HIDEO NITTA KEITA TAKATSU TREND-PRO CO., LTD.PRAISE FOR THE MANGA GUIDE TO DATABASES “Without a doubt, The Manga Guide to Databases was the most enjoyable tech book I've ever read... | loved this book and highly recommend it.” FIKKY KITE, LINUX PRO MAGAZINE “Whether you're new to the whole concept of databases, or a hard-core database geek, you. need to have The Manga Guide to Databases. Really, you want this book’ —JOSH BERKUS, POSTGRESOL CORE TEAM “For an American audience, this is certainly an off-the-beaten-path approach to technical training. However, its ability to effectively plunge into a topic that can be a morass of arcane theory is undeniable, Over the years, we've learned to expect the unexpected from No Starch Press” —wacorrecrorY ‘This is a fun book, there is no denying that. If you're in the market to learn more about databases and you hate normal tech books this is a great pickup.” THE CAFFINATION PODCAST “IF Las going to teach a class or introduce a non-technical person to the world of data bases, | would most likely tart here —BLOGCRITICS.ORE PRAISE FOR THE MANGA GUIDE TO STATISTICS “This is really what a good math text should be lke Unike the majority of books on subjects like statistics, it doesnt just present the material asa dry series of pointless-seemiing formulas. It presents statistics as something fun, and something enlightening,” GOOD MATH, BAD MATH The Manga Guide to Statistics is a solid introduction to the world of statistical analysis done in a fun and acces~ sible way ACTIVE ANIME “Inoue's art is clean, cute and simplified, and it works with machine-like efficiency—the artist not only knows and speaks the language of manga, but does so fluently.” NEWSARAMA “The Manga Guide to Statistics offers a visualization of statistics that can't he found in any mere textbook,” see 3000THE MANGA GUIDE™ TO PHYSICSTHE MANGA GUIDE” TO PHYSICS HIDEO NITTA KEITA TAKATSU TREND-PRO CO,, LTD. OhmshaTHE MANGA GUIDE TO PHYSICS, Copyright © 2009 by Hideo Nitta and TREND-PRO Co., Ltd The Manga Guide to Physics is a translation of the Japanese original, Menga de Wokaru Butsuri(Rikigaku herl, pub lished by Ohmsha, Ltd. of Tokyo, Japan. © 2006 by Hideo Nitta and TREND-PRO Co.,Ltd. ‘The English edition is co-published by No Starch Press and Ohmsha, Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this work may be repraduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic ‘or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior ‘written permission of the copyright owner and the publisher, 1312111009 123456789 ISBN-40: 1-59327-296-4 ISBN-13: 978-1-59327-196-1 Publisher: Willam Pollock Author: Hideo Nitta llustrator: Keita Takatsu Producer: TREND-PRO Co., Ltd Production Editor: Megan Dunchak Developmental Editor: Iyer Ortman “Technical Reviewers: Keith Brown and Whitney Ortman-Link Compositor: Riley Hoffman Proofreader: Cristina Chan Indexer: Sarah Schott For information on book distributors or translations, please contact No Starch Press, Inc. directly No Starch Press, Inc. 555 De Haro Street, Suite 250, San Francisco, CA 94107 Phone: 415 863.9900; fax: 415.863.9950; info@nostarch.com; httpiiawivnostarch,corn/ Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nitta, Hideo, 1957- [Manga de wakaru butsuri. Rikigaku hen. English) The manga guide to physics / Hideo Nitta, Keita Takatsu ; Trend-pro Co., Ltd. p. cm Includes index. 1SbN-13: 978-1-59327-196-1 S6N-10: 1-59327-296-4 2. Physics--Comic books, strips, ete. 2. Physics--Popular works. I. Takatsu, Keita. IE, Tzend-pro Co. III Title. 0¢24.5.NS813 2009 530--de22 2009012720 No Starch Press and the No Starch Press logo are registered trademarks of No Starch Press, Inc, Other product and ‘company names mentioned herein may be the trademarks oftheir respective owners. Rather than use a trademark symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, we are using the names only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark, ‘The information in this book is distributed on an “As 1s" basis, without warranty. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this work, neither the author nor No Starch Press, Inc. shall have any liability to any person or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused or alleged to he caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in it, All characters in this publication are fictitious, and any resemblance to real persons, ving or dead, is purely coincidentalCONTENTS PREFACE. PROLOGUE DOES PHYSICS BOTHER YOUP. 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION Law of Action and Reaction : How the Law of Action and Reaction Works, Equilibrium Equilibrium vs. Law of Action and Reaction Gravitational Force and the Law of Action and Reaction Newton's Three Laws of Motion Scalar Quantities vs. Vector Quantities. Vector Basics. Negative Vectors... Difference Between Two Vectors. ‘Multiplying Vectors by Scalars. Equilibrium and Vector Forces Newton's Three Laws of Motion Drawing a Free-Body Diagram. Expressing Newton's Third Law with an Equation Gravity and Universal Gravitation 2, FORCE AND MOTION, Velocity and Acceleration . ‘Simple Motion, Acceleration, Laboratory: Finding the Distance Traveled when Velocity Varies Newton's First and Second Laws Law of Inertia Law of Acceleration. ......... Laboratory: Finding the Precise Value of a Force Matian of a Thrown ball Three Rules of Uniform Accelerated Motion. ‘Adding Vectors: The Head-to-Tail Method ‘The Composition and Decomposition of Forces Newton's First Law of Motion. Newton's Second Law of Motion ‘The Orientation of Velocity, Acceleration, and Force. 13 14 15 20 23 30 33 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 “4 42 43 45 46 46 50 53 58 58 66 2B 75 85 86 87 90 90 90‘An Object Does Not Have Its Own Force The Unit for Force. Measuring Mass and Force Determining Weight Understanding Parabolic Motion Using Calculus to Find Acceleration and Velocity =e Using the Area ofa V-T Graph to Find the Distance Traveled ly an Object... 3 MOMENTUM Momentum and Impulse Understanding Momentum. Laboratory: Difference in Momentum due toa Difference in Mass. Change in Momentum and Impulse Laboratory: Finding the Momentum of a Stroke The Conservation of Momentum Newton's Third Law and the Conservation of Momentum Laboratory: Outer Space and the Conservation of Momentum Real-World Explarations of Impulse. Reducing the Impact. Improving Megumis Serve Momentum and Impulse Impulse and Momentum in Our Lives Deriving the Law of Conservation of Momentum. Elastic and Inelastic Collision Units for Momentum Law of Conservation of Momentum for Vectors. Law of Action and Reaction vs, Law of Conservation of Momentum. Propulsion of a Rocket eee 4 ENERGY. Work and Eneray What Is Energy? . Laboratory: What's the Difference Between Momentum and Kinetic Energy? Potential Energy ‘Work and Potential Eneray. Laboratory: Work and the Conservation of Energy Work and Energy Laboratory: The Relationship Between Work and Kinetic Energy Braking Distance and Speed The Conservation of Mechanical Eneray Transforming Energy Conservation of Mechanical Energy Vill CONTENTS 92 92 8 94 96 99. 100 = 103 104 106 109 111 117 120 120 126 129 129 133 139 140 14 143 144 144 146 147 151 152 153 162 164 169 172 175 178 180 184 184 187Laboratory: The Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy in Action Finding the Speed and Height of a Thrown Ball Laboratory: Conservation of Mechanical Energy on a Slope Units for Measuring Eneray Potential Eneroy t Springs and the Conservation of Energy Velocity for Throwing Upward and Height Attained . The Orientation of Force and Work : Finding an Amount of Work with Nonuniform Force (One-dimensional). Nonconservative Force and the Law of Conservation of Energy Friction: A Nonconservative Force. . Friction on a Slope . Collding Coins and the Conservatian of Energy. EPILOGUE APPENDIX MAKING SENSE OF UNITS INDEX a9. 194 195 200 201 202 203 204 205 207 207 208 210 215 225 229 CONTENTS. 1KPREFACE Itis essential to the understanding of physics to correctly “see” what you wish to examine, In classical mechanics, in particular, you need to understand how physical laws apply to transient, moving objects. But unfortunately, conventional textbooks rarely provide adequate images of such motion, This book attempts to conquer the limits of those conventional textbooks by using cartoons. Cartoons are not just simple illustrations—they are an expressive and dynamic ‘medium that can represent the flow of time. By using cartoons, itis possible to vividly express changes in motion. Cartoons can also transform seemingly dry laws and unreal scenarios into things that are familia, friendly, and easy to understand, And it goes without saying—cartoons are fun. We have emphasized that in this book, as well. ‘As an author eager to know whether or not my intent has succeeded, | can only wait, for readers to make their judgments. This work has been finished to my deep satisfaction, except for the omission of one chapter—due to page count constraints—featuring a trip to an amusement park to explain circular movement and the roninertial system. The main character of this book is a high school student named Megumi Ninomiya who finds physics rather difficult. It is my sincere desire that this book reaches aut to as mary readers as possible who think “physics is tough’ and who “don't lke physics,” helping them find pleasure in physics ke Megumi does—even if it's only alittle Last but not least, | would like to express my deen appreciation to the staff at the OHM Development Office, scenario writer re_akino, and illustrator Keita Takatsu—their combined efforts have resulted in this wonderful cartoon work that would have been impossible for ‘ne individual to complete, HIDEO NITTA, NOVEMBER 2006a0a3359 eer row sry ho we + Ding Wo sritestiratiend est wt lagreseess & 5 Poepe eva nang al ee2evenA ow nh i Wein eb zeker riesgo sting iota cies lentekrmory abemtiaten RA eAAKSO BORO femeteTt : snc Hag by ab ‘pins atthe eines ete ale 40 seane Gs atatferis dane ert “Renn to Vicente i tere ape Re Do tk ACOD poo sheet ot ice essoneca geviaw Wel ais to WO wet Mmpasr nta act Bali Terra bow erly apie era wk og aU) IN wages CPD ortiey-eang find arantestires of etn tout bettie de tet mgr cn aor Sve ca: hn to elaine By ne mba ope ee ee anata, als ie cE beled cage eat eave #RIT astimopbul ett ear od “tints vat mi sn eros: Ys Wc 8 ss 9 44 i esta one mab OF ey enearia¥ WELL, ‘SEVERAL HOURS Row LO THEN, ee THE PHYSICS = WHAT WAS YOUR TEST? ANSWER FOR QUESTION a? WE'RE COMPARING: ° ANSWERS. : 9) Suppose you are hitting a ball with a tennis racket. Which is greater, the force of the ball pushing the racket or the force of the racket pushing the ball? Select, the correct answer, A, The force of the racket pushing the bal is greater than the force of | the ball pushing the racket B. The force ofthe ball pushing the racket is greater than the force of | the racket pushing the bal C. The force of the ball pushing the racket is the same as the force of the racket pushing the bal T SELECTED C. } 1 The relationship between the force ofthe ball pushing the racket and the force ofthe racket pushing the ball depends on the weight of the racket and the speed of the bal,WHAT DO. YOU MEAN, SAYAKAP ff OH DEAR, ‘MEGUMI. HAVE YoU FORGOTTEN NEWTON'S THIRD Lawe DON'T YOU REMEMBER?! 11'S THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION. THE FORCE OF THE RACKET ON THE BALL AND THE FORCE OF THE BALL ON THE RACKET ARE ALWAYS EQUIVALENT. THEREFORE, THE RIGHT ANSWER Isa 4 PROLOGUE= THE FORCE ON THE BALL HAS TO BE LARGER! IF THE FORCES ON THE RACKET AND THE BALL ARE EQUIVALENT... 6 PROLOGUE= IF THEY Age & EQUIVALENT... SE wont Hey 2 CANCEL EACH OTHER OUT? GAME, SET, MATCH! SAYAKA ALL RIGHT. THE LOSER HAS TO CLEAN UP.LATER THAT AFTERNOON... I LOST AGAINST SAYAKA... AND I STILL DON'T GET IT. NONOMURA, MY CLASSMATE?HE IS WELL KNOWN IN THE AT SCHOOL, HAVING INTERNATIONAL WON A SILVER, PHYSICS MEDAL OLYMPIC GAMES. WELL, LET ME SEE... WHY DID YOU... WELL, BH... I FOUND A BALL BY My FEET. I THOUGHT 1 MIGHT HELP, IT WOULD HAVE AND I MEANT TO BEEN BETTER IF THROW IT INTO YOU'D JUST HANDED THE BASKET. IT TO ME LIKE A cat Ni 7 o oe \ORMAL PERSON. eee YOU'RE RIGHT. f ® 6) BUT IM SO. UNCOORDINATED. DOES PHYSICS BOTHER YOU? 4BUT IT'S OKAY, SINCE IT WAS AN ACCIDENT. I WAS CALCULATING WHAT ARE YOU THE MOTION OF DOING HERE, THE BALL WHILE WATCHING YOUR WOW! JUST LIKE A PHYSICS OLYMPICS: ‘SILVER MEDALIST WOULD! 50. YOU SAW ME LET ME TELL YOU WHY 1 LOST THAT GAME. WHAT DO. \ YOU MEAN?REMEMBER IN THE NG. PHYSICS TEST WE Da | | ert TN HAD TODAY, THERE | | "Me WHILE 1 WAS A QUESTION PLAYED. ABOUT TENNIS. os BOTHERED Your oe MEGUMI EXPLAINS WHAT'S BEEN BOTHERING HER. ~~ [ ™ eat NONOMURA-KUN, CAN YOU HELP ME UNDERSTAND PHysics? I COULDN'T CONCENTRATE . YOU ARE A SILVER ON THE GAME \ MEDALIST, AREN'T AT ALL. VA YOUP PLEASE HELP ME! CANT ASK-OUCH... FEEL AN ACUTE PAIN. IT MUST BE WHERE YOU HIT WHAT? YOU'RE HOLDING YOUR TUMMY, NOT WHERE THE BALL HIT! OKAY, ALL RIGHT! TLL Dom! REALLY? BUT YOU MUST PROMISE ME H} SOMETHING. WILL YOU TRY YOUR BEST TO UNDERSTAND?LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONLAW OF ACTION AND REACTION L GET THE IMPRESSION THAT YOU HARDLY GO TO CLASS. DO YOU HANG OUT HERE?, * LABORATORY TV'S NICE WITH ALL THESE EXPERIMENTS YES, CERTAINLY, AND INSTRUMENTS. ALREADY HAVE BUT THE BEST PART OUR TEACHER'S 1S THAT IT’S QUIET. PERMISSION. wow! a2. 4 le 15 IT OKAY FOR US TO. STUDY HERE? THEY MUST REALLY TRUST x Koy ALSO 14 CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONI HEAR A LOT ABOUT YOU, TOO, NINOMIYA-SAN, WELL, THEN, AS AN ALL-STAR PLEASE STUDY ATHLETE. PHYSICS AS MUCH AS YOU PRACTICE NO KIDDING, : S WILL! AND THANK YOU WHAT T LIKE, FOR YOUR YOU KNOW. HOW THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION WORKS NOW, LET'S GET STARTED. YOU WANT TO LEARN ABOUT THE LAW OF 7 AT LEAST THAT'S WHAT ACTION AND REACTION, ‘SAYAKA MENTIONED... BEFORE WE THINK ABOUT IT USING A RACKET AND A BALL...THIS LESSON IS LET'S FEEL or HOW THE LAW. ABT sO, NO, YOU'VE WORKS ON OUR GOT ME ALL WEIRD... 2 a) WRONG. ROLLERBLADES?! OOPSY-DAISY. SEE, L HAVE A UKE THIS? ' MASS OF ABOUT 60 KG. tty AND YOU, NINOMIYA- SAN, ABOUT... LETS SAY, YOU'RE 40 KG, YOU MUST BE LIGHTER THAN TAM.NOW..AS I HOLD MY HANDS IN PLACE LIKE THIS, PUSH ME WITH YOUR HANDS. fA WITH A MASS OF 40 KG, 1 WILL PUSH YOU, NONOMURA- KUN, WHO HAS A MASS OF 60 KG. SEE, BOTH OF US ARE MOVING. AND you've Gone V7 FARTHER AWAY, NINOMIYA-SAN. HOW THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION WORKS 17LET'S TRY IT THE OPPOSITE WAY. IF I PUSH, BOTH OF US WILL MOVE BACKWARD AGAIN. WHEN YOU ATTEMPT TO USE FORCE ON ME, EVEN IF I DON'T MEAN TO PUSH YOU BACK, FORCE WILL BE APPLIED TO YOUR BODY, NINOMIYA-SAN. HOWEVER AND WHENEVER EITHER OF US APPLIES FORCE TO THE 18 CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION THE OTHER ONE WILL RECEIVE THE SAME FORCE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION. 50 I CAN'T MOVE YOU WITHOUT BEING MOVED MYSELF.PARC TION -THE: THIS IS CALLED THE eee eat. _tAW OF ACTION AND 3 THE REACTION, AND IT ALSO | | THAT'S NEWS SAME ON BOTH SIDES. "EXPLAINS WHY FORCE 15 ALWAYS GENERATED BETWEEN A PAIR OF OBJECTS, OO q & SUMMARIZE IT cr CLEARLY AS FOLLOWS: THIS LAW DESCRIBES \\ FOR EVERY ACTION, THE NATURAL BEHAVIOR THERE IS AN EQUAL AND OF TWO OBJECTS. WHEN OPPOSITE REACTION. OBJECT A EXERTS A FORCE ON OBJECT 8, OBJECT B EXERTS AN A B EQUAL AND OPPOSITE Se OD) A asIT'S A LAW IN THE NATURAL WORLD, EH? LET ME TAKE THESE OFF. THAT LOOKED SO PAINFUL. EQUILIBRIUM OOF. UH... LET ME PULL MYSELF TOGETHER. 20 CHAPTER 1 LAWN OF ACTION AND REACTIONWHEN OBJECTS: ARE STATIC, IT'S EASY TO MIX UP THE LAW OF BALANCE...OF ACTION AND FORCES? REACTION (e— e WITH EQUILIBRIUM, OR A BALANCE OF FORCES. LET ME ILLUSTRATE THE FORCE APPLIED TO A BALL IN THE PALM OF MY HAND. THe pigscion Or the once FORCE HAS A DIRECTION IN ADDITION TO A MAGNITUDE. ‘THe Maonmue OF THe FORCE A QUANTITY HAVING L A MAGNITUDE AND UL DIRECTION IS CALLED L13 sie macxrune |N A VECTOR. ee ‘He DIRECTION OF THE FORCE 7; Sc ‘AG REPRESENTED BY THE ARROWS IN YOUR ILLUSTRATION, 1 SUPPOSE.DRAW AN ARROW ‘THAT POINTS IN THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE, WITH ITS LENGTH REPRESENTING THE MAGNITUDE. YES. EQUILIBRIUM REFERS TO A RELATIONSHIP OF FORCES LIKE WHAT YOU SEE IN THIS ILLUSTRATION. IF 1 WITHDRAW MY HAND QUICKLY TO. STOP SUPPORTING THE BALL, THE FORCE OF GRAVITY AND THE FORCE FROM THE HAND HAVE THE SAME MAGNITUDE, DON'T THEY? THE FORCES CANCEL BACH OTHER OUT. i NOW GRAVITY IS. THE ONLY FORCE Ww ACTING ON THE BALL, 50 IT H FALLS. iEQUILIBRIUM VS. LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION NOW LET'S THINK ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EQUILIBRIUM AND THE TO MAKE IT EASIER TO SEE, LL COMPARE THE TWO USING TWO BALLS. WHEN CONSIDERING EQUILIBRIUM, JUST FOCUS FOR THE LAW OF ACTION ON THE FORCE APPLIED AND REACTION, HOWEVER, YOU NEED TO CONSIDER TO THE BALL. BOTH THE BALL AND THE HAND. FORCE FROM THE HAND FORCE FROM THE HAND FORCE OF FORCE FROM GRAVITY aweIGHT) THE BALL welskD EQUILIBRIUM : EQUILIBRIUM V5. LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION 23THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM INVOLVES FORCE APPLIED TO A SINGLE OBJECT. $0 THAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EQUILIBRIUM AND THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION. WHEN YOu HOLD A BALL, YOU FEEL THE WEIGHT OF THE BALL, DON'T your qian ane AS THE FORCE FROM \ SEEN atkco THE BALL PUSHING YOUR HAND IS ALSO YOUR HAND. PUSHING THE BALL Te LAW ee OF ACTION AND OF THE SAME ‘MAGNITUDE REACTION. MAKE IT EVEN EASIER TO UNDERSTAND LIKE THIS. TT INVOLVES: A DIFFERENTYOUNE JUST WITNESSED A STATIC OBJECT THAT STARTED MOVING. CAN YOU EXPLAIN WHY? AS I SUDDENLY LOWERED MY HAND, THE BALL ALSO WENT DOWN. GOES WHEREVER PERHAPS...IT YOUR HAND GOES? YOU COULD PUT IT THAT WAY. BUT JUST THINK OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCES OF DIFFERENT MAGNITUDES. BETWEEN FORCES? HMM... FORCE FROM THE HAND FORCE OF GRAVITY STATIC STATE (THE FORCES ARE BALANCED.) THE DOWNWARD MOTION OF THE HAND RESULTS IN WHEN THE HAND THE FORCE FROM THE HAND. ‘SUPPORTING THE BALL SUDDENLY DECREASING.WHOOPEE! %, Se A we EXACTLY! SEAS >» YOUVE GOT IT. Bo THe FoRce F20M i= HAND APPLIED TO THE BALL BECOMES FROM TN HaND ‘SMALLER, THE BALANCE ‘SUPPORTING THE BALL | OF FORCES IS BROKEN, AND A GREATER DOWNWARD FORCE EMERGES, FROM THE VIEWPOINT (OF EQUILIBRIUM, WE CAN EXPLAIN THE FALLING OF A BALL THAT WAY. i Fl be cone 2 PORN, z 4 50 THE BALL IS e NO LONGER IN ee EQUILIBRIUM. oenviTy NOW WHAT WOULD TT LOOK LIKE WHEN - VIEWED FROM A - STANDPOINT OF THE LAW OF ACTION AND | REACTION? al 50 WE TAKE BOTH THE BALL i AND THE HAND: INTO ACCOUNT. EXACTLY! WHEN YOU LOWER YOUR HAND, HOW DOES THE WEIGHT OF THE BALL FEEL?IT FEELS LIGHTER \ FOR A MOMENT. HAS. THE FORCE FROM THE BALL BEING APPLIED TO THE HAND BECOME SMALLER? IN TURN, IF YOU SUDDENLY RAISE THE BALL, WON'T YOU ‘SUDDENLY FEEL THE BALL BECOMING HEAVIER? + At THE FORCE FROM THE HAND BEING IMPOSED (ON THE BALL THE FORCE FROM THE BALL BEING IMPOSED BOTH FORCES ‘ON THE HAND BECOME SMALLER, “ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF ‘ACTION AND REACTION, THE FORCES ON TWO PAIRED OBJECTS ARE EGUAL IN MAGNITUDE, REMEMBER? SO THE FORCE FROM THE HAND BEING APPLIED TO THE BALL SHOULD ALSO BECOME SMALLER. YER, IT FEELS. HEAVIER. IN ORDER TO BREAK EQUILIBRIUM AND MOVE THE BALL UPWARD, A FORCE GREATER THAN THE FORCE (OF GRAVITY ON THE BALL NEEDS TO BE IMPOSED FROM THE HAND. FORCE GRAVITY'S FORCE V7 i 1 1 I [RESULTANT ! 1 I I ‘He Force FROM THE HAND ‘SUPPORTING THE BALL I FEEL ALITTLE EMBARRASSED.THEN THE RESULTING REACTION FORCE BECOMES GREATER, TOO. THAT'S WHY YOU NOTICE IT FEELS HEAVIER. NOW DOES THIS HELP YOU UNDERSTAND THE EXAM QUESTION YOU SEE, THE FORCE FROM THE BALL IMPOSED ON THE HAND INCREASES JUST AS MUCH AS THE FORCE FROM THE HAND IMPOSED ON THE BALL INCREASES. THE FORCE: BALL BEING WHAT'S THE MATTER WITH YOU, NINOMIYA-SAN? ee _ 7 9) Suppose you are hitting a ball with a tennis racket, Which is greater, the force of the ball pushing the racket or the force of a at the racket pushing the ball? AHEM. SORRY. THINK THE QUESTION WENT LIKE THIS. 28. CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONALTHOUGH THE BALL IS IN CONTACT WITH THE RACKET FOR A SMALL AMOUNT OF TIME, IN THAT ONE MOMENT, YOU CAN SEE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCES CHANGE CONSTANTLY. \ YOU SEE, WHEN YOU HIT THE BALL, THE FORCE OF THE RACKET | IMPACTING THE BALL VARIES DEPENDING ON YOUR STROKE AND THE SPEED OF THE BALL. HOWEVER, AT ANY ONE NATURALLY, THE FORCE TIME, THE FORCES EXERTED ON THE BALL OF THE TWO ARE BY THE RACKET ALSO EQUAL IN MAGNITUDE KEEPS CHANGING. AND OPPOSITE IN DIRECTION. THE START OF CONTACT WITH THE RACKET EQUILIBRIUM V5. LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION 290, IF YOU LOOK AT EACH MOMENT AS IF TIME WERE STOPPED, IT 1S JUST LIKE WHEN A BALL SITS STILL ON YOUR PALM. YOU CAN ALWAYS FIND THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION EITHER IN MOTION O8 IN STATIC ‘| a THANKS. oI *, & AT LAST, I FULLY 1) }- i hoe UNDERSTAND IT. 4 he —_ Se ee GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND THE| LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION YEAH, THAT'S RIGHT... ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION, YOU SAID FORCES ARE ALWAYS GENERATED IN PAIRS. 3O CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONGRAVITY’S FORCE ON THE BALL? WHERE DOES THEN WHAT IS THE 7 'T COME COUNTERPART TO FROM THE EARTH? NOT ONLY A BALL BUT ALSO YOU, ME, AND EVEN ‘AN AIRPLANE IN THE SKY ARE PULLED DOWN BY THE EARTH. THE FORCE OF THE EARTH IS THE FORCE OF GRAVITY, WHICH WE ‘COMMONLY CALL AN OBJECT'S WEIGHT. HMM. I’M NOT | SURE IF I REALLY UNDERSTAND IT... GRAVITY WORKS: FROM A DISTANCE. AND JUST AS GRAVITATIONAL FORCE PULLS DOWN ON A BALL, THE FORCE FROM THE EARTH BEING IMPOSED ON THE BALL THe Force FROM THE BALL BEING IMPOSED ON THE EARTH EXERTED ON THE THE PULLING FORCE OF THE BALL IS EARTH.ANY OBJECTS THAT HAVE MASS ARE PULLING EACH OTHER IN THE FORM OF UNNERSAL THE BALL IS PULLING THE EARTH? SURE, BECAUSE THEY MAKE A PAIR. IT'S HARD TO BELIEVE THAT A BALL IS PULLING... WELL, A BALL COULD NEVER MOVE THE EARTH, SINCE THE MASS OF THE EARTH IS TREMENDOUS. = a SEE. 50, UNIVERSAL LET (oak RORER ne warren 10 VA | WORKING BETWEEN TRY TO UNDERSTAND oe YOU, NONOMURA-KUN, ‘SERIOUSLY? SS... \AND ME, CAUSING US TO OOPS! HOW : GET CLOSER EMBARRASSING! LAG ') ° sINIVERSAL 7 GRAVITATION 1S a THE MASS OF A Jy PROPORTIONATE PERSON IS EXTREMELY To. Tipe ‘SMALL, SO UNIVERSAL OF MASSES OF GRAVITATION CANNOT ELEMENTS PULLING BE FELT BETWEEN PEOPLE! EACH OTHER.NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION IS SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS NEWTON'S THIRD LAW| OF MOTION. YOU SAY THIRP. YOU \s MEAN THERE ARE ‘5 OTHER LAWS, LIKE THE FIRST AND SECOND? // IN ALL. THEY ARE REFERRED TO AS NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION. BEFORE EXAMINING THESE LAWS...MAY I ASK, NINOMIYA-SAN? pe ill/ w cas NS WHAT DO YOU THINK PHYSICS IS ALL ABOUT?MEMORIZING LOTS OF EQUATIONS: FoR TESTS. LUSED To SEE RAT Win 0, MAYBE IT'S TO SS HELP UNDERSTAND @ \ THE MECHANICS OF Sono), RSHTe THAT'S GREAT. ve > cr hi BUT AFTER: e ISTENING TO YOUR. EXPLANATION, PHYSICS SHOULDN'T NONOMURA-KUN, BE LEARNED BY “tu MY VIEW MAY HAVE: ROTE. SU Rd etaneen aL IN MY OPINION, fix < PHYSICS MEANS, “EXPLAINING =W) NATURAL. OR PREDICTING PHENOMENA THEM BASED ON USING LAWS— MATHEMATICAL DATA." AND THE FOUNDATION OF PHYSICS IS CLASSICAL MECHANICS—WHAT WE'RE STUDYING IN CLASS. Wow! THAT'S. CONVINCING ENOUGH.THE OBJECTIVE OF PHYSICS IS TO PREDICT THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT. IN OTHER WORDS, WE LEARN PHYSICS IN ORDER TO CORRECTLY TELL WHEN AND WHERE THAT OBJECT WILL BE. IT SOUNDS DIFFERENT FROM WHAT I THOUGHT BEFORE. IT'S EASY TO TAKEA we VIDEO OF A MOVING BALL AND SEE WHERE: IT WAS AT A PARTICULAR TIME; ISN'T IT? ® — > @ S I GUESS... SUPPOSE, HOWEVER, YOU NEED TO PREDICT WHERE THE BALL YOU ARE GOING TO THROW WILL BE ONE SECOND LATER. IN THAT CASE, YOU NEED TO KNOW THE RULES BEHIND THE MOTION OF THE BALL. NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION 35NEWTON'S THREE LAWS ARE THE BASIC RULES OF MOTION. THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION |S ONE OF THEM. ACK! 16 IT REALLY THAT LATE? WE SHOULD GO HOME NOW! I HOPE YOU'LL GIVE ME ANOTHER: al LECTURE SOON. Ww i \ i" SEE YOU set ‘SOON, THEN. ISN'T THAT MEGUM|...AND NONOMURA, THAT PHYSICS GEEK? 6 CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION | INTERESTING NOW THAN THANKS A LOT. I FIND PHYSICS MORE I DID BEFORE. THEY'RE LEAVING THE PHYSICS LAB TOGETHER... HOW CURIOUS.SCALAR QUANTITIES VS. VECTOR QUANTITIES Physics involves measuring and predicting various quantities (or physical values) ike force, mass, and velocity. These values can be classified into those having only magnitude and those having both magnitude and direction. A quantity that has magnitude without a direc tion is referred to as a scalar quantity. Mass is a scalar quantity. Energy and work, which well learn about in Chapter 4, are also scalar quantities On the other hand, force is a value with a direction. You can see that from the fact that the motion of an object changes if you apply force from a different direction, A quan- tity that has a direction is called a vector. Velocity and acceleration (which are introduced in Chapter 2) and momentum (discussed in Chapter 3) are also vector quantities, as they have direction. You may forget the terms scalar and vector, but you should keep in mind that there are two types of values in physics: those with just a magnitude and those with both a magnitude and a direction, VECTOR BASICS. ‘Avvector is represented using an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, and the point represents its orientatian, or direction. Two vectors with the same magnitude and direction are equivalent to one another, even if they do nat have the same origin. Orientation Magnitude |G A vector is equivalent after a parallel move, Also note that the magnitude of a vector (represented by the length of the arrow) can be noted with absolute value symbols, like [dil or simply as «. The sum of two vectors (@ + B) is shown by joining the head of vector @ to the tail of vector b, and then extending a line fram the tail of @ to the head of B, as shown in the ‘SCALAR QUANTITIES VS. VECTOR QUANTMES 37figure on the left here. As this vector is a diagonal ofthe parallelagram in the figure, iis abvious that itis also equivalent to & + G. Therefore, we know that the fllowing is true COMMUTATIVE LAW: a + Bsa The order in which you add vectors doesn't matter! You can find the sum of three or more vectors in the same way. NEGATIVE VECTORS Vector -@. or @ preceded by a minus sign, yields a sum of zero when added to vector &i In an equation, the relationship looks like this: a+Ga=0 In terms of geometry, ~d is simply a vector of the same magnitude as @, but in the exact opposite direction. The 0 on the right side of this equation represents zero as a vector, referred to as a zero vector. When vectors cancel each other out in this way, an object is said to be in equilibrium, —_——_____ — a DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS The difference between two vectors (ii ~ B) can be defined as follows: ‘Thus, we can find the result of the equation using the same process for sumrning vectors. 28 CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONMULTIPLYING VECTORS BY SCALARS: Doubling vector d means doubling its magnitude without changing its direction. The result is represented as 26 a a 2a Generally, k multiplied by & (ka) represents a vector with @ magnitude k times greater than @ but in the same direction, EQUILIBRIUM AND VECTOR FORCES In discussing the total forces on the tennis ball on page 22, we saw the fallowing equation: total force on the ball = force of gravity + force from the hand = 0 ‘Do you think the plus sign is an error and there should be a minus sign there instead? It’s not an error! Remember that forces are vectors—this equation is true as is. Considered. as vectors, the total ferces working an an object must equal the sum of all the forces, Fa, va (The force from the hand being imposed on the ball) F, ny (The force of gravity) Let’ look into the balance between the forces on the ball and the hand holding it. Let's call the force from the hand on the ball F,,, and the force of gravity on the ball Fyqy- The resultant force (Fagan) acting on the ball is expressed as follows: FE and * Franty F. The resultant force is also called the net force. i the forces on a ball are balanced, it ‘means the resultant force has reached zero: F cain = 0 0F.t0 put it another Way, Fang + Fyavy = 0 EQUILIBRIUM AND VECTOR FORCES 34Yes, that’s exactly it. In short, Fung and Fam, are Vectors of the same magnitude in ‘opposite directions, resulting in zero when added: the force exerted by the hand on the ball + force of gravity on the ball = zero Now, let’ look at forces in terms of magnitude only, not as vectors with direction, AAs explained on page 37, the magnitude of a force is expressed a5 lFranl OF Fyaay using absolute value symbols. Developing these expressions further, you get equations like Frond! = Frana afd [Fyy! = Fopvay: NOW you know the two forces have an equivalent ‘magnitude, which can be expressed as follows in an equation for a subtraction F, rand = F any OF Fy rand ~ Forty Note that these forces are represented without arrows, which indicates that they are magnitudes. When giving equations for balanced farces, we need to make a clear distinction between cases where forces are considered to be vectors and cases where they are con- sidered to be simple magnitudes without direction (scalars). NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION Isaac Newton was an English physicist born in 1643. Based on his observations of motion, he developed the following laws. ‘The first law (law of inertia): A body at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted upon by an outside net force. A body in motion tends to stay in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside net force, The second law (law of acceleration): The net force on an abject is equal to the ‘mass of the object muttalied by its acceleration. The third taw (law of action and reaction): For every action there is an equal and ‘opposite reaction, Let me explain in terms of the ball held in my hand in this chapter, (Well discuss this further in Chapter 2.) Given the first law, we can tell that the total forces on a static object have reached zero in magnitude, Because the ball isin a state of equilibrium, itis static and remains so; ths is the first law of motion in action. Because the ball is not moving, there must be no resultant force from the sum of the force of my hand and the force of gravity ‘As we learned in this chapter, the law of action and reaction is the third law of motion, This lawe tells us that the force from the hand acting on the ball and the force from the ball acting on the hand are equivalent in magnitude and opposite in direction. The law of action and reaction is always present. I is also working when you keep a ballin mation by moving ‘your hand. The second law of motion tells us that an object receiving a net force begins moving with acceleration. tf you suddenly lower your hand while holding a ball, the force from the hand on the bal (F,,,4 suddenly decreases in magnitude, but the force of gravity on the 40. CHAPTER 1 LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONball (Fay) Stays the same, Therefore, the balance of forces is broken, and the Sum of Fray and Fy ON the ball attains a nonzero value while the ball is moving. Thinking in terms of ‘magnitude: Fea = Forauty ~ Fhana © ‘The above equation represents the magnitude of the force applied downward. At this time, given the second law of motion, which states that an object receiving a force attains acceleration proportional to that net force, the ball should begin accelerating, or start mov- ing, This is how mechanics explains the motion of a ball caused when the hand retaining it is suddenly lowered. This same idea can be applied when a ball is suddenly lifted Acceleration ® When | lower my hand suddenly, the equilibrium is broken, causing the ball to start accelerating downward. There is one thing you need to keep in mind. When a ball moves up and down at a constant speed, you should note that the net force (resultant force) on the ball remains zero as the forces are balanced; the ball is not accelerating. The first law of motion tells us that. ‘A nonzera net farce is acting on the ball when the speed of the object's motion varies or any acceleration occurs. When the object moves at a constant speed, the acceleration is zero, and so is the net force. In other words, the forces applied are balanced, even though the ball is moving. ‘Aforce must be applied to an abject for it to begin moving from a static state. Starting ‘motion means the abject transitions from a zero-velocily state to one with a velocity. When this occurs, the object has accelerated, DRAWING A FREE-BODY DIAGRAM In the figure showing vectors of forces acting on a ball in the previous section, F..,, and Fai, have lfferent starting points, Physicists call drawings like this free-body diagrams. When you draw a vector to represent the force of the hand on the ball, you start it at the point where the two come into contact with each other. That's not so confusing, but why do you think the starting point for sravty is located at the center of the bal? In basic physics, an object is treated as a point of mass without a volume: it doesn't matter where the vector starts. We draw that mass point as an object with a certain volume simply because itis easier to see that way ina figure or illustration. NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION 41Ball =p Ball Let's consider an object with volume, and how we can represent forces imposed on it, In the case of a ball on my hand, the force of gravity is imposed on the center of the balls mass (which also called the center of gravity). You can see in the diagram above that this is where the force vector is acting. However, the upward force of my hand is acting on the outside of the ball, as that is the point of contact. Welll draw the force vector starting there in our diagram But to simply our calculations, well treat this object as a mass without volume—that 15, a single point with mass, Well simplify all objects with volume similarly, as the calcula tions for objects with volume can become very complicated. A diagram that represents this simplified free-body diagram is on the right. Bear in mind that we will simplify all the exam- ples in this Book in this way in our calculations, even if our diagrams appear more complex. EXPRESSING NEWTON'S THIRD LAW WITH AN EQUATION To express the law of action and reaction in correct wording, we need a lengthy phrase like “When an object impacts another object. both abjects receive a force of the same magnitude but in opposite directions.” So let's try to express the lavi of action and reaction as a simple equation instead. When object A imposes force F,_. on abject B and object B imposes force F..q 0n object A, the law of action and reaction is expressed as follows: So, you can express the law in a single equation, as shown abave. In fact, comparing the elements in this equation in terms of absolute values, you get: VFgcal = |-Fanal Now you can see that the action and the reaction are equivalent in magnitude, and the ‘minus sign tells you that their directions are opposite, Using equations can help you express Newton's laws in a simpler and more precise manner than vertial expression, AZ CHAPTER | LAW OF ACTION AND REACTIONGRAVITY AND UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION In the narrowest sense of the term, gravity is the force of the earth attracting objects toward itself, But the force of the earth comes from universal arevitation between all objects of ‘mass, not just the earth itself. Between two objects, there isan attractive force proportional to the product of the objects’ masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them, raised to the second power. This attractive force is universal gravitation, as discovered by Newton, I's called universal gravitation because it works on alfabjets with mass—it's nat affected by the type of abject. Is value only depends on the mass of objects affecting each other and the distance between them. 1 ‘As shown in the figure, when two objects with mass M and mass im are separated from each other by distance r, a force of F attracts the two objects. The equation is as follows: mM reg Gis a universal constant referred to as the universal gravitational constant: 6 667 «10° (N x m*/kg?) For an explanation of the unit newton (N), see page 92. Universal gravitation satisfies the law of action and reaction, as it exerts a force on both masses M and m. The equation above can be used to calculate the force on either object. As their directions are obviously opposite, they satisfy the law of action and reaction. Thus, ‘we should nate that forces working between objects at a distance from each other (not just objects that come into contact with each other) also satisfy the law of action and reaction Universal gravitation is a very small force compared to electromagnetic force. While electromagnetic forces may be attractive or repulsive depending on a combination of posi- tive and negative charges, universal gravitation always works as attractive force—that is, objects are always drawn closer to each other. Because of universal gravitation, cosmic dust in outer space gathers into giant masses over time—such as the earth or the other planets. GRANITY AND UNNERSAL GRAVITATION 43VOITATIVARS JAGRSVIMI) CMA YTIVARS. trv rec rin Pe ee htc wrt cst i Ne re each ‘a oats ont ortsivenp coor sunt een Puch at 1 art bth Son” lortrnaany soe metas jm 2 car) ahaha ouel emanates Ames etl ieui ian ceatn Ss Rew ‘samy patsy wc iearitvatg vps bes sabe tbl il > Feebaty oF a »—_iemeri ee sechatoveyg Maven sori ayizncting AT: hc Lagoon prt bel ret Soh ceca Aw ata ayo ater porimott moRbeIveTpLnrYpefe Dl A Aes ‘ncignitain arn ba. zemin sel moe dots ues 2M a Wo Sr at ert Five ra octet at i ret aero an STB ae Fy Eis ic nt imag a cv rare ae oh Peep WaT Aron: Owe BA Perit Pi) DOH A 3S ona yo ET thew ‘ ; aesoe FORCE AND MOTIONVELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ‘SIMPLE MOTION BEFORE WE CAN UNDERSTAND THE LAWS OF MOTION, WE NEED TO. KNOW WHAT VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ARE. ey FIRST, LET'S TALK ABOUT ry ad VELOCITY. TO GET THE RS SIMPLEST IDEA ‘OF VELOCITY, WE SHOULD THINK ABOUT THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT WHEN IT MOVES STRAIGHT AT A CONSTANT ‘SPEED. LET ME SEE..1S THAT SO-CALLED > \ SIMPLE MOTION? EXACTLY! YOU CAN | 5 a OBTAIN THE SPEED | OF SIMPLE MOTION H. THAT'S EASY. 46 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTIONHOWEVER, EVEN WHEN My SPEED IS THE SAME, MY DESTINATION MAY BE SO, IN ORDER TO TAKE DIFFERENT IF I MOVE IN THE DIRECTION INTO. A DIFFERENT DIRECTION. — ACCOUNT AS WELL, WE CAN REPLACE SPEED WITH VELOCITY AND DISTANCE WITH DISPLACEMENT |N OUR EARLIER EQUATION. SURE...WAIT! DISPLACEMENT Velocity = ———_—_ HOLD IT! ARE SPEED AND VELOCITY REALLY TWO DIFFERENT THINGS? HEE-HEE! YOUNE GOTTEN CAUGHT, IT SEEMS. SIMPLE MOTION. 4750 LET ME « : “OrreReNCe . ={ wet use tis. BETWEEN SPEED z AND VELOCITY. Dn \ YOU, THIS CAR IS, ee NONOMURA-KUN..YOU vA. BRING ALL SORTS OF EDUCATIONAL! THINGS TO SCHOOL. NOTHING BUT A $ LEARNING TOOL, YOU KNOW. CURRENTLY, IT |S SET TO 7 | Se reoceanineD TO MONE AT A SPEED OF : MOVE IN DIFFERENT 50 CM PER SECOND ways. (OR 0.5 M/S), DRAWING ( A SQUARE. t 7 = T i { 3 & NOW LET'S HAVE ARUN. 48 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTIONFROM A BIRD’S- BYE VIEW, IT LOOKS LIKE THIS. 5 mis \ , 5 m/s 05 m/s wow! B* c UNITS FOR en, M/S (METERS PER SECOND) MILE TE SPEED \\ its roe DeTONCE: WATERS THE CAR MOVES UNITS FOR TIME: S (SECONDS) IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS. VELOCITY IS A VECTOR CT HAS A DIRECTION AND MAGNITUDE), 50 IT CAN BE EXPRESSED AS AN ARROW. SPEED |S JUST A MAGNITUDE. THE LENGTH OF THE ARROW IS THE OBJECT'S MAGNITUDE 7~ (OR SPEED). the THE ARROW POINTS IN THE DIRECTION OF THE VECTOR'S ORIENTATION. WHEN TRAVELING ON SIDES AB AND CD IN THE DIAGRAM, THE CAR'S SPEED IS THE SAME, BUT ITS VELOCITY IS OPPOSITE. DO YOU SEEP SIMPLE MOTION 44ae 72S ACCELERATION LET'S CHANGE THE SETTING SO AS TO STEADILY INCREASE THE VELOCITY UP TO 0.5 M/S. AN INCREASE IN VELOCITY 1S CALLED ACCELERATION, WHICH YOU CAN CALCULATE USING THE EQUATION CHANGE IN VELOCITY ACCELERATION = TIME 50 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTION THE UNIT FOR ACCELERATION |S METERS PER SECOND SQUARED, WRITTEN AS M/S*. TT REPRESENTS HOW THE VELOCITY (M/5) HAS 50 WE ARE DIVIDING THE CHANGE IN VELOCITY BY TIME. YEP. IF VELOCITY STAYS THE SAME, THERE IS NO CHANGE, AND SO THE ACCELERATION IS ALSO ZERO.AS VELOCITY INCREASES, ACCELERATION HAS A POSITIVE VALUE. WHEN IT DROPS, OR THE MOTION SLOWS DOWN, ACCELERATION HAS A NEGATIVE VALUE. ACCELERATION ALSO INVOLVES: NEGATIVE VALUES? YEP! YOU CAN CALL IT DECELERATION. t UST THINK OF NEGATIVE ACCELERATION AS BEING EQUIVALENT TO A DECREASE IN VELOCITY. MOTION WITH A CONSTANT INCREASE IN VELOCITY IS REFERRED TO AS UNIFORM ACCELERATION MOTION. 11 me | a AND YOUR CAR CAN DO THAT WITH THE RIGHT PROGRAM? Hey! HOW'D You GET 50 FAR ‘AHEAD? ACCELERATION 51OH, YEAH, MY CAR CAN DO THAT. NOW WE'LL CALCULATE THE ACCELERATION OF THE CAR USING THE RULE. 4 SECONDS. $0 A CHANGE OF OS WS OVER AS 15 0125 M/S7t IS THAT RIGHT? LET ME SEE...THE RADIO-CONTROLLED CAR INCREASES VELOCITY FROM OWS TO 05 M/S IN ACCELERATION = RULE: L CHANGE IN VELOCITY WE CAN ASSIGN THESE VALUES TO} EXACTLY! YOU SHOULD BE MORE CONFIDENT. THIS VALUE MEANS THAT VELOCITY IS INCREASING BY 0125 M/5 PER 52 CHAPTER Z FORCE AND MOTION BY APPLYING THIS RULE, WE CAN FIND. THE DISPLACEMENT OF OBJECTS WITH VARIABLELABORATORY FINDING THE DISTANCE TRAVELED WHEN VELOCITY VARIES 6 Lot's change the setting so as to steadily increase the velocity up to 0.5 mis, Here's a quiz for you. Given that velocity has attained 0,5 m/s in four seconds, how far has the radio-controlled car moved? Hmm... starting at 0 rs, the peak velocity is 0.5 mvs. So let me caicu- late, assuming the average speed, 0.25 mis, for the velocity. 0.25 mis x & » =m ‘That's right! You are so sharp. But can you explain why you can get the right answer with that calculation? Uhm ... remember, teaching me is your job, Nonomura-kun! Ha ha, true enough. Before giving you a direct answer, let me explain how we can find the distance traveled when the velocity varies. When veloc ity s constant. we've learned that the distance traveled can be found by calculating the expression (speed = time). Now, given that d m (meters) represents the cistance traveled in ts (seconds) and the constant velocity is v mis, then distance = speed » time can be expressed in the following equation o 429 9 Well, duht o FINDING THE DISTANCE TRAVELED WHEN VELOCITY VARIES 53If you plot that relationship with velocity on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis, you get the following graph. Velocity Distance traveled 0 t Time ‘The shaded area represents the distance traveled. This chart is commonly referred to as a v-t graph, as it graphs velocity and time. That's the area of ‘a rectangle having a horizontal length of t and a vertical length of v. | see. It seems a little strange that an area represents a distance. 2 The area here is not a typical geometric area—this isa graph, ike the ones you've seen in math class The area of a geometric rectangle might be ‘measured in square meters (m’), But in our example, the units are time (seconds) for the horizontal axis and velocity (mvé) for the vertical ans. So the product of these two is equal to s « m/s = m. That's our unit for distance. 9 Its easy to find a distance when an object goes at a constant speed. But ‘what about finding the distance when the speed is variable? ‘The only tool available to us is this equation: o@ distance = speed = time 54 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTIONO99 aga So we can divide the time into segments to create a lot of “small rect angles" and then calculate distances respectively, assuming a constant velocity for each time segment What do you mean? Look at the chart on the left below, Distances traveled in respective Velocity short time segments Distance traveled (m) 0 t “Time a t Time So we can find the area of each slender rectangle created by dividing time into short segments, and then adding up the areas to find the distance traveled. It bothers me that those lttle rectangles won't exactly fit the graph, Wouldn't they bring about errors? | see your concern. Then we can subdivide the rectangles into smaller segments. By repeating division into even smaller segments until every- thing fits as shown in the chart on the right above, the distance we get becomes more and more precise Well, | quess so... if you could do that IF we divided them into infinitely slender rectangles, weid find exactly how far the object has moved. After al, the ultimate answer we get by divid- ing distance = speed = time into short time segments is the area created under a v-t graph. That's how we can find the distance traveled by finding the corresponding area. in summary, distance traveled = area under a v-t graph Just ke that.” * Students of calculus may natice that this process of finding an area under a graph is identical to integration, FINDING THE DISTANCE TRAVELED WHEN VELOCITY VARIES 55Now. keeping in mind what we've learned so far, let's examine the reason why the distance you got intuitively is the right answer, ea Al ight 6 Your original calculation is the same as calculating an area on a velocity- time graph. The example with a radio-controlled car can be plotted into a chart like this ane. Velocity 05 ms O 4s Time The area under the graph, as obtained from the rule for the area of a tri- angle. is as follows: § = base (time) « height (max velocity) = 3 « 4 s «0.5 m/s =4m ‘This represents the distance traveled, Let's find a general expression for the distance traveled, rather than using specific numeric values. Assuming velocity to be v and acceleration to be «, the relationship between the velocity and time for uniform accelerated motion is v = at. 56 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTION* ‘That can be platted into a v-t graph, as shown below. Velocity 0 t Time Lets assume d is the distance traveled in time ¢; its value should be ‘equivalent to the area of a triangle with a base of t and height of at (which ‘equals the final velocity of the object). Velocity = Hea) Datance traveled (ni You see? Ummmm ... oh, I see how that works! The value we get by calculating § 0.125 mvs? » (4 5)? = 1 m.As it should be! Now, Ninomiya-san, you can alsa calculate a distance traveled in uniform accelerated motion not by intuition but by the proper method, —s) FINDING THE DISTANCE TRAVELED WHEN VELOCITY VARIES 57NEWTON'S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS WHEN AN OBJECT |S AT REST, THE NET FORCE ON THAT OBJECT EQUALS ZERO. FIRST, THE FOLLOWING ‘MUST BE LAW OF INERTIA ——— NOW, LET'S THINK ABOUT MOTION. BUT LET'S NOTE THAT THE FORCE IS ZERO BECAUSE DIFFERENT FORCES ON THE OBJECT ARE ACTUALLY CANCELING EACH OTHER. ALL FORCES ON THE OBJECT ARE ADDED, FORCE YEAH, LIKE THE FROM AND THE NET FORCE Gees nA THE HAND IS ZERO. THE FORCE 1 ? VECTORS ARE EQUAL AND OPPOSITE.90 AN OBJECT AT REST CAN HAVE: FORCES IMPOSED ON IT, PROVIDED THAT THE SUM OF THOSE FORCES IS ZERO. 2 WHAT ON A. EARTH IS YOU DON'T HAVE TO BE APPALLED. IS JUST A BALL WITH TWO. STRINGS COMING OF IT. YOU MEAN THE TENSION OF THE STRING IS EQUIVALENT TO THE FORCE OF GRAVITYS HOW CAN YOU ‘SAY SO WITHOUT TAKING ANY p, MEASUREMENTS AT THE MOMENT, \“s0 A FORCE MUST BE THE BALL IS IMPOSED FROM THE STATIC. ‘STRING THAT CAN CANCEL. THE FORCE OF GRAVITY (THE BALL'S WEIGHT) TO YIELD A RESULT OF A ZERO MAGNITUDE. THAT'S MY POINT.IN FACT, AN OBJECT AT REST, SUCH AS THIS: BALL, IS RELATED TO NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION. YOU CAN CHECK THAT THE TENSION OF THE STRING 1S EQUIVALENT TO THE BALL'S WEIGHT USING AN INSTRUMENT. BUT THE FIRST LAW OF MOTION TELLS US THAT THE NET FORCE (ON AN OBJECT INA ‘STATIC STATE MUST BE ZERO. $0... WONDER IF THE NET FORCE COULD BE ZERO IF THE OBJECT WAS PULLED BY THE SECOND STRING? I THOUGHT I'D EXPLAIN IT... BUT INSTEAD, LET'S ACTUALLY PULL THE STRING TIED TO THE BALL. UPSy- Daisy m0LOOKING AT ALL THREE FORCES | ACTING ON THE BALL, WE SEE THAT GRAVITY 1S WORKING VERTICALLY ON THE BALL, AND THE FORCE FROM THE HAND IS, WORKING HORIZONTALLY. FORGE OF TR HAND PULLING THE) oasect ‘RESULTANT OF WEIGHT ‘AND FORCE OF HAND PULLING THE: OBJECT THOSE TWO FORCES ARE BALANCED BY THE TENSION OF THE STRING. THE BALL STAYS ‘STILL IN THIS STATE, SO THE NET FORCE SHOULD BE ZERO. IN OTHER WORDS, THE BALL'S WEIGHT AND THE HAND'S FORCE CAN BE MERGED. OR CAN WE SPLIT THE TENSION OF THE STRING INTO Pee LAW OF INERTIA. 61WE CAN DO BOTH. LETS COMBINE TWO VECTORS INTO ONE. WE CAN ADD VECTORS BY SIMPLY PUTTING THE TAIL OF THE SECOND VECTOR ONTO THE HEAD OF THE FIRST. THIS 1S CALLED THE HEAD-TO-TAIL, UH-HUH. $0 THE RESULTANT WORKS IN THE DIRECTION IN WHICH THE STRING IS ANGLED RELATIE TO THE CEILING, a : © 62 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTION @ a REALLY? LET'S LOOK AT| A FIGURE. DRAWING A FIGURE MAKES IT EASIER TO UNDERSTAND. IN OUR EXAMPLE OF THE SUSPENDED WEIGHT, THE COMBINED FORCE OF MY HAND AND THE WEIGHT HAS AN EQUIVALENT MAGNITUDE ON THE EXACT OPPOSITE DIRECTIOND 10 THE TENSION OF THE STRING. WE KNOW THAT THE OBJECT IS AT REST, SO THE TOTAL RESULTANT FORCE MUST EGUAL ZERO. Ye YEAH... THAT'S RIGHT.BUT IT'S POSSIBLE FOR AN OBJECT TO BE IN MOTION EVEN WHEN FORCES ARE ZERO. IF, WHEN FORCES ARE IMPOSED, THE OBJECT REMAINS THE SUM OF STATIONARY, ATE Oeces IS ZERO, FOR EXAMPLE, THINK OF OUTER SPACE. / IN A SO-CALLED HAVEN'T YOU SeEN WEIGHTLESS STATE, FOOTAGE OF THE AN OBJECT THAT HAS INTERIOR OF A SPACE STARTED MOVING SHUTTLE? TRAVELS STRAIGHT AHEAD AT A CONSTANT RELATIVE VELOCITY* y. OF ‘SURE I HAVE! THERE ARE ALWAYS VARIOUS THINGS Z 7 LOOKS ‘SUSPENDED IN JA Like YOU MAY THE AIR. BE RIGHT. IN ORBIT, OBJECTS ARE IN A STATE (OF CONSTANT FREE FALL, MAKING THEIR APPARENT WEIGHT ZERO.NORMALLY, FRICTION FROM THE Alk OR COLLISION WITH THE GROUND WILL STOP AN OBJECT (UNLESS YOU KEEP APPLYING BUT IN DEEP OUTER SPACE, IT IS POSSIBLE| TO ACHIEVE A ZERO- FORCE STATE, AS THERE IS NO GRAVITY OR AIR RESISTANCE TO CONSIDER. YES, INDEED! IN THAT CASE, YOU MEAN, WE COULD KEEP MOVING FOREVER, EVEN WITH NO FORCE IMPOSED? a; 2M" 35 THar ouy ALL RIGHT? HE LOOKS: LIKE He's A CONSTANT-VELOCITY, OR UNIFORM, MOTION OCCURS WHEN THE NET FORCE IS ZERO.YOU KNOW, ALL THESE PHENOMENA CAN BE EXPLAINED USING NEWTON'S FIRST LAW. IT DESCRIBES THE BEHAVIOR OF AN OBJECT WHEN THE NET FORCE ON IT 15 ZERO. | (ee | | | | TT IS ALSO CALLED AN OBJECT CONTINUES TO. Re THE FIRST LAW OF MAINTAIN ITS STATE OF REST oe MOTION, OR THE LAW ‘OR OF UNIFORM MOTION OBJECTS TO OF INERTIA. UNLESS ACTED UPON BY AN RESIST CHANGES =| EXTERNAL NET FORCE. IN THEIR VeLocry | | INERTIA. THE LAW OF INERTIA SOUNDS: FAMILIAR! THAT'S THE SAME THING AS NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION. THAT'S RIGHT. LAW OF INERTIA 65YOU COMMUTE BY BICYCLE, DON’T YOU, NINOMIYA-SAN?- LAW OF ACCELERATION NEXT, LET'S EXAMINE THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT WHEN A NET FORCE /5 WORKING. YES, 1 DO. THOUGH IT'S A RATHER LONG WAY FROM HOME. OF COURSE, YOU INTUITIVELY KNOW THAT A BICYCLE AT REST MUST BE PEDALED TO START MOVING. IN OTHER WORDS, YOU CAN SAY THAT ITS VELOCITY HAS CHANGED. YOU COULD SAY THAT THE APPLICATION OF FORCE (FROM YOUR LEGS) HAS GENERATED ACCELERATION.AND THE GREATER THE FORCE 16, THE GREATER THE ACCELERATION BECOMES. MY INTUITION TELLS ME THAT. IN TURN, TO STOP YOUR BIKE, YOU NEED TO APPLY A FORCE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION OF YOUR VELOCITY—THIS 1S YOUR BRAKES. CREATING AN ACCELERATION OPPOSITE TO YOUR WHEN YOU LOOK AT IT THIS WAY, YOUR BRAKING IS CREATING A NEGATIVE ACCELERATION, NOT VELOCITY CTHAT IS, A REDUCING YOUR INITIAL NEGATIVE ACCELERATION, ACCELERATION. OR DECELERATION) LEADS TO A SLOWER VELOCITY AND WILL EVENTUALLY BRING YOUR BIKE TO AHALT. GIVEN THESE OBSERVATIONS, WE CAN SAFELY SAY THAT THE FORCE IS DIRECTLY qQ we PROPORTIONAL TO THE SU ACCELERATION. 2 My y Wy ih i LAW OF ACCELERATION 67NOW, LET'S FOCUS ‘ON MASS. op THAT'S HUGE! AND HEAVY! WITH A HEAVY LOAD FORCE WHEN YOU THE PEDAL. IN YOUR BASKET, YOU MUST EXERCISE A HUGE INITIALLY TRY TO PUSH + | REBAR SEE, THE LOAD GIVEN THAT, WE CAN ASSUME THAT THE MASS IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO ACCELERATION. THAT MEANS THE LARGER THE MASS, THE SMALLER THE ACCELERATION. warn, WHATS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAKES IT HARDER TO ACCELERATE. ieee TO PUT IT SIMPLY, WEIGHT IS A. FORCE IMPOSED (ON AN OBJECT BY GRAVITY. THIS MEANS AN OBJECT WILL HAVE A DIFFERENT WEIGHT ON THE MOON THAN ON EARTH.‘MASS 15 A QUANTITY THAT DETERMINES AN OBJECTS INERTIA, OR RESISTANCE IN DEEP OUTER SPACE, AN ra OBJECT WEIGHS TNINeReNt GOaumty NOTHING. HOWEVER, TO ‘OF AN OBJECT THAT MOVE IT, YOU OES NOT DEPEND ON STILL NEED A GRAVITATIONAL PULL, FORCE. WEIGHT AND MASS: SEEM SIMILAR, BUT THEY MEAN DIFFERENT THINGS, DON'T THEY? LET'S SUM UP WHAT WE'VE LEARNED 50 FAR! THE ACCELERATION OF AN OBJECT IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE FORCE APPLIED TO IT AND INVERSELY THIS 1S THE PROPORTIONAL TO ITS MASS. ‘SECOND LAW OF MOTION. rH OS OH-H-H! Oo 1 See. = Ze 86 IT CAUGHT YOUR FANCY BY ANY CHANCE? JUDGING oi, ves. FROM YOUR POSE...ASSUME ACCELERATION IS @ CIN M/S*). FORCE IS F (IN NEWTONS, A UNIT EQUAL TO NOW LET'S. Ik@ x M1 / $). MASS 1S m EXPRESS IT IN AN (ON KG). THEN, EQUATION. O Of WE GET THE FOLLOWING. OH NO, AN EQUATION? THE EQUATION SHOWS THIS: WHEN FORCE F IS. DOUBLED, ACCELERATION a IS ALSO DOUBLED. YOU SEE, WHEN MASS m IS DOUBLED, ACCELERATION a IS REDUCED NOTHING LIKE AN EQUATION TO RUIN YOUR DAY. 70 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTIONTHEN YOU GET THIS EQUATION. TO Spy IT ALOUD... FORCE EQUALS MASS TIMES ACCELERATION, BUT I STILL CAN'T SEE IT. L MEAN, WHATS A FORCE ANYWAY, IF I'S JUST EQUAL TO MASS MULTIPLIED BY ACCELERATION? THIS EQUATION EXPRESSES THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SECOND LAW OF MOTION IN A MORE CONCISE AND PRECISE FORM. [os LAW OF ACCELERATION 71—_ WELL, IT 15 A DIFFICULT CONCEPT TO GRASP. BUT LET ME EXPLAIN— ‘THE NEWTON, OUR UNIT FOR FORCE, IS DERIVED FROM THE EQUATION F = ma. ONE NEWTON IS THE FORCE NEEDED TO ACCELERATE A 1K6 OBJECT BY 1M/5?, I KNOW, RIGHT? OH, I SEE. $0 IT'S A UNIT THAT MAKES FORCE EQUAL TO THE VALUE OF MASS TIMES: ACCELERATION. v— SOR EXACTLY. AND USING THIS EQUATION, ACCELERATION! WE CAN FIND THE MASS LET'S LOOK AT a ONDINE THE NET roRce A REAL-LIFE - APPLIED BY THe OBJECT'S EXAMPLE. 72 CHAPTER 2 FORCE AND MOTION