AN INTRODUCTION TO THE REPRESENTATION THEORY

OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS

IDUN REITEN

The representation theory of artin algebras, as we understand it to-day, is a

relatively new area of mathematics, as most of the main developments have occurred
since the late sixties. In this article we shall try to give some idea of what the area
is about, including types of problems, results and methods.
In a short preliminary chapter we give basic definitions and easy examples and
state some central problems. We organize the main body, Chapter 2, according to the
different methods which have been important, like quiver representations and the
closely connected matrix point of view, almost split sequences, functorial methods and
covering techniques. We are in this paper mostly interested in the theory of almost
split sequences, as developed in our joint work with Maurice Auslander. Most of the
main results and developments in the area will be mentioned along the way, but we
do not attempt to be complete on this point.
We have chosen to postpone the discussion of the use of algebraic geometry and
invariant theory in the study of the representation theory of artin algebras to the next
chapter. There we discuss connections with other areas of mathematics, for example
group representation theory, lattices over orders, Lie algebras, Hopf algebras, and also
topology, even though covering techniques are already treated in Chapter 2.
We have given a large list of references, but usually only directly referring to what
we are discussing. Hence some important papers have been left out, for example on
artin rings which are not algebras over an algebraically closed field. We refer to the
extensive list of references of papers in the period 1968-78 in the Proceedings of ICRA
II at Ottawa (the reference of [68]), to the paper based on my lectures at ICRA HI
in Puebla 1980 [116], and also to the surveys [13, 68,123,124,145]. Some of the early
parts of the development have been treated in a textbook [112].
I am very grateful to Maurice Auslander, Peter Gabriel and Sverre Smalo for
constructive criticism and helpful suggestions on various versions of this paper.

Table of Contents
1. Preliminaries 210
2. Methods 211
2.1 Quivers 211
2.2 Matrices 215
2.3 Almost split sequences 216
2.4 Functors 219
2.5 Coverings 221
2.6 Relationship between the methods 222

Received 20 June 1984; revised 16 January 1985.

1980 Mathematics Subject Classification 16A64.
Bull. London Math. Soc, 17 (1985) 209-233
210 IDUN REITEN

3. Connections with other areas 223

3.1 Interpretations within other areas 223
A. Algebraic geometry and invariant theory
B. Topology
3.2 Artin algebras appearing in other areas 225
C. Representation theory of finite groups
D. Lie algebras.
E. Hopf algebras
F. Vector bundles
3.3 Use of methods 227
G. Classical orders and commutative rings
H. Differential equations
I. Dynamical systems
J. Harish-Chandra modules

1. Preliminaries
An artin algebra is a ring which is finitely generated as a module over a
commutative artin ring. For simplicity we here talk about finite dimensional algebras
over afieldk, which unless otherwise stated will be assumed to be algebraically closed.
An easy example of an artin algebra which is not a A>algebra is Z4, the ring of integers
modulo 4.
We first give some examples of ^-algebras, the easiest one being the field k itself.
A large class of examples is given by factor rings of polynomial rings, like k[x]/(xn)
and k[x, y]/(x, yf, where x and y are inde terminates. Another source of examples are
the group algebras kG for a finite group G. Actually, many problems and results for
artin algebras have been motivated by questions originally asked about group
Ik 0 0\
algebras. Further examples are matrix algebras like ( 1 and 10 k 0 1, where
U kJ
\k k kl
addition and multiplication are the ordinary operations on matrices.
The representation theory of artin algebras A deals with the study of the A-modules.
Some work has been done on modules of infinitefc-dimension,but most attention has
so far been given to the category offinitelygenerated (left) modules, which we denote
by mod A. For A equal to k, mod A is the category offinitedimensional vector spaces
over k. The problems studied in the representation theory of artin algebras are mainly
concerned with the additive structure of the module category, like how modules
decompose into a direct sum of indecomposable modules. We recall that a nonzero
module M is said to be indecomposable if it cannot be written as a direct sum of two
nonzero submodules. For example, k is the only indecomposablefc-module.A basic
starting point is the theorem of Krull-Schmidt, which states that each M in mod A
can be written uniquely as a direct sum of indecomposable modules, up to isomorphism
and order of summands. For example if A is ( , , ),), then A is a direct sum of (,
\k k) \k 0n
and ( 1, as a (left) A-module, and both I 1 and ( ) are indecomposable.
\U Kj \K 0/ \U KJ
A lot of investigations in the area have centered around questions concerning
algebras of finite (representation) type, that is, having only a finite number of
nonisomorphic indecomposable finitely generated modules. Central problems have
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 211

been to find classification theorems for algebras of finite type, and to understand why
algebras are of finite type. For example, it is known that
Ik 0 0 0'
0 A: 0 0
0 0 k 0
i rC rC /v /C)

is of finite type, whereas

f
k 0 0 0 01
0 A: 0 0 0
0 0 A: 0 0
0 0 0 A: 0
k k k
is of infinite type, even though they have lots of common algebraic features, like the
same global dimension. And if the characteristic p of k divides the order of a finite
group G, Higman proved that kG is of finite type if and only if the Sylow/^-subgroups
of G are cyclic [86]. It is of interest not only to describe the indecomposable modules
in mod A, but also the maps between modules.
The Brauer-Thrall conjectures, which were first formulated for group algebras,
have been important and influential problems in the area. Many developments were
started in an effort to attack these conjectures, which are the following.
BRAUER-THRALL I. If A is a k-algebra of infinite type, there is no bound on the
k-dimension of indecomposable finitely generated A-modules.
BRAUER-THRALL II. If A is a k-algebra of infinite type (over an infinite field k),
then for an infinite number of dimensions there is an infinite number of indecomposable
modules of this dimension.
The first conjecture was proved by Roiter in [131], and a proof for the second one
was published in [110].
Another type of problem has been to find classes of modules which are possible
to classify or understand better for algebras of infinite type. Special attention has been
given to the so-called tame algebras, where it is possible to classify all indecomposable
modules. We do not give the formal definition here (see [63]), and we are also leaving
out most of the work on tame algebras from this survey. In contrast, an algebra A
is called wild if the classification of the indecomposables in mod A essentially contains
the problem of classifying the modules of finite length over the free algebra k(x, y}
with two generators. This last problem is known to be very hard.

2. Methods
In this chapter we discuss the main methods in the representation theory of artin
algebras. We give many of the central theorems along the way, and try to indicate
ideas of proofs in some cases.
2.1. Quivers
A quiver F = (F o , I \ ) is a set of vertices F o and a set of arrows Tl between the
vertices [65]. Assume for simplicity that F o and Tl are finite. For example,

O 4-2
212 IDUN REITEN

is a quiver. A (finite dimensional) representation of F over A: is a set of finite

dimensional ^-vector spaces V(i) for each ieT0 and linear transformations
fa.'•KO ~* V(J) when a is an arrow from / toy". A morphism between two representations
(V,f) = {V(i):iero; fOL:a.eri} and (V',f) is a set of linear transformations
<j> = {fa: ieF0} satisfyingf'^fa = <fijfa when a is an arrow from i t o / We denote by
R(T, k) = R{T) the category of finite dimensional representations of F over k. This
is an abelian category, and indecomposable representation has the obvious meaning
[65].
Representations of quivers are closely connected with modules. If F has no
oriented cycles, then R(T) is equivalent to mod kT, where kT is the path algebra of
F, that is, a ^-vector space with the paths, including the trivial ones consisting of
vertices, as basis. (Multiplication is given by composition of paths, which is extended
linearly.) The algebras kT occurring in this way are the hereditary ^-algebras, that
is, /c-algebras such that the submodules of projectives are projective. For example, if
F n is the quiver
1 2 n

kTn is isomorphic to the (n+ 1) x (n+ 1) matrix algebra

jk 0 ... 0\
0 k
. 0

0 • 0

\k k k k k

As examples when the quivers have oriented cycles, we mention that R(T)
for F = C\ is equivalent to the fc[.x]-modules of finite length and R{V) for
f = r » ~ ) is equivalent to the k(x, ^>-modules of finite length.
Also, if the square of the radical of a /c-algebra A is zero, there is an associated
quiver F such that mod A and R(F) are closely related, in particular mod A has a finite
number of indecomposables if and only if R(F) does.
In view of these comments [65], the following important classification theorem of
Gabriel [65], giving in particular a correct version of an earlier result of Yoshii [144],
applies to the fc-algebras which are hereditary or where the square of the radical is
zero.

THEOREM 1. Let F = (F o , F J be a finite quiver.

(a) R(V) has only a finite number of indecomposable representations if and only if
the underlying graph | F | of V is a finite disjoint union of the Dynkin diagrams An,
L-'n' *^6> *-"7' ^8-

# .
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 213

D,
n

(b) When R(T) is of finite representation type, assigning {dim FJ ieI - o to a representa-
tion (V,f) of F induces a one-one correspondence between the indecomposable
representations ofT and the positive roots associated with \T\.
(c) R(T) is of finite type if and only if the quadratic form associated with | F | is
positive definite.

This theorem of Gabriel was one of the first main theorems in the representation
theory of algebras, and it has had a strong influence on later developments. In addition
to solving a classification theorem for algebras of finite representation type, it gave
an interesting connection with other areas of mathematics through the appearance
of Dynkin diagrams. This inspired Bernstein, Gelfand and Ponomarev to give an
elegant proof of Gabriel's theorem, using the Weyl group associated with | F | [39].
They also establish the one-one correspondence between indecomposable representa-
tions and positive roots directly, in the case of finite type.
Corresponding to the reflections and Coxeter transformations in the Weyl group,
Bernstein, Gelfand and Ponomarev define reflection functors and Coxeter functors
between categories of representations of quivers. (A special case of Coxeter functors
has already been used in [73].)
We give the definition of reflection functor on an easy example, indicating the
connection with reflections in the Weyl group.
1. .2 1'. .2'
Let F be the quiver N . 3 sf , and F the quiver ^ v 3' Sp
Then there is a functor F3: R(T) -+ R(T) defined as follows. F^{V,f) = {V',f),
where V\i) = ^(0 for / = 1,2, and V'{3) is such that the sequence

V(3)-^t V(\)U V(2) -• V'{3) -> 0

is exact.The maps f'a and fp are the natural ones.

The above methods have also been useful for the study of quivers of tame
representation type [59], where a classification is in terms of extended Dynkin
diagrams as first proved by Nazarova [107] and Donovan and Freislich [62].
214 IDUN REITEN

Since the study of quivers with no oriented cycles and their representations was
successful for investigating hereditary algebras and algebras A with r2 = 0, there were
efforts to study more general classes of algebras this way. A starting point is the fact
that if A is a fc-algebra, mod A is always equivalent to the representations of an
associated quiver, where the representations are possibly subject to some relations (see
[68]). Assuming that the relations involve no paths of length one, the associated quiver
is unique, and is now also called the Gabriel quiver of A. For example, if
'A: 0 0 0
k k 0 0
0 fc 0
k k k
mod A is equivalent to the full subcategory of R(T), for F equal to
1

consisting of the representations satisfying fpfa =fsfr In general the relations may
be complicated, and it is also not always easy to decide when different sets of relations
give isomorphic algebras. We give the following two cases where there is a classification
theorem for finite type.
(1) Algebras given by fully commutative quivers. A quiver is fully commutative
when there are no oriented cycles, and whenever two paths have the same start and
end point, the corresponding compositions of maps should be the same. This case was
solved by Loupias [101] and Skabara and Zavadskij [135].
(2) Algebras given by quivers which are trees. Here the only possible relations are
zero relations, and a classification of finite type was given by Bongartz and Ringel
[47].
In both cases the description is too complicated to be given here.
For the representations of quivers with no oriented cycles we have seen that there
is some additional information on the indecomposables in the case of finite type. The
indecomposables are uniquely determined by their dimension vectors or, equivalently,
by their composition factors. There is even a quadratic form q which is positive on
positive vectors, such that the indecomposables are in one-one correspondence with
the positive integral vectors x with q(x) = 1. There has also been further work in this
direction. For example, for algebras of finite type given by commutative quivers or
trees with zero relations, there are quadratic forms with similar properties ([82], see
also [44]). This connection with quadratic forms can be used to show that for these
algebras the multiplicity of each simple module as a composition factor is at most
6, by using a result of Ovsienko on quadratic forms [111] (see also [43]). We also point
out that there are more general cases where the indecomposables are uniquely
determined by their composition factors [30, 82, 78, 26].
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 215

2.2. Matrices
The problem of classifying the representations of a given quiver has, by considering
fixed bases for the vector spaces, an equivalent formulation in terms of sets of matrices,
with certain allowed operations. For example, classifying the representations of the
quiver • »• corresponds to classifying pairs of (n, m)-matrices (A,B), up to
simultaneous row and column transformations. This problem was solved by
Kronecker already in the last century [99].
Matrix problems can more generally be thought of as classifying sets of matrices
up to an equivalence defined by prescribed allowed operations, like elementary row
and column transformations. In fact, the notion of representations of quivers is really
a nice way of interpreting a large class of matrix problems. Another especially
interesting class of matrix problems are those given by representations of partially
ordered sets (posets), as introduced by Nazarova and Roiter [108]. We do not state
the general definition here, but just mention that corresponding to the totally ordered
set with 2 elements is the following matrix problem. Consider a matrix (|) divided
into two blocks with a vertical line. The allowed operations are arbitrary elementary
row transformations, elementary column transformations within each block, and the
addition of linear combinations of columns from the first block to the columns in the
second block.
Such matrix problems have the following nice formulation in terms of vector spaces
[67]. A representation of a poset I over k is a ^-vector space K together with a collection
of subspaces V(x) for x in /, such that V{x) £ V(y) whenever x ^y. Maps between
two such representations arefc-linearmaps/: V-*• V such that/(F(jc)) <= V\x) for all
JC in /.
The following description of when a poset is offiniterepresentation type was given
by Kleiner [94], using work of Nazarova and Roiter [108].

THEOREM 2. Let I be a finite poset. There is only a finite number of indecomposable

representations of I over k if and only if I does not contain any of the posets (1,1,1,1),
(2,2,2), (1,3,3), (1,2,5), (AT, 4) as full subposets.

Here («) denotes the chain {1 <2 ... < n}, {nx,...,ns) the disjoint union of (nj,...,
(ns) and N = {a,b,c,d: a ^c,b ^ c,b ^d}. This result has had important appli-
cations in the representation theory of artin algebras, as problems are often reduced
to questions about partially ordered sets. For example, in the work of Bongartz and
Ringel on algebras A given by quivers which are trees, they associate a partially
ordered set S{ with each vertex / of the quiver, and prove that A is offinitetype if and
only if all posets St are of finite type.
The theory of partially ordered sets (along with the more general subspace
categories of vector space categories) played an important role in the work of
Nazarova and Roiter on the second Brauer-Thrall conjecture. The argument in [110]
is very long, and there have been efforts to find different and shorter proofs. Smalo
has given a short proof of the fact that it is sufficient to prove that there is one
dimension having an infinite number of indecomposable modules [137]. Using this and
recent work by Bautista, Gabriel, Roiter and Salmeron (see 2.5), Bautista has recently
given another proof of Brauer-Thrall II when the characteristic of k is not 2 [31].
The special case when a poset In consists of n incomparable elements is the study
of vector spaces with n subspaces, already investigated in [106,73]. Here we have a
21 6 IDUN REITEN

close connection with representations of quivers, since the representations of the poset
/„ are almost the same as the representations of the quiver

r•

The only indecomposable objects in R(Tn) which do not correspond to a representation

of In are the one-dimensional representations St, i = \,...,n, where V(i) = k and
V(j) = 0 f° r j ^ i- This gives an example of how problems of linear algebra can be
formulated and studied in terms of representations of quivers. (See [60,61] for other
applications to linear algebra.)
The category of representations of partially ordered sets also has a nice interpreta-
tion as a subcategory of a module category, so that questions about them can be
studied within module theory [36].
An attempt to give a definition of a wider class of matrix problems, not only those
which can be formulated in terms of representations of quivers and partially ordered
sets, was done by Kleiner and Roiter, in introducing the concept of differential graded
category (DGC) [96]. In [63] Drozd published a proof of the result that every fc-algebra
is tame or wild, and here he used the theory of DGC. We also refer to [63] for the
definition of tame and wild.

2.3. Almost split sequences

Problems in the representation theory of algebras can of course be considered
directly with module theoretic techniques. In addition to the classical module theory
available, including homological methods, there is the theory of almost split sequences,
as developed in joint work with Auslander [20,21,22,23,24]. We give the basic
definition and existence theorem, and indicate some examples of the types of results
which have been obtained using almost split sequences. We refer to [116] for a further
discussion.
/ g
A nonsplit exact sequence 0->A-+B-*C-+0in mod A is said to be almost split
(in the literature also an Auslander-Reiten sequence) if A and C are indecomposable,
and given any iv.X^C which is not an isomorphism, whereXis indecomposable, there
is some s: X-> B such that gs = h.

THEOREM 3. Let C be indecomposable nonprojective in mod A (or A indecomposable

f Q
noninjective). Then there is an almost split sequence 0 - > / 4 - > / ? - > C - > 0 , which is unique
up to isomorphism.

This theorem expresses a finiteness condition. The crucial part is the special
property of the mapg.B -> C, and the surprising fact is that it is possible to find some
B, which is a direct sum of a finite number of indecomposable modules, such that 'any
other' map to C factors through B.
An interesting feature of the almost split sequences is that there is a nice
relationship between the end terms, given by A = DTrC, C = TrDA, when
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 217

0 -» A -> B -> C -> 0 is almost split. Here D denotes the ordinary duality, that is
D = Hoirifc ( , k), and Tr denotes the transpose, that is, if Px -*• Po -»• C -> 0 is a minimal
projective presentation for C in mod A, then Tr C is determined by the exact sequence
^o -*• pt -*• T r C -* °> w h e r e p* = Hom A (Pit A). For group algebras D Tr C ~ Q2C,
where Q 2 C = Ker/i [23].
There is a class of maps, called irreducible maps, closely related to almost split
sequences. If A and B are indecomposable modules, then a map/:v4 -*• B is irreducible
i f / i s not an isomorphism, and whenever

is a commutative diagram, then either g is a split monomorphism or h is a split

epimorphism. If ,4 is indecomposable noninjective and B indecomposable, then
f:A-*B is irreducible if and only if there is an almost split sequence
0-+A-> BUB*-*C^>0 [22].
As an easy example of these concepts we give the following illustration.
Ik 0 0\
we nave an a most
For A = j o k 0 I l split sequence of the form
\k k kl

0-0 hOUithUhO

where the maps are the natural ones. The inclusions I 0 1°

V.
are irreducible maps.
The information given by almost split sequences and irreducible maps can be
recorded in the AR-quiver (often called Auslander-Reiten quiver). The vertices JC
correspond to the isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules X, and there is
an arrow from x to y if and only if there is an irreducible map X -* Y. This quiver
is equipped with a map x given by xx = y if D Tr X = Y, for the vertices x such that
X is not projective. This is a translation quiver in the sense of Riedtmann [118].
There are different aspects of almost split sequences which have had applications
in the representation theory of artin algebras. Sometimes it is sufficient to know that
almost split sequences exist, other times it is useful to know the relationship between
the end terms of an almost split sequence discussed above. Carrying out various
computations of almost split sequences has also been useful, for example describing
the almost split sequences whose middle term has a nonzero projective injective
summand [22]. Also the study of the AR-quiver has been useful.
As illustrations we give some examples of different types of results which have been
obtained as consequences of the theory, like characterizations of algebras of finite type,
classification theorems for certain algebras of finite type, results on what the AR-quiver
has to look like in various situations, and new classes of modules inspired by the
existence theorem.
Amongst characterizations of algebras of finite type we mention that there is a
218 IDUN REITEN

very short proof of Brauer-Thrall I using almost split sequences (see [143,116]).
Another interesting criterion for finite type for an indecomposable algebra A is the
following [10].

THEOREM 4. Let A be an indecomposable artin algebra and # a component o/ind A

with respect to the equivalence relation generated by the existence of an irreducible map
between indecomposables. If the length of objects in <$ is bounded then <& is of finite type
= indA.

Theorem 4 has been used to decide whether a given algebra is of finite type. For
it is often possible to compute almost split sequences, and irreducible maps, without
knowing all indecomposable modules, and hence to find a whole component. We refer
to [68] for examples.
There is an interesting characterization of finite type in terms of almost split
sequences which is connected with K-theory. We denote by K(A, 0) the free abelian
group with the isomorphism classes of indecomposable objects as basis. Denote by
5(A) the subgroup generated by A + C—B for each exact sequence 0->A->B->C->0,
and by K(A) = K(A, 0)/S(A) the Grothendieck group. The following result, due to
Butler and Auslander, can be proved using basic properties of almost split sequences
[53,14].

THEOREM 5. A w of finite representation type if and only if the A + C—B, where

0->A->B-+C->0isan almost split sequence, generate S(A) or, equivalently, form a
basis for S(A).

If A and B are in mod A, it follows from the Yoneda lemma that if Hom A ( , A)
and Hom A ( , B) are isomorphic functors from mod A to abelian groups then A ~ B.
Closely related to Theorem 5 is the result that if dimfc H o m ^ X , A) = dim^ HomA(X,B)
for all X in ind A then A is isomorphic to B [14] (see also [37]).
An important example of the use of almost split sequences in proving classification
theorems is the first step in Riedtmann's classification of selfinjective /c-algebras of
finite representation type. We recall that an algebra A is selfinjective if A is an injective
A-module, and that group algebras of finite groups over fields are selfinjective.
Riedtmann shows that there is a Dynkin diagram associated with a selfinjective
^-algebra of finite type, as a so-called 'section' of the stable AR-quiver, which is
obtained from the AR-quiver by removing the vertices corresponding to projectives
[118].
This occurrence of Dynkin diagrams has been generalized by Todorov to
selfinjective algebras of finite type which are not necessarily algebras over an
algebraically closed field [139]. There are also generalizations to algebras of infinite
type [139,81]. In her approach, Todorov used elementary length arguments on short
exact sequences. IfO -+ A-* BUP-* C -> 0 is an almost split sequence with P projective
(possibly zero) and B having no nonzero projective summands, then S(A) + £(C) ^ t(B).
Since A has at least one indecomposable projective, we do not have only equalities.
This idea was further exploited in [81], and has also been used for group algebras of
infinite type by Webb [140]. Instead of associating the length with each indecomposable,
he uses a concept for modules over group algebras called complexity, introduced by
Alperin.
There are also other results describing the form of an AR-quiver for algebras of
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 219

finite representation type, and we mention the following result of Bautista and Brenner
as an example [32]. Further results are contained in [121,16,33,56].

THEOREM 6. I/O ->A-+B->C->0isan almost split sequence over an art in algebra

of finite type then B has at most four indecomposable summands. If there are four
summands then one indecomposable summand is projective injective.

For an indecomposable nonprojective module C we denote by <x(C) the number of

indecomposable summands in B when 0 - > , 4 - > i ? - » C - > 0 i s almost split and by /?(C)
the number of indecomposable nonprojective ones. These are invariants coming from
the existence of almost split sequences, and they have been useful, together with other
properties of almost split sequences, in studying stable equivalence. Here we recall
that two algebras A and A' are said to be stably equivalent if their module categories
modulo projectives are equivalent. For example, the algebras k[x]/(x2) and I j are
k 0
stably equivalent. In this example, k[x]/(x2) has one simple module, whereas .
has two simple modules. However, the number of nonprojective simples is the same
for both algebras. It is an open problem whether two stably equivalent algebras have
the same number of nonprojective simples in general, and this would be especially
interesting to know for group algebras. It is known in some situations, and one general
theorem along these lines is the following result of Martinez [104].

THEOREM 7. If A and A' are stably equivalent k-algebras of finite type then A and
A' have the same number of nonprojective simple modules.

An example of an interesting class of modules defined by almost split sequences

is the class of preprojective modules of Auslander and Smalo [27]. Here they generalize
some work of Roiter [131] (see [65]). Projective modules have the property that they
cover all modules in the sense that there is a surjective map to any module, and the
additive category generated by a proper subset of the indecomposable projective
modules does not have this property. If we remove the indecomposable projectives
from ind A, we can ask if there is some finite subset playing the role of the projectives
in the above sense, and so on. The indecomposables which are removed in this way
are called preprojective. This process turns out to stop if and only if A is of finite type
[27]. (One implication is already given in [131,65].) For hereditary algebras the
indecomposable preprojective modules coincide with the modules obtained from
indecomposable projectives by applying Coxeter functors, and these modules were
called preprojective in [59].
2.4. Functors
Many properties of a ring are characterized in terms of the category of modules
over the ring. Similarly, the module category mod A can be studied by considering
the categories ((mod A) op , Ab) and ((mod A), Ab) of contravariant and covariant
additive functors from mod A to abelian groups. The subcategories of finitely
presented functors, denoted by mod (mod A) in the contravariant case, are especially
interesting, as the finitely generated modules are of special interest amongst the
A-modules. These are the functors F such that there is an exact sequence of functors
( , B) -> ( , C) -> F -> 0, where ( , X) denotes the representable functor Hom A ( , X).
220 IDUN REITEN

If C is in mod A then C satisfies properties like being of finite length, artin and
noetherian. However, such properties do not always hold for the functor ( , C) in
mod (mod A), but it is interesting to investigate when they hold. For example, it is
not hard to see that A is of finite type if and only if ( , C) is of finite length for all
C in mod A [5]. This functorial point of view, strongly promoted by Auslander, has
had some very striking consequences in representation theory. It was used in
Auslander's generalization of Brauer-Thrall I to left artin rings, and in the proof of
the following result [6,7] (see also [127] for (b)).

THEOREM 8. (a) If A is an artin algebra of infinite representation type, there exist

indecomposable modules which are not finitely generated.
(b) If A is a left artin ring of finite type then every A-module is a direct sum of finitely
generated A-modules.
(c) An artin algebra is of finite representation type if and only if every A-module
is a direct sum of finitely generated indecomposable A-modules.

Part (c) remains an open problem for left artin rings.

The functor category mod (mod A) also has nicer homological properties than
mod A, for example its global dimension is always at most two. Even when A is of
finite type, in which case mod (mod A) is equivalent to mod F where F = EndA (M) o p
and M is the direct sum of one copy of each indecomposable A-module, this is an
interesting point of view. In fact, there is the following early result of Auslander [5].

THEOREM 9. A basic artin algebra F is isomorphic to EndA (M) o p , where M is the

direct sum of one copy of each indecomposable A-modulefor an algebra A of finite type
if and only if the global dimension of F is at most two and the dominant dimension is
at least two, that is, there is an exact sequence 0 -> F -> / 0 -> Ix with Io and /x projective
injective.

To classify the algebras of finite types it is hence in principle sufficient to classify

the algebras F with global dimension at most two and dominant dimension at
least two, now called Auslander algebras. This point of view was used in part of
Riedtmann's classification of selfinjective algebras of finite type [119]. Also, for
geometric considerations, the nice homological properties of F have been useful
(see Section 3.1). The study of the AR-quiver F A for an algebra A of finite type is
closely connected with this point of view. For F A is the Gabriel quiver for the
Auslander algebra F (see [119]).
Many of the results which were originally inspired and/or proved using functors
can be formulated and proved entirely within mod A. This is the case for the almost
split sequences. Their existence is essentially the existence of minimal projective
presentations of simple functors in mod (mod A), again an example of asking a
question about mod (mod A) which is obviously satisfied in mod A. Originally, two
proofs were given for the existence of almost split sequences, one using functors [20],
and a module theoretic proof establishing at the same time the useful relationship
between the end terms [21]. Specific computations, in particular for group algebras
of finite type and for representations of the quiver • »•, had suggested this
relationship (see [116]).
We also mention that many results on almost split sequences, irreducible maps
and preprojective modules are nicely formulated and proved in terms of radical and
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 221

socle series of functors [27,11]. Also, in the study of stable equivalence functorial
methods have been used [19, 20]. A main reason here is that the stable category mod A
is not an abelian category, whereas the functor category mod (mod A) is. The study
of uniserial functors has been useful for investigating the invariants a and /? discussed
in Section 2.3 [25]. For more discussion of the use of functors in representation theory,
we refer to the survey of Auslander [11].

2.5. Coverings
It has turned out to be important to study coverings and universal coverings of
AR-quivers, as inspired from topology. The idea already occurs in the mentioned work
of Riedtmann on the classification of selfinjective algebras of finite representation type
[118]. If A is a A>algebra of finite representation type, there is associated a category
k(TA) with the AR-quiver F A of A. This is the factor category of the path category
of F A , by the ideal generated by the relations given by almost split sequences, that
is <*! cc[ +... + <xn <x'n when

corresponds to an almost split sequence. The category k(TA) is closely related to the
category of indecomposable finitely generated modules ind A, but there are problems
with defining a functor from k(FA) to ind A in general. If, however, a universal
covering f A is defined in a natural way, there is a functor k(TA) -> ind A. (See Section
3.1 for the topological definition.)
A general theory of 'coverings' of AR-quivers was developed by Bongartz and
Gabriel [46] and Gabriel [69]. The relationship is studied between /t-algebras A and
A' (and more general /c-categories which come up naturally when studying infinite
coverings) when FA< is a covering of F A . In particular, if F is a covering of F A then
r = FA< for some A'. The special case of coverings obtained by the action of a group,
called Galois coverings, plays an important role [69]. There are here connections with
graded modules and skew group algebras [74,75,117].
The ^-algebras A of finite representation type such that ind A is equivalent to k(VA)
are particularly nice. Such algebras are up to Morita equivalence uniquely determined
by their AR-quiver (with T) and are called standard algebras. The first example of a
nonstandard algebra was found by Riedtmann [120]. With each ^-algebra A of finite
type there is an associated standard algebra A with the same AR-quiver. In [50]
Bretscher and Gabriel show how to construct A directly from A. They also give a
method for constructing directly a 'universal cover' for A, without considering F A .
A fc-algebra A of finite type is said to be simply connected if F A is its own universal
covering [46]. For example all algebras of finite type given by trees with zero relations
or by fully commutative quivers are simply connected (see [34,69]). Covering theory
has provided an important tool for reducing problems to the simply connected case.
As an example of a theorem proved by using this reduction we mention the following
result of de la Pena and Martinez [55].

THEOREM 10. Let A be a k-algebra of finite representation type and g an

automorphism of ind A. If g acts freely on all indecomposable projectives P, that is
g(P) ^ P, then g acts freely on all indecomposable A-modules.
222 IDUN REITEN

In [50] covering techniques are used to show that each standard ^-algebra has a
multiplicative basis, that is, a fc-basis such that the product of two basis elements is
another basis element or zero. Actually there has recently been given a proof by
Bautista, Gabriel, Roiter and Salmeron of the following important result, where part
(a) was sketched in [133].

THEOREM 11. Let A be a k-algebra of finite representation type.

(a) A has a multiplicative basis.
(b) If char k ^ 2 then A is standard.

Covering theory has been useful in providing criteria for deciding whether an
algebra is of finite representation type, and to find the indecomposables in this case.
Bongartz has given a classification of the simply connected algebras of finite type
having an indecomposable module with each simple module as a composition factor
[43]. The result is technically too complicated to be stated here. Also, there is an
important criterion of Bongartz [44] for deciding whether an algebra is of finite type
for a certain class of algebras containing the standard algebras of finite type. One has
to look at a 'universal cover' for A, and a list of algebras given in [44,83,45]. A is
proved to be of finite type by checking that the algebras from the list cannot occur
as certain types of subcategories.
For arbitrary simply connected algebras a graph is associated with the AR-quiver,
whose vertices are the r-orbits, and this graph is a tree [46]. This tree is given a grading,
which uniquely determines A (up to Morita equivalence). The simply connected
algebras whose trees are of type A n or D n have been classified [46,54], and Rohnes
and Smal0 have shown that any tree can occur [130]. For those of tree type An there
are close connections with generalized tilted algebras of type A n [4]. We also mention
that an algebraic characterization of simply connected is given in [35].

2.6. Relationship between the methods

We have already seen that there are relationships between some of the methods
discussed, for example between matrix problems and representations of quivers.
Almost split sequences originated from the study of functors, and coverings were
studied for AR-quivers. Further, the work on representations of quivers served as an
inspiration for using almost split sequences to give an alternative approach to the study
of hereditary algebras [17], leading to generalizations. In particular, the important role
played by the reflection functors in the proof of Bernstein, Gelfand and Ponomarev,
inspired the module theoretic definition of partial Coxeter functors [18], which has
ended up with the nice theory of tilted algebras of Happel and Ringel [49,102,82,42].
The tilted algebras were for example used in the study of selfinjective algebras
[138,87,88]. (See [51] for related work.) As for the Coxeter functor, it is closely related
to D Tr [48, 68], which plays an important role because of its connection with almost
split sequences. But here the two theories were developed independently, and later
turned out to be related (see [116]).
The techniques of almost split sequences and partially ordered sets are also often
combined through the consideration of the AR-quiver (see [124,46] and also [65,101]).
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 223

3. Connections with other areas

Already in our discussion of the various methods in the representation theory of
artin algebras we mentioned some connections with other areas of mathematics. This
chapter is devoted to indicating other types of connections. On one hand objects from
another area are associated with the objects of study in representation theory, giving
new interesting points of view, suggesting new directions and results, solving problems
in representation theory, and conversely giving insight into the other area. This is
discussed in Section 3.1. In Section 3.2 we consider situations where module categories
over artin algebras have come up in other areas. In Section 3.3 we discuss how the
methods developed in order to deal with questions on artin algebras have been and
can be used in other areas.

3.1. Interpretations within other areas

A. ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY AND INVARIANT THEORY

In discussing how objects in the representation theory of artin algebras can be

interpreted within other fields, we start with the connections with algebraic geometry
and invariant theory. We refer to [97] for a thorough treatment.
Let Wbe a vector space of finite dimension n over k. Denote by d\gw the associative
unitary fc-algebra structures on W. Then alg^ can be considered as a subset of
the vector space bil^ = {<f>: Wx W-+ W, </> bilinear}, and a\gw turns out to be an
affine variety. The general linear group GL(W) acts on alg^ in the following way.
If we are given (t>:WxW->W, then for g in GL(W), g<f> is defined by
g
(f>(w, w') =^(^(g~ 1 w,g~ 1 w')). The orbits now correspond to isomorphism classes of
algebras. Similarly, if A is an algebra and V an ^-dimensional vector space then an
A -module structure on V is given by a ring homomorphism p:A -»End fc V. And
G = GL(K) acts on the set of ^-module structures on V by gp: A ->• Endfc V given by
(SP)(a) = gPia)g~l- Then G acts on an affine space, such that the orbits under the
group action are in one-one correspondence with the ,4-modules with underlying
vector space V, that is, the yi-modules of dimension dim^. V = n. If Y = (To, F\) is a
quiver, the representations can be described in the following way as orbits of a group
acting on an affine space. Let d = (^)i G r 0 be a dimension vector, and consider the space
V = Flaer, Horn (fcds(a), kie(a)), with the group G = IIi e r 0 GL(<^) acting in a natural
way. Here .s(a) and e{<x) denote the start point and end point of a.
New types of questions which are natural in geometry are suggested this way. One
example is to classify algebras or modules according to how the varieties of algebra
structures and module structures decompose into a union of irreducible components,
and study the relationship of degeneration within the components. For example, there
are the following algebras of dimension 3, with a line denoting the relation of
degeneration, over the complex numbers C. CxCxC

y\ xy)
224 IDUN REITEN

In this case there are two irreducible components of algebra structures, and there are
results of this nature up to dimension 5 [66,105,77]. Some results along these lines
were already obtained in the last century (see [79]). Another natural type of question
is whether certain classes of algebras or modules correspond to an open or closed
subset of the associated affine variety. For example, an orbit CM corresponding to
a module M is closed if and only if M is semisimple, and the projective modules
correspond to an open set. Further, natural concepts for algebras have a nice
geometric interpretation, for example the automorphism group Aut alg (/1) corre-
sponds to the stabilizer of the point A. Even in the cases where a complete classifi-
cation of the modules or algebras is known, the geometric point of view gives new
insight and suggests new questions.
One of the main theorems along these lines is the following result of Gabriel,
answering a question of Auslander [66].

THEOREM 12. In the previous notation, the algebra structures of finite representation
type form an open subset of a\gw.

We point out that this has not been proved by geometry alone, but relies on
Brauer-Thrall II. The theorem is of interest in itself, and also has applications in
representation theory. For to show that an algebra A is of finite type, it is then
sufficient to find a degeneration of A which is of finite type. An example of a
degeneration of an algebra A is the standard algebra A associated with an algebra
A of finite type [46]. It also follows that if the associated graded algebra of A is of
finite type, then A is of finite type.
From Section 2.1 we know that R(F) being of finite representation type is described
in terms of Dynkin diagrams. With F is associated the quadratic form
x
—£ s(a) A '

and it is proved that R(T) is of finite type if and only if qr is positive definite. That
R(F) being of finite type implies that qr is positive definite is obtained by an argument
of Tits, using the geometric interpretation [65].

For when V = n a e r , Horn(A:(V),&(V>)and G = n i G r 0 G L ( ^ ) , then

dim V = YJ dS(a) ^e(a) a n d dim G = £ df.

aef, ier0
Using that there is a one-dimensional subgroup of G acting trivially on V, and that
R(V) being of finite type implies that there is only a finite number of orbits of V under
the action of G, we get dim V ^ dim G— 1.
A similar argument is used in investigating connections between representation
type and quadratic forms for quivers with relations [44].
Another important application of using invariant theory is a result of Kac,
generalizing results previously known for hereditary algebras of finite and tame
representation type [92,93]. We do not want to recall the definitions necessary to state
the precise result here, but we just mention that he gives a description of the dimension
vectors which occur for indecomposable representations of quivers. In particular, he
shows that this set only depends on the underlying graph of the quiver.
On the other hand the special cases of groups acting on varieties, occurring for
quiver representations and for modules and algebras, serve to illustrate matters from
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 225

an invariant theoretic point of view, since often enough information is known in order
to make computations (see for example [1,80,98,125]).

B. TOPOLOGY

Topological methods have played an important role in the representation theory

of algebras in the last few years, through the theory of coverings as discussed in
Section 2.5.
Since the concepts of coverings and universal coverings of AR-qui\ers can be
defined combinatorial^ [46], an important part of the topological influence is the
inspiration for what to look at. A topological space, a simplicial complex, is associated
with an AR-quiver of a fc-algebra A of finite type in the following way [46]. Consider
the part of the AR-qui\er corresponding to one almost split sequence
0 -> D Tr C -*• Bx I I . . . II Bn -*• C -> 0, where the Bi are indecomposable, and draw a
dotted arrow from xc to c.

TC •:

For each bt there is an arrow to c and an arrow from xc, and we consider the triangles
Tt (i = 1,...,«) given by these arrows and the arrow from xc to c. For n = 2 we get
the following topological space.

Then coverings and universal coverings can be defined topologically. The following
topological result of Bongartz and Gabriel [46] has had implications in representation
theory.

THEOREM 13. If A is of finite representation type then the fundamental group of

the AR-quiver is a free group.

From this the existence of many finite coverings of an AR-qui\er for an algebra
of finite type follows, and these finite coverings correspond to algebras of finite
representation type [46].

3.2. Artin algebras appearing in other areas

Further connections with other areas come up through the appearance of module
categories (or subcategories of module categories) over artin algebras in other
contexts. This gives interesting examples of artin algebras, and sometimes it is possible
to apply the theory of artin algebras to the area where they occur.
226 IDUN REITEN

C. REPRESENTATION THEORY OF FINITE GROUPS

The most direct example is the representation theory of finite groups over a field
k whose characteristic p divides the order of the group. It is well known that the
category of finite dimensional representations of a group G over k is equivalent to
mod kG, where kG denotes the group ring. The study of the properties of the artin
algebra kG has motivated a lot of activity on more general classes of algebras, like
selfinjective algebras, and the Brauer-Thrall conjectures were first formulated for
group algebras. We already mentioned that a characterization of when kG is of finite
type was given in [86] and a description of the indecomposable modules for group
algebras of finite type was given by Janusz and Kupisch [91,100]. For the opposite
direction, the recent developments in the representation theory of artin algebras, in
particular the theory of almost split sequences, have been used in group representation
theory. Especially interesting here are the results of Webb mentioned before. The
almost split sequences have also been used to develop a more general theory of group
characters [37] and have suggested new problems in group representation theory, like
how almost split sequences behave under Green correspondence [12,37,64,115,140].

D. LIE ALGEBRAS

In the theory of complex semisimple Lie algebras there is an interesting occurrence

of artin algebras. A certain subcategory of representations, containing the Verma
modules, the so-called category 0, is equivalent to the product of categories of the
type mod A for an artin algebra A [40]. An interesting property of these algebras is
the following. Let Px,...,Pn be the indecomposable projective A-modules and
S1,...,Sn the corresponding simple modules. Then there exist indecomposable
modules Vx,..., Vn, in this case the ones corresponding to Verma modules, such that
for each Pt there is a chain of submodules Pt = Koz> Ky=>...z> Kn = (0), where each
Kt/Ki+l is one of the Vj, and the number of times Vj occurs is equal to the multiplicity
of St in Vj. A systematic study of the artin algebras occurring in this way has recently
been done by Irving [90].
Also for restricted Lie algebras artin algebras arise. A restricted Lie algebra was
introduced by Jacobson, and is a Lie algebra over a field of prime characteristic
satisfying some extra conditions (see [89]). There is also the notion of restricted
universal enveloping algebra u(L), which is a factor of the ordinary enveloping
algebra. These u(L) are artin algebras. Like group algebras these are also known to
be selfinjective [38], and it is known exactly when they are symmetric [134]. The
problem when u(L) is of finite type has been studied in [113], where some sufficient
conditions for infinite type are given. We refer to [89] for a discussion of such
problems.

E. HOPF ALGEBRAS

Restricted Lie algebras are related to a certain class of algebraic groups, and
algebraic groups are closely related to Hopf algebras. Skowronski has applied almost
split sequences and quivers to obtain results about Hopf algebras [136]. He shows
that certain categories of abelian Hopf algebras, whose definition we do not give
here, are equivalent to a subcategory of representations of a quiver of the form
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 227

«"* i "* *> 7 > where at the vertices we have modules over a
U 1 2 w— i n
certain ring. It is shown that this subcategory is equivalent to the category of all
modules for some selfinjective algebra A.
The algebra theory is used to prove that there is only a finite number of
indecomposable modules. To do this, the following is used. (1) If P is an indecomposable
projective injective module over an artin algebra A, we have an almost split sequence
0 -* rP -»• PII rP/soc P -> P/soc i> -• 0 [22]. (2) If for an indecomposable algebra A we
have a finite component of the AR-quiver, then A is of finite type, which is stated
as Theorem 4 in this paper. Translated back to Hopf algebras, all Hopf algebras of
the desired type are found. Also the fact that for A of finite type, every module is a
direct sum of indecomposable modules is translated to get a corresponding result on
Hopf algebras.

F. VECTOR BUNDLES

As a last example of this nature we mention that there is an intimate relationship

between the category of vector bundles over the projective space Pn and the category
of graded modules over the exterior algebra onn+1 variables [41].

3.3. Use of methods

Some of the methods developed to deal with problems in the representation theory
of artin algebras are useful also outside this area. On one hand problems from other
areas may be reduced for example to a matrix problem or to a problem about
representations of quivers, and may be solved with the techniques developed, or, for
the time being, just give an interesting connection between areas. On the other hand,
since the theory of almost split sequences has interesting applications in the theory
of artin algebras, it is natural to search for existence theorems for almost split
sequences in other contexts.

G. CLASSICAL ORDERS AND COMMUTATIVE RINGS

Whereas there are existence theorems for almost split sequences for certain
subcategories of mod A when A is an artin algebra [28], the primary example where
an existence theorem has been proved in another area is the lattices over orders over
a complete discrete valuation ring R. Denoting by K the quotient field of R and by
A a semisimple A>algebra, we recall that an /border A in A is a ring which is a finitely
generated /^-module, such that KA = A. And a A-lattice is a A-module which is a
finitely generated free /^-module. The following basic existence theorem was given in
[8,9] (and in [129]).

THEOREM 14. Let K be afield and A an order in the semisimple K-algebra A. If

C is an indecomposable nonprojective A-lattice or A is an indecomposable noninjective
A-lattice, there is an almost split sequence 0^>A-*B^C->0, which is unique up to
isomorphism.

This theorem was the starting point for similar applications to the theory of lattices
as for algebras. The question of when an order is of finite lattice type is central also
 228 IDUN REITEN

here, and the almost split sequences provide useful criteria, after extending the
corresponding algebra theory to this setting [141,142,140,58]. We refer to [128] for
a survey.
There are also existence theorems for lattices over the higher dimensional orders
introduced by Auslander, in particular for certain subcategories of modules over
commutative rings [8,9]. As an example of a general result here we mention that if
A is an algebra over a complete local noetherian ring and M a noetherian A-module,
then the monomorphism M-* W^^M/v1 M splits, where M -> M/r1 M are the
canonical epimorphisms [8].
When R is equal to the ring C[[X, Y]]G for a finite subgroup G of SL (2, C) acting
on C[X, Y] in the natural way, the /^-lattices are the finitely generated reflexive
/^-modules. At the same time establishing an interesting connection between almost
split sequences and singularities, Auslander has proved the following result [15].

THEOREM 15. If R is as above, the AR-quiver for the finitely generated reflexive
R-modules is an extended Dynkin diagram, if • ^ » • is replaced by • • , and
is a Dynkin diagram if the projective R-module is removed. The translation r is the
identity on nonprojective objects.

We also give some examples whsre a problem from another area can be reduced
to, or interpreted as, a problem about representations of quivers or a matrix problem.
One example is again provided in the theory of lattices over orders, where for a certain
class of orders, called Backstrom orders in [126], the classification problem can be
reduced to the classification problem for representations of quivers [76,126]. Also
several problems for integral group rings have been reduced to problems about posets
[57].

H. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The classification of the indecomposable representations of the quiver • £•

(or the corresponding matrix problem) is used in the theory of differential equations
[71]. In perturbation theory the infinite dimensional representations of the same
quiver are important. When this problem came up in perturbation theory, no pre-
viously developed theory existed, and the algebraic foundations were laid in [2,3].
Some of these results have been generalized to arbitrary tame hereditary algebras
[122].

I. DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

In dynamical systems problems occur which can be formulated in the language of

representations of quivers. For example, the quivers • *•"}, Cj
and (jL_) occur here. These are wild quivers, where no classification of inde-
composables is known. Nevertheless, this point of view gives insight into the nature
of the problem in question, and to what extent a reasonable solution is to be expected
(see [85,95]).
 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 229

J. HARISH-CHANDRA MODULES

Matrix problems occur in the classification of so-called Harish-Chandra modules.

For example for SL (2, U) the matrix problem corresponding to the representations
a £
of the quiver * * .• * r« with /fa = Sy came up. Gelfand posed the problem of
/? y

classifying the representations of this quiver, and this was done by Nazarova and
Roiter [109].

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31. R. BAUTISTA, 'On algebras of strongly unbounded type', Comment. Math. Helv., to appear.
32. R. BAUTISTA AND S. BRENNER, 'On the number of terms in the middle of an almost split sequence',
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33. R. BAUTISTA AND S. BRENNER, ' Replication numbers for non-Dynkin sectional subgraphs in finite
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34. R. BAUTISTA AND F. LARRION, 'Auslander-Reiten quivers for artin algebras of finite representation
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35. R. BAUTISTA, F. LARRION AND L. SALMERON, 'On simply connected algebras', J. London Math. Soc.
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36. R. BAUTISTA AND M.MARTINEZ, 'Representations of partially ordered sets and 1-Gorenstein
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37. R. BENSON AND D. PARKER, 'The Green ring of a finite group', J. Algebra 87 (1984) 290-331.
38. A. BERKSON, 'The w-algebra of a restricted Lie algebra is Frobenius', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 15 (1964)
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41. I. N. BERNSTEIN, I. M. GELFAND AND S. I. GELFAND, 'Algebraic bundles over Pn and problems of
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42. K. BONGARTZ, 'Tilted algebras', Proc. ICRA III, Puebla 1980, Lecture Notes in Math. 903 (Springer,
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45. K. BONGARTZ, 'Critical simply connected algebras', Manuscripta Math. 46 (1984) 117-136.
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51. O. BRETSCHER, C. LASER AND C. RIEDTMANN, 'Selfinjective and simply connected algebras', Manu-
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56. G. D'ESTE AND C. M. RINGEL, 'Coherent tubes', J. Algebra 87 (1984) 150-201.
57. E. DIETRICH, 'Group rings of wild representation type', Math. Ann. 266 (1983) 1-22.
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59. V. DLAB AND C. M. RINGEL, Indecomposable representations of graphs and algebras, Mem. Amer.
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60. V. DLAB AND C. M. RINGEL, ' Real subspaces of a quaternion vector space', Canad. J. Math. 30 (1978)
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61. V. DLAB AND C. M. RINGEL, 'Normal forms of real matrices with respect to complex similarity',
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 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 231

62. P. DONOVAN AND M. R. FREISLICH, The representation theory of finite graphs and associated algebras,
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64. K. ERDMANN, 'Blocks whose defect groups are Klein Four Groups: A Correction', J. Algebra 76
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68. P. GABRIEL, ' Auslander-Reiten sequences and representation-finite algebras', Proc. ICRA II, Ottawa
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69. P. GABRIEL, 'The universal cover of a representation-finite algebra', Proc. ICRA III, Puebla 1980,
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70. P. GABRIEL AND CHR. RIEDTMANN, 'Group representations without groups', Comment. Math. Helv.
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71. F. R. GANTMACHER, The theory of matrices (translation from Russian, Chelsea, New York, 1959).
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73. I. M. GELFAND AND V. A. PONOMAREV, 'Problems of linear algebra and classification of quadruples
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74. R. GORDON AND E. L. GREEN, ' Representation theory of graded artin algebras', J. Algebra 76 (1982)
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75. E. L. GREEN, 'Group-graded algebras and the zero relation problem', Proc. ICRA III, Puebla 1980,
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76. E. L. GREEN AND I. REINER, 'Integral representations and diagrams', Michigan Math. J. 25 (©978)
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77. D. HAPPEL, 'Deformations of five-dimensional algebras with unit', Proc. Conf on Ring Theory
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78. D. HAPPEL, 'Composition factors for indecomposable modules', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 86 (1982)
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79. D. HAPPEL, ' Klassifikationstheorie endlich-dimensionaler algebren in der Zeit von 1880 bis 1920',
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80. D. HAPPEL, ' Relative invariants and subgeneric orbits of quivers of finite and tame type', Representa-
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81. D. HAPPEL, U. PREISEL AND C. M. RINGEL, 'Vinberg's characterization of Dynkin diagrams using
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82. D. HAPPEL AND C. M. RINGEL, 'Tilted algebras', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 274 (1982) 399-443.
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232 IDUN REITEN

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101. M. LOUPIAS, 'Representations indecomposables des ensembles ordonnes finis', These, Universite de
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 REPRESENTATION THEORY OF ARTIN ALGEBRAS 233

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University of Trondheim, AVH

Department of Mathematics
7055 Dragvoll
Norway