressure are laid down for certain fluids. Let us examine the indi- vidual parameters and their influences. 20 a Pressure level According to Equation 2, increasing the pressure level allows smaller (le. cheaper) equipment, smaller bore pipes and improved specific pressure loss efficiencies Pint tosses he Pin On the other hand, the cooling properties are poorer because the volumetric flow is less and therefore the tank. volume is made Jess (less tank surface area), \n addition, leakage is greater, there is more wear due to fricion and erosion (undissolved gas bubbles trapped in the sealing clearances) therefore shorter service life and volume variation due to compression, reduced stitess in the system, less favourable dynamic characterstios and higher noise levels due to higher peak pressures during control moverents. b Volumetric flow According to Equation 3, increasing the volumetric flow in the system alsa noreases the flow volociy it must be remembered, however, that pressure loss increases with the square of the velocity. Pinst. losses © — Size of equipment This influences the weight and, especially, the capital cost of an installation. The space available for installation and the directly associated pressure losses must also be taken into account when making a choice. \n addition to the points that have been mentioned there are other economic aspects such as the question: ‘What valves and devices are available as standard?” In the case of an installation that is operated continuous- ly, for example, the need for high efficiency is much more important than fora system that is used only occasionally. In actual practice, certain pressure ranges have become the norm for frequently-used systems which. closely approach the optimum in terms of function and economic efficiency. The examples in Table 1 show some of the most common pressure ranges employed in various industries. Planning Hydraulic Systems Application ‘Subdivision into market areas Hydraulic systems’ in ‘Operating pressure range Py in bar Foundries and rolling. mills. Walking beam conveyors, 460) to 180 handing systems, roll ames SAS to" 420 Machine ‘tools Planers; siottet; dlls lathes and grinders, | 50. to. 100 hydraulic clamps. 50 to 300 Intemational aulomobile industry 46 to) 120 Industrial Presses: General presses, 250° to 315 thydraulics ‘special-purpose presses, 400 to. 600 high-pressure. presses to 1000 Plastics machinery Injection-moulding and 150) to 210 blow-noulding machines, 28) to 315 Speciat-purpose machines 300 to 450 Test stands tast beds Materials test stands 260. to 290 Simulators Hydraulics in.steel. | Steelwork construction and ‘Theare engineering, moving’ stages, 100 to 150 work constuction, | ei enginaering winches, curtains, ef elvil_ engineering theatre. engineering reactor engineering, ait locks 80° to 100 and power station ‘steam turbine governors, 420 to, 250 construction weir systems, Jocks, 700 to» 220 moving, bridges, ropeways”and iis 169.10 250 Hydraulies in Mining and water bydiaulies | Hydraulic: ropeway drives: 200 fo. 260 mining loaders, cutters, 200 to 280 roof supports, 320. to 420 ‘tunnel. driving machines Agrcultural engineering Tractors, combine harvesters, to 100 harvesting machines: Mobile hydraulics Mobile. Hydraulics Transport systems, cranes, 460! to 250 fork-Hit trucks, bulldozers, excavators. tunnelling, machines 380 to 420 ‘Special applications Transmissions, 150. to’ 400 aircraft rudder actuators Piston pumps ‘Specal-purpose machines, to, 315 Special-purpose’ Hycrostatio transmissions = rotating drives for hydraulics: — incustry eas — mobile machines to 420 — testbeds 10. 300 ‘secondary. control. systems. to, 300 winches: to 200 Piston pumps! Steering gear, 150 to -250 Marine Hyctostatic:iransmission deck cranes, 18010 309 hydraulics bow doors, to 200 bulkhead valves to 200 Tab 1: Normal operating prescures in some typical hydraulic systems and installations 21 Planning Hydraulic Systems 3.22 Selecting output devices When the cperating pressure level has been estimated, the next step is to begin deciding on the type of output devices required. In general, the output unit comprises either hydraulic cylinders or hydraulic motors. Both will now be described in some detail 3.22.1 Hydraulic cylinders (linear motion) ‘There are 3 basic requirement criteria a Velocity b Stroke (position) c Force It is possible for them to occur either singly or in different combinations. ‘As the bass for selecting a hydraulic cylinder the folo- wing performance details are taken from the statement of task, such as: — Required force sequence It must first of all be remembered that in addition to the required force on the piston various other forces are present. These are frictional force between piston, guides and seals coderation forces the force required to eject the oil out of the other end of the cyiinder(at the required cylinder speed) force due weight These are additive Foran = Fy + Fy + Ft Fu + Fy 6) “The caleulation of the piston area takes into account the approximate supplementary force F,, through the hydraulio-mechanical efficiency. Flow losses within the ‘hydraulic cylinder are not taken into account because of their insignificant magnitude provided the szes of the connections are appropriate. Within the rated pressure range and when @ single—od cyiinder is extending, a guide value ‘or the hydro-mech- arical friction is y,4= 0.98 and for the retum stroke, Thy = 9.85 10.0.9, The spectic value of depends on the td@rances at the piston and piston-rod guides and the seal type. Fig. 3 Forces acting on piston and piston rod 22 Case 1: Extending hydraulic cylinder pe PAHs a) east p, can be negloced it itis equal to atmospheric pressure. Case 2: Piston retum (stroke) ara Foes P2*®*nma——— @) Tht In this case it must be pointed out that, with single-rod hydraulic cylinders, there are design reasons why the atea ratio must not be less than a certain figure [3). ae Tim? Fie — Speed of rapid traverse, working and retum strokes The folowing relationshps are applicable to the wo cases mentioned above - Caso 1 (extending) and Case 2 (retracting): ye a wee 2 which give! % w (11) wp where @ is the area ratio = Piston travel, stroke time, dwell time and operating pressure These depend on the size of the equipment and are taken into account in the design of the hydraulic cylinder [4], For very strict demiands on accuracy of positioning there are three different possible solutions a Servo cylinder b Electro-hydraulic linear amplifier ¢ Multi-position cylinder ‘A more detailed description of the construction and mode Of operation of these items wall be found in [2] and [5}- Planning Hydraulic Systems — Buckling if piston rod is relatively thin and there is a high thrust acting on it it is advisable to caloulate the buckling (6). This is particularly important in the case of "strength" hy- dravlc cylinders with long strokes which are installed at cr rear the horizontal because they ere then subject to addtional lateral forees due to bending (as shown in Fig.4 ) Fig. 4 Forces acting on a hyaulc oye insted horizontaly 3.2.2.2 Hydrauli When selectng hydraulic motors it is necessary to take into account performance quantities such as — speed and speed ranges motors (rotary motion) — torque and power, both peak and continuous — type of lead (constant or fluctuating) — type of duty = constant of variable displacement — angular acceleraton — swivel times of control systems = magnitude of starting torque — steady-state motion in the low spoed range ~ ‘ype of operating medium ‘With these operating parameters in mind, the project engineer can select a suitable hydraulic motor from the maker's catalogue [5] As an aid to selection, Table 2 lists the basic design features and principal characteristics of hydraulic motors. It's advisable to discuss the planned appication with the manufacturer. ‘When selecting a hydraulic motor it must be remembered that the losses which occur depend both on the type of ‘construction and the size of the motor. This point is, particularly important with large installed powers and long working hours, ie. when there is high ultlization of the motor. The causes of losses are the same with all hydraulic machines, motors and pumps alike, Leakage losses in- crease the effective displacement whereas hydraulic mechanical losses effectively reduce the output torque below the theoretical value, Remember that the max- imum pressures listed in Table 2 are above the permitted continuous operating pressures of the systems. The pressures are quoted in accordance with DIN 24312, As high system pressures are being used it is essential, in order to avoid high volumetric losses, for the displace- ment element to. move within its surrounding walls with minimal clearance. At the same time, however, the gap between the displacement element and the surrounding walls, e.9. a piston in a cylinder tore, must not be 100, small otherwise the friction losses will be excessive, Le. those from the hydraulic-mechanical source. These facts are applicable to all types of displacement machines and it can therefore be concluded that the volumetric and hydraulicmechanical losses are the main factors governing the efficiency and operating characteristics of hydrostatic machines and installations, Operating pressuie p> Gomiprossibiity losses > Hijsiaulte’mech~ ___ nical losses mecharical ttiction loses Zz thie Diagram 3: Schematic of the losses in a hydrostatic machine (motor) Volumetric fossas We will now examine the main types of losses, 23 Planning Hydraulic Systems y Nominal size, | ‘Speed range: Rexroth i | Pray aceoraing | Starting Eti- sasigna- | displacement | > p to'sco | charac | Noise | ciency ‘Type of motor tion. incm® Inbar | ~ th tevimin teristics |" level | 1) pre Gear motors Ge 61038 280 | ‘5000 dodo 85 Gs | | Bent A2EM 10 to 250 450 50 10 6000 92 | avis A2FE | 2810180 | 450 50,10 4750 | i types | A2F/BRS.| 35510 1000 | 400 50 to 2240 axal B | Swesh | AaEM 22and 28 450 30 10 4000 ot piston plate § |, more types : Slow-spead | MCS | 20001500 | 250, 5 to 500 0 ‘types mca) Mc(6) Orbittype mza | cotoz | 205 40 to 1900. 85 i motors MzD MzF zk | | Gam-ring MCR | 500 to. 3000 | 450 310250 91 ype Radial piston si = motors’ | Eccentric typo | MR | 190% 7000 | 420 110.500 2 = Radial piston “motors Mav | 19016 7000 | 420 4 10 500 ae : steees g Bentars | AsvM | 280355 | 450. | 50 to 8000" 2 $8) nvar ‘ye ABV 28 to 107 3B | piston 8 | moors | Swash-piate | AtovM 45 315 | 300 36007" 3 e type AAVS * | 40 to 250 400 6 to 4900 ™ 3S ‘Arovso" | 28 71 315 | 4016 3600 a : ay er Hw 2 == excellent “+ Suitable for use in load matching (secondary cortrol) circuits “Values only applicable, when untited, ‘Tatle*2: Comparison o' diferent types of motor from their principal characteristics. The data is taken from catalogue data [5] and refers to minora! oil as the operating medium 24 Planning Hydraulic Systems Volumetric losses These arise from the flow through cleerances when there is a pressure differential present and other forms of leakage. This gives: @,=Q,+ 2, (12) Q, = Effective volumetric flow Q,, = Clearance flow and the volumetric efficiency becomes: =O | Ba ne SE 2 Friction in narrow clearances between components moving relative to each other cause hydrauic-mecha- nical losses, with the result that the motor output torque M,, is less than the theoretical motor torque M, based on the pump pressure and the theoretical disolacement volume of the motor. My, =P + Oy Mae ee ae Thus, the overall effciency becomes Mi 25 Me w® Nin? Won Spr oe 04 where a=2+ m+n This means that the output power is: Pag? My?’ Ap +O, + ayy (18) Flow losses These aise due to changes in flow direction and at throttling points and variations in cross section, The flow of fluid loses some of its energy in overcoming these resistances. The actual amount must be determined by experiment and depands on the geometry of the component, the velocity and the specific gravity of the fluid, Because of the olose relationship between frictional losses from in- temal components and changes in direction, vortices, etc., in practice, designers use a loss index & A i gab aeGrEe (16) where 4 = Fipe triction coefficient 1 = Pipe length d= Pipe diameter & = Loss index of individual components The pressure loss can then be determined from: 2 aehig’ ’ Pripotena = €°5+9 (7) where 7 is the mean velocity of the fluid 25 Planning Hydraulic Systems 3.3 Selecting the control unit 3.3.1 Task of the contro! unit The task of the control unit is to link the function of the input drive system with that of the output drive system according to predetermined rules. It is necessary to distinguish between a Power flow or the flow of the fluid in direction, magnitude and pres- sure level from the hydraulic tank to the actuator, includ ing any necessary devices such as valves, and b Signal flow the task of which is to collect and process all external data necessary for controling the power flow according the function to be performed. The signal flow thus transfers information smoothly into power flow. Fig. 5 The task of signal flow Fig. 6 How signal flow works together with power fow ‘Once the circuit diagram and required output power are known, the nominal sizes of the individual actuators and control devices are also fixed. A free choice of valve actuation remains. This can be mechanical (lever or cam), electrical, electronic, hydraulic or pneumatic or, for optimum operation, a combination of one or more of these 26 3.3.2 Determining the signal flow ‘The rules for determining the signal flow are laid down in the functon diagram to VDI 3260 (see Section 3.1) and in the statement of task for the installation. In many cases the planner of the hydraulics does not have an overview of the complete signalling system, so close co-operation with other experienced control specialists, ie. electronic and electrical engineers, necessary Planning Hydraulic Systems 3.33 Determination of the contro! of the power flow At this stage of the planning itis sensible to decide on the control of the power flow — which is naturally closely linked to the signal flow — i.e. to select all the valves and fitings necessary for proper functioning of the hydrauiic system. The basis for this is onoe again the function diagram and the poripheral factors of the statement of task which gover the type and size of the valves. It is also nacessary to decide where, in the hydraulic system, the individual valves must be fitted In order to Perform their tasks. This is partcularly true of pressure valves, flow valves and check valves, and it also has an effect on the accessi- bility of the installation and its flow characteristics. Mode of operation and technical data of the individual devices are dealt with in [5], {6] and 7] When selecting the different control elements, there are certain common features that can be formulated: — mode of operation (binary, digital, analog, propor- tional) — static and dynamic characteristics ~ efficiency — space required — cost ~ reliability — safety features — maintenance cost. Devices which take their funetion signals from the signal flow must be coordinated with it so that no uncontrolled reactions can take place. 3.3.4 Selecting a method of measurement In order to ascertain the effect of the signal flow on the power flow it is necessary to measure various operating states, primarily hydraulic variables such as pressure, flow and temperature. In addition, it may be necessary to measure mochanical variables

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