Jasg 0 ― Cfefkfedõl hukala

^rgsgltamf pfr

– Eudma tu Gcdala Iucdgth Uuargz Bralamfs

Eõmdbf 1>14>424=8

eugrpf gs gc Brupf 15>

ùldef cubar qug ^rgsgltamf a

Kalugc Ifsä Hgrlálmgz

tdglgs para vdvdr  Wldvgrsdmam Laedflac A`dgrta y a Mdstaleda WLAM

Aeflmdedflakdgltf jsdef y `dglgstar

Fetu`rg mgc 0>0>

‛
 

Udstgka Õsgf
Juledõl
― Ufpfrtg9 ^rfvggl ul euamrf rëbdmf mg sfpfrtg para cfs kùseucfs y tgidmfs
― ^rftgeedõl9 Jfrkal vardas eavdmamgs qug prftgbgl a cfs õrbalfs dltgrlfs mg

pfsd`cgs traukaskfs
― Kfvdkdgltf9 Braedas a cfs kùseucfs qug sg dlsgrtal gl cfs hugsfs a tra
traväs
väs mg
cfs tglmflgs y su efltraeedõl sdlerfldzama, sg prfmueg gc kfvdkdgltf.
― Hfkgfstasds kdlgrac9 Gc tgidmf õsgf ackaegla ula sgrdg mg kdlgracgs,
gspgedackgltg eacedf y õsfrf, lgegsardfs para ca efltraeedõl kuseucar y ftras
uledflgs.
― ^rfmueedõl mg eäcucas salbuëlgas9 Wl tgidmf eflgevf mglfkdlamf kämuca
õsga rfia prfmueg cas eäcucas salbuëlgas rfias.
― Ackaeäl mg brasas mg rgsgrva9 ca kgmuca akardcca eflsdstg prdledpackgltg gl
amdpfedtfs efl ulfs pfefs hgkags mdspgrsfs.
^ärgz, I , Barmgy, A (0>1=) Mgldedfl.mg9 Mgldedõl mg sdstgka
õsgf _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//mgldedfl.mg
hps9//mgldedfl.mg/sdstgk
/sdstgka-
a-
fsgf/
 

Mdvdsdõl mgc sdstgka õsgf

Gc gsqugcgtf hukalf eflsta mg 0>: hugsfs.
Ug abrupal gl9
• gsqugcgtf axdac9 frkamf
frkamf pfr 8> hugsfs. Mg
Mg ca ea`gza, eugccf y trflef.
• gsqugcgtf apglmdeucar frkamf pfr 10: hugsfs. Mg cfs kdgk`rfs, dlecudmas cas
edlturas gseapucar y pgcvdala.

^ucdmf,U (0>1=) Mgldedfl.mg9 Mgldedõl mg sdstgka

sdstgka õsgf
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//mgldedfl.mg
hps9//mgldedfl.mg/sdstgk
/sdstgka-fsgf/
a-fsgf/
 

Gstruetura mg cfs hugsfs

Wl hugsf carbf (efkf gc äkur f gc hùkgrf) eflsta mg cas
sdbudgltgs partgs9
 - Mdájsds9 gs gc eugrpf f pfredõl edcëlmrdea prdledpac mgc hugsf.
 - Gpëjsds9 sfl cfs gxtrgkfs prfxdkac y mdstac mgc hugsf.
 - Kgtájsds9 gs gc sdf mg uldõl mg ca mdásds efl ca gpësds? su
gspgsfr va mdskdluyglmf efl ca gmam.
 - Earcabf areucar9 gs ula eapa mgcbama mg earcabf hdacdlf
qug eu`rg ca partg mg ca gpësds mg ul hugsf qug sg areuca efl
ftrf hugsf.
- ^grdfsf9 gs ula eapa rgsdstgltg mg tgidmf eflgevf mglsf qug
rfmga ca supgredg õsga
õs ga qug lf glg earcabf areucar.
areucar. ^rftgbg
ac hugsf, paredpa gl ca rgparaedõl mg raeturas, efca`fra gl ca
lutrdedõl mgc hugsf, y sdrvg efkf pultf mg dlsgredõl mg
tglmflgs y cdbakgltfs.
- Eavdmam kgmucar9 gs gc gspaedf dltgrlf mg ca mdásds qug
eflglg a ca kämuca õsga akardcca brasa.
@gctral,^ (0>0>) Cas 15 partgs mg cfs hugsfs y earaetgrëseas
- Glmfsf9 gs ca eapa qug rgeu`rg ca eavdmam kgmucar,
kgmucar, y eflglg
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//kgm
hps9//kgmdefpcus.efk/kgmde
defpcus.efk/kgmdedla-
dla- eäcucas frkamfras mg hugsf.
bglgrac/partgs-hugsfs
 

]dpfs mg Hugsfs

Ca uledõl mg cfs hugsfs pcalfs gs prftgb

prftgbgrgr cfs õrbalfs dltgrlfs
efkf gc gleäacf, gc efrazõl y cfs õrbalfs pgcvdalfs. Cfs hugsfs
pcalfs pugmgl `rdlmar prftgeedõl, Gstál gl ca gstruetura õsga mg ca
ea`gza (feedpdtac, pardgtac, rfltac, lasac, cabrdkac y võkgr), ca eaia
tfráedea (gstgrlõl y efsccas) y ca pgcvds (dcdfl, dsqudfl y pu`ds)

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) Gl bglgrac 9 cfs edlef pfs mg hugsfs

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/sogcgtfl/typgs-f-`flgs

Ca uledõl mg cfs hugsfs carbfs gs sfpfrtar gc pgsf mgc eugrpf y

aedcdtar cfs kfvdkdgltfs. Cfs hugsfs carbfs sg u`deal
prdledpackgltg
prdledpack gltg gl gc gsqugcgtf apglmdeucar g dlecuygl hugsfs
gl cfs kdgk`rfs dlgrdfrgs (ca `da, gc pgrflä, gc äkur, cfs
kgtatarsdalfs y cas acalbgs) y hugsfs gl cfs kdgk`rfs
supgrdfrgs (gc hùkgrf, gc ramdf, gc eù`dtf, cfs kgtaearpdalfs y
cas acalbgs).
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) Gl bglgrac 9 cfs edlef pfs mg hugsfs
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/sogcgtfl/typgs-f-`flgs
 

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) Gl bglgrac 9 cfs edlef pfs mg hugsfs
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/sogcgtfl/typgs-f-`flgs

Cfs hugsfs efrtfs sg u`deal gl cas areucaedflgs mg ca kuñgea y gc

tf`dccf, prfpfredflal gsta`dcdmam y pgrkdtgl acbulfs kfvdkdgltfs. Cfs
hugsfs earpdalfs gl ca kuñgea y cfs tarsdalfs gl cfs tf`dccfs.

 ]dglgl ula frka `astaltg efkpcgia, qug ayuma a

prftgbgr cfs õrbalfs dltgrlfs. Cas värtg`ras, hugsfs
drrgbucargs mg ca efcukla vgrtg`rac, prftgbgl ca
kämuca gspdlac. Cfs hugsfs drrgbucargs mg ca pgcvds
prftgbgl õrbalfs mg ca eavdmam pgcvdala.

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) Gl bglgrac 9 cfs edlef pfs mg

hugsfs _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
Gstfs pgqugñfs hugsfs rgmflmfs ha`dtuackgltg sg hps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/sogcgtfl/typgs-
f-`flgs
gleugltral
gleugltr al gl cfs tglmflgs mg cas kalfs, rfmdccas y pdgs.
Ca uledõl mg cfs hugsfs sgsakfdmgfs gs prftgbgr cfs
tglmflgs mgc gsträs y gc mgtgrdfrf
mgtgrdfrf..

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) Gl bglgrac 9 cfs edlef pfs mg hugsfs
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
 hps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/sogcgtfl/typgs f `flgs
 

^rdledpacgs Hugsfs Õsgfs

• Erálgf9 Gs gc hugsf kás murf mgc eugrpf, ya qug prftgbg gc õrbalf kás vdtac mg
tfmfs9 gc egrg`rf.
• Efsccas9 Zdglgl gl pargs sdkätrdefs gl gc tfrsf, y prftgbgl mg dkpaetfs a ca
kayfrëa mg cfs õrbalfs dltgrlfs mgc tõrax. Gstál mdsgñamfs para pgrkdr gc
dlamf mg cfs puckflgs sdl prf`cgka.
• Eù`dtf y ramdf9 Cfs hugsfs mgc `razf, qug vdglgl gl par y ulf sf`rg gc ftrf,
 iultal ca
ca kuñgea efl gc altg`raz
altg`razf.
f.
• Hùkgrf9 Gc hugsf mgc altg`razf, qug eflgeta gc eù`dtf y gc ramdf efl cfs
hfk`rfs.
• Efcukla vgrtg`rac9 W`deama gl ca gspacma, gs ula sgrdg mg hugsgedccfs f
värtg`ras
•
qug prftgbgl ca kämuca gspdlac.
^gcvds9  Ug gleugltra gl cas eamgras y iulta cas pdgrlas efl ca efcukla vgrtg`rac.
•Jäkur9 Gc hugsf kás carbf mgc eugrpf, u`deamf gl cfs kuscfs.
•]d`da y pgrflä9 Zdglgl gl par y eflgetal gc äkur efl cfs hugsfs mgc pdg.
•Efxac9 Hugsf mg ca eamgra qug efkuldea
efkuldea gc trflef efl cas pdgrlas.

Ua`gr,, ^ (0>12) prdledpacgs hugsfs mgc eugrpf hukalf _Dkabgl[

Ua`gr
Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//www.sa`grgspr
hps9//www .sa`grgspraeef.efk/
aeef.efk/alatfkda/prdledpacgs-hug
alatfkda/prdledpacgs-hugsfs-
sfs-
 mgc eugrpf hukalf/
 

Udstgka Kuseucar
Juledõl
 Cfefkfedõl9
• ggetuar gc mgspcazakdgltf mg ca salbrg y gc kfvdkdgltf mg cas
gxtrgkdmamgs.
• õ rbalfs dltgrlfs9 gc sdstgka kuseucar gs gc glearbamf
 Aevdmam kftfra mg cfs õrbalfs
mg haegr qug tfmfs lugstrfs õrbalfs
õrbalfs mgsgkpgñgl sus uledflgs.
•
 Dlfrkaedõl mgc gstamf jsdfcõbdef9 Bglgra tgledõl ac kfkgltf mg ca prfmueedõl
mg mfcfr mgc õrbalf agetamf
•Këkdea9 gc efliultf mg cas aeedflgs aedacgs qug sdrvgl para gxprgsar cf qug
sglkfs y pgred`dk
pgred`dkfs.
fs.
• Gsta`dcdmam9 cfs kùseucfs efliultakgltg efl cfs hugsfs pgrkdtgl ac eugrpf

kaltglgrsg
• ^fstura9 gc gsta`cg
efltrfc mg cas pfsdedflgs qug rgacdza gc eugrpf gl gstamf mg rgpfsf.
•^rfmueedõl mg eacfr9 ac prfmuedr efltraeedflgs kuseucargs sg frdbdla glgrbëa
eacõrdea.
• Jfrka9 cfs kùseucfs y tglmflgs mal gc aspgetf pdef mgc eugrpf.
• ^rftgeedõl9 ^ara gc `ugl uledflakdgltf mgc sdstgka mdbgsvf efkf cfs õrbalfs
Bgrarm, I (0>18) Wldmam mdmáeea 1>9 gc sdstgka kuseucar
kuseucar vdtacgs.
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//`cfbs.ubtf.kx/
hps9//`cfbs. ubtf.kx/glgrkg
glgrkgrdaglcdlga/uldmam-mdmaeea-1>-
rdaglcdlga/uldmam-mdmaeea-1>-
 gc sdstgka kuseucar/
 

Mdvdsdõl mgc Udstgka Kuseucar

Lf hay ul lùkgrf gxaetf mg kùseucfs gl gc

eugrpf. @ásdeakgltg pfrqug cas fpdldflgs mg cfs
gxpgrtfs gl gc tgka eak`dal, acbulfs gxpgrtfs
subdgrgl qug hay :54 kùseucfs gl tftac, kdgltras
qug ftrfs subdgrgl qug hay kás.

Eurdfsfalmf.efk (0>18) "¶Quä pfs mg kùseucfs hay gl gc sdstgka

kuseucar hukalf6– _Dkabgl[. Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//eurdfsfalmf.efk/qug-pfs-mg-kuseucfs-hay
hps9//eurdfsfalmf.efk/qug-pfs-mg-kuseucfs-hay-gl-gc-sdstgk
-gl-gc-sdstgka-
a-
kuseucar-hukalf
 

Gstruetura mg cfs Kùseucfs

Mgltrf mgc kùseucf mdslbudkfs9
•Glmfkdsdf9 Gs gc aseëeucf qug glvugcvg y sgpara ula `ra mg
ftra.
•^grdkdsdf9 Gs gc tgidmf eflgevf qug glvugcvg a eama –paqugtg‛
mg `ras mglfkdlamf aseëeucf.
•

Gpdkdsdf9 Gs ca eapa mg tgidmf eflgevf qug glvugcvg ac

kùseucf.
Iusqugra, K (0>15) ¶ Mg qug gsta frkamf gc kuseucf6– _Dkabgl[.
Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//www
hps9//www.sdftgrapda
.sdftgrapda-flcdlg.efk/areucfs
-flcdlg.efk/areucfs/mg-qug-
/mg-qug-
gsta-frkamf-gc-kuseucf
Mgltrf mg cas `ras kuseucargs mdslbudkfs9
•Uarefcgka9 gs ula la kgk`rala qug glvugcvg a ula `ra
kuseucfgsqugcäea.
• Uarefpcaska9 gs ca eapa dltgrdfr mg cas `ras gl mflmg sg
gleugltral9
 Kdfd`rdccas9 sfl bralmgs kfcäeucas prftgdeas
pfcdkgrdzamas rgspflsa`cgs mg ca efltraeedõl kuseucar
rgac.
 Gstrëas Y9 sfl pgqugñas cëlgas qug mdvdmgl cas kdfd`rdccas
kdfd`rdccas
Iusqugra, K (0>15) ¶ Mg qug gsta frkamf gc kuseucf6– _Dkabgl[.  Uarefkgrf9 gs ca uldmam `ásdea mg efltraeedõl kuseucar
Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//www
hps9//www.sdftgrapda
.sdftgrapda-flcdlg.efk/areucfs
-flcdlg.efk/areucfs/mg-
/mg-
 qug-gsta-frkamf-gc-kuseucf
 

Efkpfsdedõl quëkdea mg cfs kùseucfs

1. Abua
0. ^rftgëlas y efkpugstfs ldtrfbglamfs. Gltrg gstas sustaledas
s ustaledas sg gleugltral9
•  gc kdõbglf (prftgëla mgc sarefpcaska)
•  ca Kdfbcf`dla qug uledfla efkf tralspfrtamfr mg Fxëbglf.
•  Ca kdfsdla, Bcf`ucdla eflstudma pfr eamglas mg ^fcdpäpmfs
•  ca aela, prftgëla qug apargeg gl mfs frkas9 ca B-aetla mg jfrka bcf`ucar  y  y
ca J-aetla mg jfrka `rfsa .
Efkf eugrpfs mgrdvamfs mg cas prftgëlas bural9
- gc jfsjábglf, qug ac hdmrfcdzarsg cd`gra eacfr y aetùa efkf mflamfr mg õsfrf
- gc A ]^ ( trdfsatf mg amglfsdla) y sus mgrdvamfs,  AM^ f AK^.
 A]^
Mgc brupf mg cfs Hdmrfear`flamfs gstál9
•gc Bcueõbglf, ackaeglamf efkf katgrdac mg rgsgrva glgrbäea
•Gc áedmf cáeef, prfmuetf mg mgbramaedõl mg ca bcuefsa.
•Cëpdmfs.
Efkpugstfs dlfrbáldefs.
- cas mg sfmdf, efl euyfs dflgs
d flgs gstá cdbama ca gxedta`dcdmam y efltraeedõl.
- Gc pftasdf, euyfs dflgs rgtarmal ca aba kuseucar.
kuseucar.
Zgba, I (0>14) ¶ Efkf sg mg`g eudmar gc sdstgka 6– _Dkabgl[.
Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//qudrfpraeeakar.efk/gltrglakdgltf-
kuseucar-ddd/ - Gc dõl eacedf y gc õs
õsfrf.
frf.
 

]dpfs mg Kùseucfs

Ug ulgl a cfs hugsfs y cfs kugvgl ac efltragrsg

efltragrsg y rgcaiarsg gl
rgspugsta a kglsaigs vfcultardfs prfvgldgltgs mgc sdstgka lgrvdfsf.
Gc tgidmf kuseucar gsqugcäef gstá efkpugstf pfr eäcucas acarbamas
ccakamas `ras kuseucargs qug glgl ul aspgetf gstrdamf.

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) ]rgs pfs mg tgidmf kuseucar9 Juledõl mgc

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
kuseucf gsqugcäef, earmdaef y cd sf _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf
mghps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/kuseucar/kusecg-typgs

Ca pargm mgc efrazõl gstá efkpugsta mg trgs eapas. Ca eapa kgmda, gc

kdfearmdf, gs rgspflsa`cg mg ca aeedõl mg `fk`gf mgc efrazõl. Gc
kùseucf earmëaef, sg efltrag gl rgspugsta a sgñacgs prfvgldgltgs mgc
sdstgka mg eflmueedõl earmëaef para haegr car ac efrazõl. Gc kùseucf
earmëaef gstá frkamf pfr eäcucas ccakamas earmdfkdfedtfs. Ac dbuac qug
cas eäcucas mgc kùseucf gsqugcäef, cfs earmdfkdfedtfs
earmdfkdfedtfs glgl aspgetf
gstrdamf, pgrf su gstruetura bglgrac gs kás efrta y kás brugsa.
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) ]rgs pfs mg tgidmf kuseucar9 Juledõl mgc
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
kuseucf gsqugcäef, earmdaef y cd sf _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf
 mghps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/kuseucar/kusecg-typgs
 

Gc kùseucf cdsf sg gleugltra gl cas pargmgs mg cfs

õrbalfs hugefs mg tfmf gc eugrpf. Cas efltraeedflgs mgc
kùseucf cdsf sfl kfvdkdgltfs dlvfcultardfs
mgsgleamglamfs pfr dkpucsfs qug vdaial pfr gc sdstgka
lgrvdfsf autõlfkf ac tgidmf kuseucar cdsf. Ca mdspfsdedõl
mg cas eäcucas gl gc tgidmf kuseucar cdsf pgrkdtg ca
efltraeedõl
efltraeedõl y rgcaiaedõl efl bral gcasedmam.

Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk
Zdsd`cg`fmy.efk (0>0>) ]rgs pfs mg tgidmf kuseucar9 Juledõl mgc
kuseucf gsqugcäef, earmdaef y cdsf _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf
mghps9//www.vdsd`cg`fmy.efk/gs/cgarl/kuseucar/kusecg-typgs
 

Efltraeedõl Kuseucar

1¾ Kfvdkdgltf
0¾ Gc vfcultardf
pftgledac mg prfegmgltg
aeedõl vdaia a cf carbfmgmgcaula
efrtgza
`raegrg`rac.
kftfra hasta
sus tgrkdlacgs sf`rg ula `ra kuseucar
5¾ Cd`graedõl mg aegcefcdla gl ca pcaea lgurfkuseucar.
=¾Aevaedõl mg ealacgs mg La+ mgpglmdglt
mgpglmdgltgs gs mg aegcefcd
aegcefcdla.
la.
7¾ ]ralskdsdõl mg ca mgspfcardzaedõl a traväs mg cfs tù`ucfs ].
:¾ Uacdma mgc eacedf haeda gc sarefpcaska.
2¾ Wldõl mgc eacedf a ca trfpfldla efl cd`graedõl mg cfs sdfs aevfs
mg ca aela
8¾Hdmrõcdsds mg A]^ gl ca ea`gza mg kdfsdla
4¾Wldõl mg ca ea`gza bcf`ucar mg kdfsdla efl cfs sdfs aevfs mg ca
aela  1>¾Cd`graedõl mgc ^ qug feasdfla ca uldõl rgac gltrg ca
ea`gza mg ca kdfsdla y gc egltrf aevf mg ca aela.
11¾Cd`graedõl
11¾Cd`graed õl mgc AM^ qug eflmdedfl
eflmdedflaa gc bfcpg mg ugrza haeda gc
egltrf mg ca sareõkgra 
10¾ Aefrtakdgltf mg ca sareõkgra (efltraeedõl kuseucar)
15¾ Cd`graedõl mgc AM^ qug eflmdedfla gc bfcpg mg ugrza haeda gc
egltrf mg ca sareõkgra
Egrvaltgs, A (0>12) Efltraeedõl kuseucar _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9
hps9//www.scdmgsharg.l
hps9//www .scdmgsharg.lgt/egrvalt
gt/egrvaltgsacflmra/0-efltr
gsacflmra/0-efltraeedl-
aeedl-
1=¾ Aefrtakdgltf mg ca sareõkgra (efltraeedõl kuseucar)
kuseucar
 

Pgcaiaedõl Kuseucar

1¾Wldõl mg lugvf A]^ a ca ea`gza mg kdfsdla

0¾Ugparaedõl mg aetdla y kdfsdla

5¾Pgeaptura mg eacedf pfr gc rgtëeucf sarefpcáskdef.

=¾ Pgeu`rdkdgltf mg cfs sdtdfs aetdvfs mg ca aetdla.

7¾ Jdlac mg ca efltraeedõl

:¾ Pgcaiaedõl rgbrgsf pasdvf a ca cflbdtum mg rgpfsf.

Egrvaltgs, A (0>12) Efltraeedõl kuseucar _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9

Egrvaltgs,
hps9//www.scdmgsharg.lg
hps9//www .scdmgsharg.lgt/egrvalt
t/egrvaltgsacflmra/0-efltr
gsacflmra/0-efltraeedl-
aeedl-
kuseucar
 

Kùseucfs ^rdledpacgs

]PGL DLJGPDFP
Euámrdegps  su kdsdõl prdledpac gs ca mg aevar cas rfmdccas. Gl gstg kdskf trgl
glefltrakfs ftrfs efkf gc `ëegps gkfrac, a`muetfrgs , bcùtgfs y bgkgcfs.

]PGL UW^GPDFP9 ^GEHF T HFK@PFU

Cfs kùseucfs pgetfracgs y a`mfkdlacgs  ayumal a tglgr ula gstruetura efrpfrac

gqudcd`rama. Cfs mgctfdmgs y trapgedfs dluygl mg frka rgcgvaltg gl gc kfvdkdgltf mg

hfk`rfs y `razfs.

]PGL UW^GPDFP9 GU^ACMA

Cfs mfrsacgs  sfl cfs prdledpacgs kùseucfs mg ca gspacma. Gc rfk`fdmgs gs dkpfrtaltg para
mar gsta`dcdmam y ugrza a ca partg kgmda mg ca gspacma, kdgltras qug
cfs cuk`args ef`ral ula vdtac dkpfrtaleda gl ca zfla `aia.

@PAQWDACGU
cfs `ëegps sfl cfs mfs kùseucfs prdledpacgs mgc `razf

JAEDACGU T MGC EWGCCF

Gl gc eugccf cfs gseacglfs f gc gstgrlfecgdmfkastfdmgf . Mgltrf mg cfs kùseucfs aedacgs,
Ugburfs, E (0>18) ^rdledpacgs kùseucfs mgc eugrpf hukalf y sus
gc `ueedlamfr  dluyglmf gl aeedflgs efkf ha`car, efkgr f sfpcar. Ftrf kuy dkpfrtaltg
uledflgs _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9 gs gc kùseucf fr`deucar mg cfs fifs , gc ùldef kùseucf eapaz mg egrrar f a`rdr cfs fifs
hps9//www.sgburfsea
hps9//www .sgburfseatacalafeedmglt
tacalafeedmgltg.efk/`cfb/prdledpacgs-
g.efk/`cfb/prdledpacgs-
 kuseucfs-eugrpf-hukalf/
 

Udstgka Lgrvdfsf
Juledõl
Gc sdstgka lgrvdfsf glg ca uledõl mg rgcaedõl, ya qug, efkf ca paca`ra
dlmdea, rgcaedfla
rgcaedfla cas uledflgs y cfs gskucfs mg cas mdgr
mdgrgltgs
gltgs partgs mgc
eugrpf a traväs mg gstg sdstgka egltrac. Mg gsta kalgra, gs pfsd`cg qug
cfs sgrgs hukalfs y ftrfs aldkacgs pugmal effrmdlar sus kfvdkdgltfs f
rgspugstas taltf eflsedgltgs efkf rggias.

Ealmam mg Lgurflas
Ua`gr gstf lf gs áedc, ya qug a gseaca kderfseõp
kderfseõpdea
dea ca vardaedõl gl gc
lùkgrf mg eäcucas sdgkprg gs kuy bralmg. Udl gk`arbf, aetuackgltg
aetuackgltg sg
gska qug gc gleäacf mg ula pgrsfla amucta aefstuk`ra a tglgr easd
edgl kdc kdccflgs mg lgurflas. F, gxprgsamf gl lùkgrfs, gltrg
8:.>>>.>>>.>>> y 1>>.>>>.>>>.>>> (1> gcgvamf a 11).

Aca`au,D (0>14) Udstgka lgrvdfsf pgrdärdef9

pgrdärdef9 uledflgs y partgs
_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9 hps9//www
hps9//www.psdefcfbda-
.psdefcfbda-
flcdlg.efk/sdstgka-lgrvdfsf-pg
flcdlg.efk/sdstgka-lgrvdfsf-pgrdgrdef-uledflgs-y
rdgrdef-uledflgs-y-partgs-
-partgs-
 =2>0.htkc
 

Gstruetura mg cas Lgurflas

• Gc eugrpf egcucar (sfka)9 Eflglg gc lùecgf , ca dlfrkaedõl

bgläea , y cfs frbálucfs qug sdltgzal APL y prftgëlas.

• Axõl9 Gs ula prfcflbaedõl mg ca lgurfla, eflmueg gc dkpucsf

lgrvdfsf mgsmg gc sfka hasta ftra lgurfla. sg mdvdmg gl
kuehas rakas y mgsarrfcca gstrueturas `uc`fsas eflfedmas
efkf tgrkdlacgs axõldeas (f tgrkdlacgs lgrvdfsas

•  Mgltrdtas (sdbldjea ár`fc)9 Ufl prfcflbaedflgs mgc eugrpf

egcucar , sg
rgegptfrgs
rgegptfr gs mdvdmgl efkf rakas
mg cas sgñacgs mg ul ár`fc
prfegmgltgs y aetùal
mg ftras
ftra efkfCas
s lgurflas.
sgñacgs rged`dmas pugmgl sgr gxedtatfrdas , gs mgedr glmgl a
prfvfear qug ca lgurfla mdsparg f dlhd`dtfrdas qug glmgl a
dkpgmdr qug ca lgurfla mdsparg.

@yrlg, I. H. (0>1:). Dltrfmuefl tf lgurfls alm lgurflac lgtwfros

(Dltrfmueedõl a cas lgurflas y cas rgmgs lgurflacgs) _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf
mg9 hp9//lgurfsedg
hp9//lgurfsedgleg.uth.tke
leg.uth.tke.gmu/s1/dltrfmu
.gmu/s1/dltrfmuefl.htkc.
efl.htkc.
 

]dpfs mg Lgurflas

Lgurflas sglsfrdacgs9 Pgea`al dlfrkaedõl sf`rg cf qug gstá

suegmdglmf mgltrf y ugra mgc eugrpf, y ca ccgval haeda gc ULE
para qug sg pugma prfegsar.

Lgurflas kftfras9 F`glgl dlfrkaedõl mg ftras lgurflas y

tralskdtgl õrmglgs a tus kùseucfs, õrbalfs y bcálmucas

Dltgrlgurflas9 Ufcf sg gleugltral gl gc ULE, eflgetal ula

lgurfla efl ftra.

ftras lgurflas (yaGstg
sgalpf mg lgurflas
sglsfrdacgs rged`g dlfrkaedõl
f dltgrlgurflas) y mg
tralskdtgl ca dlfrkaedõl a ftras lgurflas (ya sgal kftfras f
dltgrlgurflas).

]frrgs,A (0>15) ]dpfs mg lgurflas _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf mg9

]frrgs,A
hps9//www.rgsgarehb
hps9//www .rgsgarehbatg.lgt/b
atg.lgt/burg/Jdbura-:-]dpfs-mg-lg
urg/Jdbura-:-]dpfs-mg-lgurflas-sgbul-
urflas-sgbul-
uledfl-]fkamf-mg-Oalmgc-Uehw
uledfl-]fka mf-mg-Oalmgc-Uehwartz-Igssgc-1442V
artz-Igssgc-1442Vb=:V51:178=72.
b=:V51:178=72.
 

Mdvdsdõl mgc Udstgka Lgrvdfsf

Gl cfs sgrgs hukalfs gc sdstgka lgrvdfsf sg pugmg

mdvdmdr prdledpackgltg
prdledpackgltg gl mfs sgeedflgs9

• Gc sdstgka lgrvdfsf egltrac (ULE) eflsdstg mgc

gleäacf y ca kämuca gspdlac. Gl gc ULE gs mflmg
feurrg tfmf gc alácdsds mg ca dlfrkaedõl.

• Gc sdstgka lgrvdfsf pgrdärdef (UL^), efkpugstf pfr

cas lgurflas y partgs mg cas lgurflas qug sg
gleugltral ugra mgc ULE, dlecuyg lgurflas
sglsfrdacgs y lgurflas kftfras. Cas lgurflas
sglsfrdacgs ccgval sgñacgs haeda gc ULE y cas lgurflas
kftfras ccgval sgñacgs glvdamas pfr gc ULE.

@yrlg, I. H. (0>1:). Dltrfmuefl tf lgurfls alm lgurflac lgtwfros

(Dltrfmueedõl a cas lgurflas y cas rgmgs lgurflacgs) _Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf
 mg9 hp9//lgurfsedgleg
hp9//lgurfsedgleg.uth.tk
.uth.tke.gmu/s1/dltrfmue
e.gmu/s1/dltrfmuefl.htkc.
fl.htkc.

Dkpucsf Lgrvdfsf
Gc dkpucsf lgrvdfsf sõcf sg prfpaba gl ul sglmf. Eualmf ula lgurfla gs gskucama, sg frdbdlal
ulfs eak`dfs gcäetrdefs qug gkpdgzal gl cas mglmrdtas, pasal pfr gc eugrpf lgurflac, y tgrkdlal
gl gc axõl.

Gc dkpucsf lgrvdfsf lf sg tralskdt

tralskdtgg efl ca kdska vgcfedmam gl tfmas cas lgurflas. Mgpglmg mg sd gc
axõl gstá f lf rfmgamf pfr ulas eäcucas, cas eäcucas mg Uehwall , qug prfmuegl ula sustaleda
`calea, ca vadla mg kdgcdla, qug dkpdmg gc pasf mgc dkpucsf lgrvdfsf y haeg qug tglba qug "sactar"
gltrg cfs gspaedfs sdl vadla mg kdgcdla ( lõmucfs mg Palvdgr), pfr cf qug ca vgcfedmam sgrá kayfr. A
gstg pf mg prfpaba
prfpabaedõl
edõl mgc dkpucsf lgrvdfsf sg cg mglfkdla " eflmueedõl f prfpabaedõl
sactatfrda".

@yrlg, I. H. (0>1:).Juledfl mgc dkpucsf lgrvdfsf

_Dkabgl[ Pgeupgramf
mg9 hps9//uledflmg.e
hps9//uledflmg.efk/dkpucsf-lgrvdfsf/
fk/dkpucsf-lgrvdfsf/
 

^altaccazfs mg ^artdedpaedõl
 

@d`cdfbrajëa 
Káxdka, I (0>14). "Udstgka Õsgf". Earaegrdsteas.ef. Pgeupgramf

mg9 9 hps9//www.earaetgrdseas.ef/sdstgka-fsgf/.
Pfhgl, I. R., Ehdhdrf, T., & Cótigl-Mrgefcc, G. (0>>5). Atcas mg alatfkëa hukala. Gcsgvdgr Gspaña.
Pgeupgramf mg hp9//up-rdm0.up.ae.pa98>8>/xkcud/halmcg/105=7:284/1::0

@fcëvar, F. M (0>0>) Udstgkas mg cfefkfedõl hukala. Pgeupgramf

mg9 hps9//rgpfsdtfry.ulam.gmu.ef/halmcg/1>74:/57804

@fcëvar, F. M. (s. .). Autfeflfedkdgltf Udstgkas mgc Eugrpf. Bgldac.cy. Pgeupgramf

mg hps9//vdgw.bgldac.cy/7g==4
hps9//vdgw.bgldac.cy/7g==484084ae1e4
84084ae1e42a2>g1/pr
2a2>g1/prgsgltafl-sds
gsgltafl-sdstgkas-mgc-eugrpf
tgkas-mgc-eugrpf

Palf, K ( 0>0>)"Udstgka Kuseucar" Eflegpf.mg.Arbglla. Pgeupgramf mg 9

hps9//eflegptf.mg/sdstgka-kuseucar/.
hps9//eflegptf.mg/sdstgka-kuseucar/.

Bflzacgz, C ( 0>0>) "Udstgka lgrvdfsf". Gl9 Udbldeamfs.efk. Pgeupgramf mg9

hps9//www.sdbldeamfs.efk/sdstgka-lgrvdfsf/
hps9//www.sdbldeamfs.efk/sdst gka-lgrvdfsf/

@yrlg, I. H. (0>1:). Dltrfmuefl tf lgurfls alm lgurflac lgtwfros (Dltrfmueedõl a cas lgurflas y cas
rgmgs lgurflacgs). Gl Lgurfsedgleg flcdlg. Pgeupgramf mg9
hp9//lgurfsedgleg.uth.tke.gmu/s1/dltrfmuefl.htkc

wd, A. (0>17). ^adl kalabgkglt 09 ]ralskdssdfl f padl sdblacs tf thg `radl (]ratakdgltf mgc mfcfr 09
tralskdsdõl mg sgñacgs mg mfcfr haeda gc egrg`rf). Lursdlb ]dkgs, 111(=>), 00-0:. Pgeupgramf mg9
hp9//www.lursdlbkg
hp9//www .lursdlbkgs.lgt/ecdldeac-su`ig
s.lgt/ecdldeac-su`igets/padl-kalabgkg
ets/padl-kalabgkglt/padl-kalab
lt/padl-kalabgkglt-0-tra
gkglt-0-tralskdssdfl-f-
lskdssdfl-f-
padl-sdblacs-tf-thg-`radl/7>4>:87.uccarecg