PLSQL Document

PL/SQL
Introduction
The development of database applications typically requires language constructs

similar to those that can be found in programming languages such as C, C++, or
Pascal. These constructs are necessary in order to implement complex data structures
and algorithms. A major restriction of the database language SQL, however, is that
many tasks cannot be accomplished by using only the provided language elements.
PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) is a procedural extension of Oracle-SQL that

o_ers language constructs similar to those in imperative programming languages.
PL/SQL allows users and designers to develop complex database applications that
require the usage of control structures and procedural elements such as procedures,
functions, and modules.
The basic construct in PL/SQL is a block. Blocks allow designers to combine

logically related (SQL-) statements into units. In a block, constants and variables can
be declared, and variables can be used to store query results. Statements in a PL/SQL
block include SQL statements, control structures (loops), condition statements (if-
then-else), exception handling, and calls of other PL/SQL blocks.
PL/SQL blocks that specify procedures and functions can be grouped into packages.
A package is similar to a module and has an interface and an implementation part.
Oracle o_ers several predefined packages, for example, input/output routines, file
handling, job scheduling etc.
Another important feature of PL/SQL is that it o_ers a mechanism to process query

results in a tuple-oriented way, that is, one tuple at a time. For this, cursors are used.
A cursor basically is a pointer to a query result and is used to read attribute values of
selected tuples into variables. A cursor typically is used in combination with a loop
construct such that each tuple read by the cursor can be processed individually.
In summary, the major goals of PL/SQL are to

• increase the expressiveness of SQL,
• process query results in a tuple-oriented way,
• optimize combined SQL statements,
• develop modular database application programs,
• reuse program code, and
• reduce the cost for maintaining and changing applications.
Structure of PL/SQL-Blocks
PL/SQL is a block-structured language. Each block builds a (named) program unit,

and blocks can be nested. Blocks that build a procedure, a function, or a package must
be named.
A PL/SQL block has an optional declare section, a part containing PL/SQL

statements, and an optional exception-handling part. Thus the structure of a PL/SQL
looks as follows (brackets [ ] enclose optional parts):
1
[<Block header>]
[declare
<Constants>
<Variables>
<Cursors>
<User defined exceptions>]
begin
<PL/SQL statements>
[exception
<Exception handling>]
end;
The block header specifies whether the PL/SQL block is a procedure, a function, or a
package. If no header is specified, the block is said to be an anonymous PL/SQL
block. Each PL/SQL block again builds a PL/SQL statement. Thus blocks can be
nested like blocks in conventional programming languages. The scope of declared
variables (i.e., the part of the program in which one can refer to the variable) is
analogous to the scope of variables in programming languages
such as C or Pascal.
Declarations
Constants, variables, cursors, and exceptions used in a PL/SQL block must be

declared in the declare section of that block. Variables and constants can be declared
as follows:
<variable name> [constant] <data type> [not null] [:= <expression>];
Valid data types are SQL data types (see Section 1.1) and the data type boolean.
Boolean data may only be true, false, or null. The not null clause requires that the
declared variable must always have a value di_erent from null. <expression> is used
to initialize a variable.
If no expression is specified, the value null is assigned to the variable. The clause
constant states that once a value has been assigned to the variable, the value cannot be
changed (thus the variable becomes a constant).
Example:
Declare hire date date; /* implicit initialization with null */
job title varchar2(80) := ’Salesman’;
emp found boolean; /* implicit initialization with null */
salary incr constant number(3,2) := 1.5; /* constant */
...
begin
...
end;
Instead of specifying a data type, one can also refer to the data type of a table column
(so-called anchored declaration). For example, EMP.Empno%TYPE refers to the data
2
type of the column Empno in the relation EMP. Instead of a single variable, a record
can be declared that can store a complete tuple from a given table (or query result).
For example, the data type DEPT%ROWTYPE specifies a record suitable to store all
attribute values of a complete row from the table DEPT. Such records are typically
used in combination with a cursor. A field in a record can be accessed using <record
name>.<column name>, for example, DEPT.Deptno.
Exception Handling
A PL/SQL block may contain statements that specify exception handling routines.
Each error or warning during the execution of a PL/SQL block raises an exception.
One can distinguish between two types of exceptions:
• system defined exceptions

• user defined exceptions (which must be declared by the user in the declaration part
of a
block where the exception is used/implemented)
System defined exceptions are always automatically raised whenever corresponding

errors or warnings occur. User defined exceptions, in contrast, must be raised
explicitly in a sequence of statements using raise <exception name>. After the
keyword exception at the end of a block, user defined exception handling routines are
implemented. An implementation has the pattern when
<exception name> then <sequence of statements>;
The most common errors that can occur during the execution of PL/SQL programs are
handled by system defined exceptions. The table below lists some of these exceptions
with their names and a short description.
Exception name Number Remark

CURSOR ORA-06511 You have tried to open a cursor which is
ALREADY OPEN already open
INVALID ORA-01001 Invalid cursor operation such as fetching

CURSOR from a closed cursor
NO DATA FOUND ORA-01403 A select . . . into or fetch statement returned

no tuple
TOO MANY ORA-01422 A select . . . into statement returned more

ROWS than one tuple
ZERO DIVIDE ORA-01476 You have tried to divide a number by 0
3
Examples
Q1) Write a PL/SQL programme to add two numbers ?
SQL> declare
a number(10) := 20;
b number(10) := 30;
c number(10) ;
begin
c := a + b;
dbms_output.put_line('a value'||a||'b value'
||b||'c value'||c);
end;
/
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed
We can not see the ouput until we set the server output on
SQL> set serveroutput on

SQL> /
A value 20 b value 30 c value 50
Q2) Write a PL/SQL programme to add two numbers by accepting the values from
keyboard?
SQL> declare
a number(10) := &a;
b number(10) := &b;
c number(10) ;
begin
c := a + b;
dbms_output.put_line('a value'||a||'b value'
||b||'c value'||c);
end;
/
Enter value for a: 10
old 2: a number(10) := &a;
new 2: a number(10) := 10;
Enter value for b: 20
old 3: b number(10) := &b;
new 3: b number(10) := 20;
a value10b value20c value30
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
4
Q3) Write a PL/SQL programe to extract sailors sid and sname for a given sid?
SQL> declare
a number(10);
b varchar2(10);
c number(10) := &c;
begin
select sid,sname into a,b from sailors where sid = c;
dbms_output.put_line('sailors id = '||a||'sailors Name= '||b);
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line('no such sailor found with sid = '||c);
end;
/
Enter value for c: 22

old 4: c number(10) := &c;
new 4: c number(10) := 22;
sailors id = 22 sailors name = Dustin
SQL>/

new 4: c number(10) := 20;
no such sailor found with sid = 20
Initially any application will have to connect to the database in order to access the
data. It is important to point out that when a user is issuing DML statements in an
application the changes are not visible to the user until a COMMIT or ROLLBACK
has been issued.
COMMIT- makes events within a transaction permanent

ROLLBACK – Erases events within a transaction
SAVEPOINT – We can control transactions by using save points. These break

transactions into pieces so that we can roll back to a specified save point with out roll
backing the total transaction.
SYNTAX: savepoint name;
rollback to savepoint name;

Example:
5
SQL> create table empl(eid number(10),ename varchar(10),desg
archar(10),salary number(5));
Table created
SQL> begin
savepoint a;
insert into empl values (101,'abc','acc',2000);
savepoint b;
insert into empl values (102,'bcd','clk',3000);
savepoint c;
insert into empl values (103,'sde','gar',1200);
rollback to c;
end;
/
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed
SQL> select * from empl;
EID ENAME DSEG SALARY

101 abc acc 2000
102 Bcd clk 3000
Here only two records are inserted because we are giving savepoints in above
PL/SQL block as A, B, C and we rollback to point C this will erase event insertion of
third record.
6
CONDITIONAL CONTROL STATEMNETS
In PL/SQL there are three types of conditional control : IF, ELSIF and CASE
IF – THEN Statement
This is the most basic kind of a conditional control and has the following
structure
If Condition Then
Statement 1;
….
Statement 2;
End If;
The reserved word IF marks the beginning of the IF statement.
Example:
Q4) Write a PL/SQL block to swap two numbers when the first number is greater
than second number ?
SQL> declare
a number(10) := &a;
b number(10) := &b;
c number(10);
begin
dbms_output.put_line('a value ='||a||' b value ='||b);
if a>b then
c := a;
a := b;
b := c;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('a value ='||a||' b value ='||b);
end;
/

new 2: a number(10) := 20;
old 3: b number(10) := &b;
new 3: b number(10) := 10;
a value =20 b value =10
a value =10 b value =20
7
IF – THEN – ELSE
This statement enables you to specify two groups of statements One group of
statements is executed when the condition evaluates to TRUE and the other group of
statements is executed when the condition evaluates to FALSE.
If Condition Then
Statement 1;
ELSE
Statement 2;
End If;
Statement 3;
Example:
Q5) Write a PL/SQL block to test whether the given number is odd or even
SQL> declare
2 a number(10) := &a;
3 begin
4 if mod(a,2)=0 then
5 dbms_output.put_line('a value is even');
6 else
7 dbms_output.put_line('a value is odd');
8 end if;
9 end;
10 /

new 2: a number(10) := 44;
a value is even

SQL> /
new 2: a number(10) := 33;
a value is odd
8
ELSIF Statement:
This statement has the following structure
If Condition 1 Then
Statement 1;
ELSIF Condition 2 Then
Statement 2;
ELSIF Condition 3 Then
Statement 3;
…
ELSE
Statement 4;
END IF;
Example:
Q6) Write a PL/SQL block to find the grade of sailor for a given sid
10, 9, 8 – Grade A
7, 6, 5 – Grade B
other – Grade C
SQL> declare
2 a number(10) := &a;
3 c number(10);
4 begin
5 select rating into c from sailors where sid = a;
6 if c in (10,9,8) then
7 dbms_output.put_line('sailor '||a||' has grade A');
8 elsif c in (7,6,5) then
9 dbms_output.put_line('sailor '||a||' has grade B');
10 else
11 dbms_output.put_line('sailor '||a||' has grade C');
12 end if;
13 end;
14
15 /
new 2: a number(10) := 22;
sailor 22 has grade B
9
CASE:
A case statement has the following structure:
CASE SELECTOR
WHEN EXPRESSION 1 STATEMENT 1;
…..
ELSE STATEMENT N+1;
END CASE;
The reserved word CASE marks the beginning of the case statement. A selector is a
value that determines which WHEN clause should be executed.
Example:
Q7) Write a PL/SQL block to print the day name for a given date?
SQL> declare
2 a date := '&a';
3 b char(10);
4 begin
5 b := to_char(a,'D');
6 case b
7 when '1' then
8 dbms_output.put_line('today is sunday');
9 when '2' then
10 dbms_output.put_line('today is monday');
11 when '3' then
12 dbms_output.put_line('today is thuesday');
13 when '4' then
14 dbms_output.put_line('today is wednesday');
15 when '5' then
16 dbms_output.put_line('today is thrusday');
17 when '6' then
18 dbms_output.put_line('today is friday');
19 when '7' then
20 dbms_output.put_line('today is saturday');
21 end case;
22 end;
23 /
Enter value for a: 10-mar-09
old 2: a date := '&a';
new 2: a date := '10-mar-09';
today is thuesday
10
ITERATIVE CONTROL
In PL/SQL there are three types of loops : Simple LOOP, WHILE loops and Numeric
FOR loop
A simple loop, as you can see from its name, is the most basic kind of loop and has
the following structure:
LOOP
STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
…….
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;
The reserved word LOOP marks the beginning of the simple loop. Statement 1
through N are a sequence of statements that is executed repeatedly.
EXIT statement causes a loop to terminate when exit condition evaluates to TRUE.
LOOP
STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
IF CONDITION THEN
EXITL;
END IF;
…….
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;
Example:
Q8) Write a PL/SQL block to print number from 1 to 5 using loop statements
SQL> declare
2 a number :=0;
3 begin
4 loop
5 a := a+1;
6 dbms_output.put_line('a value'||a);
7 if a>5 then
8 exit;
9 end if;
10 end loop;
11 end;
12 /
a value1
a value2
a value3
11
a value4
a value5
a value6
Note: here numbers are printed 1 to 6 because this loop acts as do-while so it executes
the statements and then check the condition next.
LOOP
STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
EXIT WHEN CONDITION;
…….
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;
Q8) Write a PL/SQL block to print number from 1 to 5 using loop statements
SQL> declare
2 a number :=0;
3 begin
4 loop
5 a := a+1;
7 exit when a>5 ;
10 end loop;
11 end;
12 /
a value1
a value2
a value3
a value4
a value5
a value6
12
WHILE LOOPS:
A while loop has the following structure
WHILE CONDITION LOOP

STATEMNET 1;
STATEMNET 2;
……
STATEMNET N;
End loop;
The reserved word WHILE marks the beginning of a loop construct. The word
CONDITION is the test condition of the loop that evaluates to TRUE or FALSE.
Example:
Q9) Write a PL/SQL block to print number from 1 to 5 using while loop statements
SQL> declare
2 a number:=1;
3 begin
4 while a<5 loop
6 a := a+1;
7 end loop;
8* end;
SQL> /
a value1
a value2
a value3
a value4
NUMERIC FOR LOOP:

A numeric FOR loop is called numeric because it requires an integer as its
terminating value. Its structure is as follows.
FOR loop_counter IN[REVERSE] Lower_limit..upper_limit LOOP

STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
……
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;
The reversed word FOR marks the beginning of a FOR loop construct. The variable
loop_counter is an implicitly defined index variable. There is no need to define the
loop counter in the declaration section. The values of the lower_limit and upper_limit
are evaluated once for the iteration of the loop.
13
Example:
Q10) Write a PL/SQL block to print number from 1 to 5 using for loop statements
SQL> begin
2 for a in reverse 1..5 loop
4 end loop;
5 end;
6 /
a value5
a value4
a value3
a value2
a value1
Examples:
Q11) To write a PL/SQL block to find Sum of Digits of a given Number.
SQL> DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number(5);
sm number(5):=0;
num1 number(5);
BEGIN
num:=&num;
num1:=num;
while(num>0) loop
rem:=mod(num,10);
sm:=sm+rem;
num:=trunc(num/10);
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('SUM OF DIGITS OF '||num1||' IS: '||sm);
end;
/
RESULT:
SQL> /
Enter value for num: 123
old 7: num:=&num;
new 7: num:=123;
SUM OF DIGITS OF 123 IS: 6
SQL> /
14
old 7: num:=&num;
new 7: num:=456;
SUM OF DIGITS OF 456 IS: 15
Q12) To write a PL/SQL block to Generate Fibonacci Series
SQL> DECLARE
num number(5);
f1 number(5):=0;
f2 number(5):=1;
f3 number(5);
i number(5):=3;
BEGIN
num:=&num;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('THE FIBONACCI SERIES IS:');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(f1);
while(i<=num) loop
f3:=f1+f2;
f1:=f2;
f2:=f3;
i:=i+1;
end loop;
END;
/
RESULT:
SQL> /
old 8: num:=&num;
new 8: num:=10;
THE FIBONACCI SERIES IS:
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
15
Q13) To write a PL/SQL block to Check the Given String is Palindrome or Not.
SQL> DECLARE
name1 varchar2(20);
name2 varchar2(20);
l number(5);
BEGIN
name1:='&name1';
l:=length(name1);
while l>0 loop
name2:=name2||substr(name1,l,1);
l:=l-1;
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('REVERSE OF STRING IS:'||NAME2);
if(name1=name2) then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(name1||' IS PALINDROME ');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line(name1||' IS NOT PALINDROME ');
end if;
END;
/
RESULT
Enter value for name1: LIRIL
old 6: name1:='&name1';
new 6: name1:='LIRIL';
REVERSE OF STRING IS:LIRIL
LIRIL IS PALINDROME
SQL> /
Enter value for name1: MADAM
old 6: name1:='&name1';
new 6: name1:='MADAM';
REVERSE OF STRING IS:MADAM
MADAM IS PALINDROME
16
USER DEFINED EXCEPTIONS
Some type of errors can not be identified by in built exception handlers so we
can design our own exceptions to handle situations
To use a exception first we must declare it in the declaration section of PL/SQL block.
DECLARE
Exception_name EXCEPTION;
A user defined exception must be raised explicitly i.e., you need to specify in your
program under which circumstances an exception must be raised.
DECLARE
BEGIN
….
IF CONDITION THEN
RAISE exception_name;
ELSE
….
END IF;
The exception statements associated with this exception are specified in the exception
handling section of the block.
DECLARE
BEGIN
….
IF CONDITION THEN
RAISE exception_name;
ELSE
….
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
ERROR-PROCESSING STATEMENT;
END;
Example
Q14) Write a PL/SQL block to handle exception when the given sid is negative
using user defined exception?
SQL> declare
2 a number(10);
3 b varchar2(10);
4 c number(10) := &c;
5 d exception; --exception variable declaration
6 begin
7 if c<0 then
17
8 raise d; --raising an exception
9 else
10 select sid,sname into a,b from sailors where sid = c;
11 dbms_output.put_line('sailors id = '||a||'sailors Name= '||b);
12 end if;
13 exception
14 when d then --action to be taken
15 dbms_output.put_line('sailor id can not be negative');
16 when no_data_found then
17 dbms_output.put_line('no such sailor found with sid = '||c);
18 end;
19 /
new 4: c number(10) := 22;
sailors id = 22sailors Name= dustin
SQL> /
Enter value for c: -22
new 4: c number(10) := -22;
sailor id can not be negative
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
It is a special built in procedure provided by oracle. This procedure allows

programmers to create meaningful error messages for a specific application. This
works with user defined exceptions
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(error_number, error_message);
Q15) Write a PL/SQL block to handle exception when the given sid is negative
using RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR?
SQL> declare
2 a number(10);
3 b varchar2(10);
4 c number(10) := &c;
5 begin
6 if c<0 then
7 raise_application_error(-20000,'sailor id can not be negative');
8 else
9 select sid,sname into a,b from sailors where sid = c;
10 dbms_output.put_line('sailors id = '||a||'sailors Name= '||b);
11 end if;
12 exception
18
14 dbms_output.put_line('no such sailor found with sid = '||c);
15 end;
16 /
new 4: c number(10) := 22;
sailors id = 22sailors Name= dustin
SQL> /
Enter value for c: -22
new 4: c number(10) := -22;
declare
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20000: sailor id can not be negative
ORA-06512: at line 7
19
PROCEDUREDS:
Modular code :
A PL/SQL module is any complete logical unit of work. There are four
types of PL/SQL modules: 1) anonymous blocks that are run with a text script( you
have used until now), 2) Procedures, 3) Functions, and 4) Packages.
There are two main benefits to using modular code: 1) it is more reusable and 2) it is
more manageable.
A procedure is a module performing one or more actions: it does not need to return
any value. The syntax for creating a procedure is
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE name

[(PARAMETER 1 {IN,OUT,INOUT} DATATYPE(SIZE),
PARAMETER 2 {IN,OUT,INOUT} DATATYPE(SIZE),….
PARAMETER N {IN,OUT,INOUT} DATATYPE(SIZE))]
AS
[local declaration]
BEGIN
Executable statements
[EXCEPTION
exception handler]
END [name];
Example
Q16) create a procedure to add two number and call the block with a PL/SQL
block?
SQL> create or replace procedure sum(a in number,b in number)

2 is
3 c number := 1;
4 begin
5 c := a+b;
6 dbms_output.put_line('c value '||c);
7 end;
8 /
Procedure created.
SQL> declare
2 a number := &a;
3 b number := &b;
4 begin
5 sum(a,b);
6 end;
7 /
20
old 2: a number := &a;
new 2: a number := 10;
old 3: b number := &b;
new 3: b number := 20;
c value 30
Q17) Create a procedure to add two number and return the value to a PL/SQL
block?
SQL> create or replace procedure sum1(a in number,b in number,d out

number)
2 is
3 c number := 1;
4 begin
5 c := a+b;
6 d:=c;
7 end;
8 /
Procedure created.
SQL> declare
2 a number := &a;
3 b number := &b;
4 d number;
5 begin
6 sum1(a,b,d);
7 dbms_output.put_line('d value '||d);
8 end;
9 /
old 3: b number := &b;
new 3: b number := 30;
d value 40
Q18) Create a procedure to accept sailors sid and return age of sailor to a PL/SQL
block?
SQL> create or replace procedure sail(a in number,b out number)
2 is
3 c number;
4 begin
21
5 select age into c from sailors where sid = a;
6 b := c;
7 exception
9 dbms_output.put_line('no such sailors');
10 end;
11 /
Procedure created.
SQL> declare
2 a number := &a;
3 b number;
4 begin
5 sail(a,b);
6 dbms_output.put_line('sailors with '||a||'has age '||b);
7 end;
8 /
sailors with 64has age 35
22
FUNCTION:
The syntax for creating a function is as follows:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION name

[(PARAMETER 1 {IN,OUT,INOUT} DATATYPE(SIZE),
PARAMETER 2 {IN,OUT,INOUT} DATATYPE(SIZE),….
PARAMETER N {IN,OUT,INOUT} DATATYPE(SIZE))]
RETURN datatype
IS
[local declaration]
BEGIN
Executable statements
[EXCEPTION
exception handler]
END [name];
The function does not necessarily have any parameters, but it must have a RETURN
value declared in the header, and it must return values for all the varying possible
execution streams.
Q19) Create a function to add two number and return the value to a PL/SQL block?
SQL> create or replace function f(a in number)

2 return number
3 as
4 b number;
5 begin
6 b:=10;
7 b:=a+b;
8 return b;
9 end;
10 /
Function created.
SQL> declare
2 a number:=10;
3 c number;
4 begin
5 c := f(a);
6 dbms_output.put_line('c value'||c);
7 end;
8 /
c value20
23
Q20) Create a function to accept sailors sid and return age of sailor to a PL/SQL
block?
SQL> create or replace function sailf(a in number)

2 return number
3 as
4 b number;
5 begin
6 select age into b from sailors where sid=a;
7 return b;
8 exception
10 dbms_output.put_line('no such sailors');
11 end;
12 /
Function created.
SQL> declare
2 a number:= &a;
3 c number;
4 begin
5 c := sailf(a);
6 dbms_output.put_line('sailor with sid '||a||'has age '||c);
7 end;
8 /
old 2: a number:= &a;
new 2: a number:= 58;
sailor with sid 58has age 35
24
CURSOR:
A cursor is a handle or pointer to the context area. Through the cursor a
PL/SQL program can control the context area and what happens to it as the statements
is processed.
1) Cursor allow you to fetch and process rows returned by a SELECT
statement, one row at a time.
2) A cursor is named so that it can be referenced.
Types of cursors:
1. An implicit cursor is automatically declared by oracle every time an SQL
statement is executed. The user will not be aware of this happening and
will not be able to control or process the information in an implicit cursor.
2. An explicit cursor is defined by the program for any query that returns
more than one row of data. That means the programmer has declared the
cursor within the PL/SQL code block. This declaration allows for the
application to sequentially process each row of data as it is returned by the
cursor.
IMPLICIT CURSOR
In order to better understand the capabilities of an explicit cursor, you first
need to run through the process of an implicit cursor.
1) Any given PL/SQL block issues an implicit cursor when ever an SQL
statement is executed, as long as an explicit cursor does not exist for that
SQL statement.
2) A cursor is automatically associated with every DML statement.
3) All UPDATE and DELETE statements have cursors that identify the set
od rows that will be affected by the operations.
4) An INSERT statement needs a place to receive the data that is to be
inserted in the database; the implicit cursor fulfills this need.
5) The most recently opened cursor is called the ‘SQL%’ cursor.
EXPLICIT CURSOR
The only means of generating an explicit cursor is for the cursor to be named
in the DECLARE section of the PL/SQL block.
1) Declaring the cursor defines the name of the cursor and associatedit with a
SELECT statements CURSOR cursor_name IS SELECT statement
2) Opening the cursor is to process the select statement and set a active
pointer to the first row OPEN cursor_name;
3) Fetching cursor into PL/SQL local variables, these variables are declared
as ROWTYPE in declare section FETCH cursor_name INTO PL/SQL
variables
4) Closing a cursor by CLOSE cursor_name;
25
Explicit cursor attributes
Cursor Attribute Syntax Explanation

%NOTFOUND Cursor_name%NOTFOUND A Boolean attribute that returns
TRUE if the previous FETCH did
not return a row and FALSE if it
did
%FOUND Cursor_name%FOUND A Boolean attribute that returns
TRUE if the previous FETCH did
return a row and FALSE if it did
not
%ROWCOUNT Cursor_name%ROWCOUNT # of records fetched from a cursor
at that point in time
%ISOPEN Cursor_name%ISOPEN A Boolean attribute that returns
TRUE if cursor is open, FALSE if
it is not.
Q22) Create a cursor which fetches data from sailors table whose rating is greater than
5?
SQL> declare
2 cursor sail is select sid,sname,age from sailors where rating>5;
3 s sail%rowtype;
4 begin
5 open sail;
6 loop
7 fetch sail into s;
8 exit when sail%notfound;
9 dbms_output.put_line('sailor sid = '||s.sid||' name = '||s.sname||' age
='
||s.age);
10 end loop;
11 close sail;
12 end;
13 /
sailor sid = 64 name = horatio age = 35
sailor sid = 22 name = dustin age = 45
sailor sid = 31 name = lubber age = 55.5
sailor sid = 32 name = andy age = 25.5
sailor sid = 58 name = rusty age = 35
sailor sid = 71 name = zobra age = 16
sailor sid = 74 name = horatio age = 35
26
Q23) Create a cursor which fetches data from boats table?
SQL> declare
2 cursor bt is select * from boats;
3 b bt%rowtype;
4 begin
5 open bt;
6 loop
7 fetch bt into b;
8 exit when bt%notfound;
9 dbms_output.put_line('boat bid = '||b.bid||' name = '||b.bname||'
color = ‘||b.color);
10 end loop;
11 close bt;
12* end;
SQL> /
boat bid = 101 name = interlake color = blue
boat bid = 102 name = interlake color = red
boat bid = 103 name = clipper color = green
boat bid = 104 name = marine color = red
Q24) Create cursor which fetches data from reserves table where sid is22?
SQL> declare
2 cursor reser is select * from reserves where sid=22;
3 r reser%rowtype;
4 begin
5 open reser;
6 loop
7 fetch reser into r;
8 exit when reser%notfound;
9 dbms_output.put_line('reserve sid = '||r.sid||' bid = '||r.bid||' day = '||
r.day);
10 end loop;
11 close reser;
12* end;
SQL> /
reserve sid = 22 bid = 101 day = 10-OCT-98
reserve sid = 22 bid = 102 day = 10-OCT-98
reserve sid = 22 bid = 103 day = 10-SEP-98
reserve sid = 22 bid = 104 day = 10-JUL-98
27
Triggers
The Oracle RDBMS has the ability to store procedures within the data dictionary and
execute procedures in the RDBMS. Procedures (Program Units) are written in the
PL/SQL language (Procedural Language), which is proprietary to Oracle. PL/SQL
runs in both the database engine as well as in many of Oracle's development tools
such as Oracle Developer.
It is common practice to store general business rule checking in procedures. This

allows applications to check data validity before a transaction is submitted to the
database. Triggers can also call the procedures to check data at the database level.
Since the business rules are coded in a single set of procedures, maintenance of this
code is simplified. In this section, we will introduce the syntax for creating triggers
and demonstrate the use of a trigger to enforce a business rule.
Trigger Syntax
Creating a trigger is accomplished with the CREATE TRIGGER statement. There are
numerous options for a trigger that specify when the trigger should fire. These options
include:
 The SQL statement (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT) that causes the
event. An event can include more than one SQL statement per trigger.
 The timing when the trigger code is executed. Options here include
o BEFORE - The trigger code is executed before the effects of the SQL
statement are put into place.
o INSTEAD OF - The trigger code is executed instead of the normal
SQL statement.
o AFTER - The trigger code is executed after the normal SQL statement
is processed.
 Some SQL statements such as UPDATE, DELETE and SELECT may affect
more than one row. Triggers may be specified to fire once for the SQL
statement or once for each row affected by the SQL statement.
Example:
To write a TRIGGER to ensure that SAILORS TABLE does not contain

duplicate of null values in SID column.
CREATE OR RELPLACE TRIGGER trig1

before insert on sailors
for each row
DECLARE
a number;
BEGIN
if(:new.sid is Null) then
raise_application_error(-20001,'error::sid cannot be null');
28
else
select count(*) into a from sailors where sid=:new.sid;
if(a=1) then
raise_application_error(-20002,'error:: cannot have duplicate sid');
end if;
end if;
END;
Trigger created.
SQL>select * from sailors;
SID SNAME RATING AGE

22 Dustin 7 45.0
29 Brutus 1 33.0
31 Lubber 8 55.5
32 Andy 8 25.5
58 Rusty 10 35.0
64 Horatio 7 35.0
71 Zobra 10 16.0
74 Horatio 9 35.0
85 Art 3 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5
SQL> insert into sailors values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age);

Enter value for sid: null
Enter value for sname: mark
Enter value for rating: 7
Enter value for age: 35.5
old 1: insert into sailors values((&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into sailors values(null,’mark',7,35.5)
insert into sailors values(null,’mark',7,35.5)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20001: error::sid cannot be null
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIG1", line 5
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIG1'
SQL> /
Enter value for deptnp: 22
Enter value for dname: mana
Enter value for age:25.5
new 1: insert into sailors values(22,’mana’,9,25.5)
insert into sailors values(22,’mana’,9,25.5))
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20002: error:: cannot have duplicate sid
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIG1", line 9
29
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIG1'
SQL> /
Enter value for deptnp: 30
Enter value for dname: mana
Enter value for age:25.5
new 1: insert into sailors values(30,’mana’,9,25.5)
I row created
SQL>select * from sailors;
SID SNAME RATING AGE

22 Dustin 7 45.0
29 Brutus 1 33.0
31 Lubber 8 55.5
32 Andy 8 25.5
58 Rusty 10 35.0
64 Horatio 7 35.0
71 Zobra 10 16.0
74 Horatio 9 35.0
85 Art 3 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5
30 mana 9 25.5
A sample PL/SQL programs to practice.

Q.25. Write a PL/SQL program to find the sum of 2 numbers?
To start PL/SQL Program as follows:
1. ed <file name>.extension (sql)

2. After wrote a program to execute as “ start <file name>.extention(sql)” at ‘sql’
promt in sql editor.
SQL> ed sum.sql
Declare
a number(2);
b number(2);
c number(2);
Begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
30
c:=a+b;
Dbms_Output.Put_Line('The Total sum is :'||c);
End;
/
SQL> start sum.sql
Input truncated to 1 characters

old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=2;
old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=3;
The Total sum is :5
Q. 26. Write a PL/SQL program to insert a row in dept table?
SQL> ed Insertrow.sql
declare
n number(2):=&n;
mname varchar(20);
mloc varchar(20);
Begin
insert into dept values(n,'&mname','&mloc');
commit;
End;
/
Output:
SQL> start s2.sql

Enter value for n: 12
old 2: n number(2):=&n;
new 2: n number(2):=12;
Enter value for mname: kill
Enter value for mloc: hyd
old 6: insert into dept values(n,'&mname','&mloc');
new 6: insert into dept values(n,'kill','hyd');
31
SQL> select *from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
12 kill hyd
Q.27. Write a PL/Sql program to the given number is -ve or +ve or Zero ?
SQL> ed positive .sql
declare
a number(3):=&a;
begin
if a<0 then
dbms_output.put_line('-ve'||a);
elsif a>0 then
dbms_output.put_line('+ve'||a);
else
dbms_output.put_line('zero'||a);
end if;
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start positive.sql;

old 2: a number(3):=&a;
new 2: a number(3):=2;
+ve2
SQL> /
Enter value for a: -2
new 2: a number(3):=-2;
-ve-2
32
SQL> /
zero0
Q.28. Write a PL/Sql program to find the Biggest number between two
numbers ?
SQL> ed Biggest.sql
declare
a number(3):=&a;
b number(3):=&b;
begin
if a>b then
dbms_output.put_line(' "B" is Big:'||' '||b);
else
dbms_output.put_line('"a" is Small:'||' '||a);
end if;
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start Biggest

old 3: b number(3):=&b;
new 3: b number(3):=5;
"a" is Small: 2
Q.29. Write a PL/SQL Program to 1 to 10 Numbers ?
SQL> ed one_to_ten.sql
33
declare
a number(3):=1;
begin
loop
dbms_output.put_line(a);
a:=a+1;
exit when a>10;
end loop;
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start one_to_ten

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Q.30. Write a PL/SQL Program to print a word as character by character ?

SQL> ed character.sql
declare
string varchar2(20):=&string;
n number(2):=1;
begin
while n<=length(string)
loop
dbms_output.put_line( substr(string,n,1) );
n:=n+1;
end loop;
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start character
34
Enter value for string: 'naga kishore'
old 2: string varchar2(20):=&string;
new 2: string varchar2(20):='naga kishore';
n
a
g
a
k
i
s
h
o
r
e
Q.31. Write a PL/SQL Program to display name of the given employee

number?
SQL> ed employee.sql
declare
name varchar2(20);
n number(4):=&n;
begin
select ename into name from emp where empno=n;
dbms_output.put_line(name );
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start employee

JAMES
SQL> /
SMITH
35
Q .32. Write a PL/SQL Program to find whether the given number is ODD or
EVEN ?
SQL> ed ODD_EVEN.sql
declare
n number(4):=&n;
begin
if mod(n,2)=0 then
dbms_output.put_line(' The Given number is : EVEN ');
else
dbms_output.put_line(' The Given number is : ODD ');
end if;
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start ODD_EVEN

The Given number is : ODD
SQL> /
The
Given number is : EVEN
SQL> /
The Given number is : ODD
Q.33. Write a PL/SQL Program to display current date and time ?
SQL> ed date.sql
36
declare
time1 varchar2(10):=to_char(sysdate,'hh:mm:ss');
date1 varchar2(10):=to_char(sysdate,'dd-mm-yyyy');
begin
dbms_output.put_line('date:'||date1||'and'||' '|| time:'|| time1);
end;
/
Output:
SQL> start date

date:31-12-2010and\n time:07:12:44
37

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PL/SQL

The development of database applications typically requires language constructs

PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) is a procedural extension of Oracle-SQL that

The basic construct in PL/SQL is a block. Blocks allow designers to combine

Another important feature of PL/SQL is that it o_ers a mechanism to process query

In summary, the major goals of PL/SQL are to

PL/SQL is a block-structured language. Each block builds a (named) program unit,

A PL/SQL block has an optional declare section, a part containing PL/SQL

Constants, variables, cursors, and exceptions used in a PL/SQL block must be

<variable name> [constant] <data type> [not null] [:= <expression>];

• system defined exceptions

System defined exceptions are always automatically raised whenever corresponding

<exception name> then <sequence of statements>;

Exception name Number Remark

INVALID ORA-01001 Invalid cursor operation such as fetching

NO DATA FOUND ORA-01403 A select . . . into or fetch statement returned

TOO MANY ORA-01422 A select . . . into statement returned more

ZERO DIVIDE ORA-01476 You have tried to divide a number by 0

Q1) Write a PL/SQL programme to add two numbers ?

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

SQL> set serveroutput on

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Enter value for c: 22

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Enter value for c: 20

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

COMMIT- makes events within a transaction permanent

SAVEPOINT – We can control transactions by using save points. These break

SYNTAX: savepoint name;

rollback to savepoint name;

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

SQL> select * from empl;

EID ENAME DSEG SALARY

Enter value for a: 20

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Enter value for a: 44

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WHILE CONDITION LOOP

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NUMERIC FOR LOOP:

FOR loop_counter IN[REVERSE] Lower_limit..upper_limit LOOP

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Q12) To write a PL/SQL block to Generate Fibonacci Series

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

It is a special built in procedure provided by oracle. This procedure allows

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE name

SQL> create or replace procedure sum(a in number,b in number)

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> create or replace procedure sum1(a in number,b in number,d out

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION name

SQL> create or replace function f(a in number)

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> create or replace function sailf(a in number)