LIGHT IN ARClllTECTURE: NAllJRAL AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

TECHNIQUES THAT BRlGHTEN OUR SACRED SPACES.

By

Kristin McWilliam Bennett

A Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

The University of Utah

In Partial FulfiUment of the requirement for the

Honors Degree of Bachelor of Science

In

Architecture

Approved:

Ytira Locher atric

P npeny
SupetVisor Director, Architecture

I '
Mira Loeber
Departmental Honors Advisor
MMdm�
Dean, Honors College

May 2008
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT

What is the role that light plays in architecture? It is not simply to brighten
What brighten a

room so we can see, but

but the ability to create emotion
emotion in a space. Light is a design tool

which affects
which affects the form of
of a building
building through
through daylight
daylight and artificial
artificial lighting design.

advantage of the natural

Daylight design takes advantage natural abundance of
of light we have: the sun.

When daylight
daylight is designed it becomes a powerful
powerful element
element in a building. Artificial
Artificial

lighting impacts the mood of

of a space and lighting fixtures are more than
than mere

luminaires, but speak of a building. The properties of

speak to the architectural expression of of

natural and artificial

artificial light are investigated
investigated to discover how building design can

intelligently incorporate
intelligently Daylight qualities change according to the buildings
incorporate both. Daylight

producing different
orientation and as the sun moves across the sky producing different lighting effects
effects in

afternoon. Different
the morning than in the afternoon. Different types of electric lamps produce
produce different
different

lighting qualities and the exterior

exterior and interior
interior of a building
building can be illuminated
illuminated efficiently
efficiently

while simultaneously producing a powerful

simultaneously producing powerful aesthetic. These strategies are examined
examined in

further
further detail through an analysis of religious structures
structures to evaluate the emotional effect
effect

that different
different lighting strategies produce.

investigation will enlighten

This investigation my design of an interf
enlighten my interfaith crematorium and
aith crematorium

chapel complex, located above the Salt Lake Cemetery. The design takes advantage of
of

natural daylight and incorporates

incorporates the use of
of artificial
artificial lighting to elicit emotion
emotion in the

vital spaces of
of the program. Light is depicted
depicted as a form
form giver presented
presented through
through models,

ii
plans, sections, and elevations while also producing an emotional environment. This

will be accompanied by site analysis and a design for an electric light fixture.
fixture. The chapel

crematorium comp lex is a summary of the previous research applied to a theoretical

complex

project using logic, deductive reasoning, and creative problem solving to find a lighting
project

solution displayed through design. This design process demonstrates how principles of
of

lighting become design tools which inform the design of buildings. Light becomes a

but means for emotion

material to manipulate and sculpt and not just for means of sight, but emotion

and awe in our built environment.

environment.

iii
III
Table of
Table of Contents
Contents

Title-Signature Page
Title-Signature Page ................................................................................................ i 1

Abstract ............................ ........ ........................................................................... ... iiii

Abstract

lntroduction .................................................................................. ...........................11

Introduction

The Origins
The Origins of
of Daylight
Daylight ............................... .............. ......................... ....................22

Earth's Relation
Earth's Rel ation to
to the
the Sun
Sun ......................................................... ................33

Sun Path
Sun Path Diagrams
Diagrams ......................................................................................7

Sky Conditions
Sky Condit.i ons ........................... ....... ..........................................................9

Vi sible Energy
Visible 11
Energy ............... ........................................................................... 11

Daylighting Strategies ................................................ ........ ...... ,... ,............. ,.......... 15

Daylighting 15

SiteCondit.ions
Site Conditions .......................................................... ,............................... 16

Toplighting ..................................................... .... ..................... .................. 20

Skylights ....................................................................................... 20

Clerestories ..... ,... ,.. ,... ,...... ,...... ,.. ,................. ,.. ,... ,.. ,... ,... ,.. ,.......... 22

Light Scoops ................................................................................. 23

23

Sidelighting ........................................................... ...................... ......... ... .. 25

25

Shading
Shading Strategies ......................................................................... 25
25

Horizontal Overhangs
Overhangs ........... ,........................................... 29
29

Venical
Vertical Fins ...................................................................... 31
31

Light Shelves
Light Shelves and Light Borrowing .................................. 34
and Light 34

Landscaping
Landscaping ................................................. ,.................... 35
35

Techno logy ......................................... ......................................... .36

Technology 36

Health ............... .......... ............................ .................................. ... .. 37

Health 37
Electric Lighting
Electric Lighting ........ ,.......................................................................... ...... ,.........39
39

Visible Spectrum
Visible Spectrum .......................................................................................39
39

ColorTemperature
Color Temperature ........ .............. ......................... ................. .............. ......41
41

The Human
The Human Eye
Eye and
andBrightness
Brightness Levels
Levels ............................... ____ ................ .42
42

Lamps .. ................... ........... .............. .......... ................................................44

Lamps 44

Incandescent __ . __ . ____ ........................................................................45

Incandescent 45

Florescent ......................................................................................47
Florescent 47

Discharge ......................................................................................49
Discharge 49

Sodium ..........................................................................................50
Sodium

Metal Halide
Metal Halide ............................................................... ...................51

Cold Cathode ................................................................................52

Choosing aa Lamp ..................... .... ...................................... .... ... ........... ... .. 53

Arti ficial Lighting Design

Artificial Design ..................................................................................... 54

The Lighting
Lightin g Designer ......... .... ............. ............... ..................................... 54

Downli ghting ............................................................................................ 55

Downlighting

Uplighting .......................................... ................................... ....... ............. 56

Spotlighting
Spotlighting .............................................................................................. .58
58

Track
Track lighting .... ........................................................................................ 59

Linear Light.ing
Lighting ........................... .. ............................................................ 60
60

Fi ber Optic ...................................................... ........................ .................. 61

FiberOptic 61

Decorative Lighting
Lighting .................. ... .... ....................................... ................. .62
62

Task Li
Task ghting ............................................................................................ 63
Lighting 63

Safety
Safety ................. .... .... ................. ......................... ................................... .. 64
64
 Technology ..... ........... ..................................................... ..........................65
Technology 65

68
Exterior ........................................ .............................................................68
Exterior

Light in
Light inReligious
Religious Architecture
Architecture ............................................................................70
70

North Shore
North Shore Synagogue
Synagogue .............. ..............................................................70
70

Reorgani zed Church

Reorganized Church of
of Latter
Latter Day
Day Saints
Saints Temple
Temple ...................................72
72

Church ..........................................................................................73
Tarumi Church

Church of the Light

Church of Li ght ................................................................................ ...75

lodo Shinsyu
Jodo Shinsyu Hangwanji-ha
Hangwanji-ha Koenji
Koenji Temple
Temple and
and Residence
Residence .................... 76

Kaze-no-oka Crematorium
Kaze-no-oka Crematorium ........................................................................78

Chapel of
Chapel of St Ignatius
Ignatius ................................................................................. 80

Dame du Haut ................................................................................. 82

Notre Dame

Design Project: Chapel-Crematorium Complex

Design Complex .................................................... 84

Case Statement ....... .... ... .......................... .. ........... .... ................................. 85

Project
Project desc ript.ion .................................................................................... 86
description

Program Statement .................................................................................... 87

Site Analysis ................ .... .............. .... ........................ ....... ........................ 89

Precedent An alysis .................................................................................... 91

Analysis 91

Light Fixture ............................................................................................. 96

Design ....................................................................................................... 97
97

Annotated
Annotated Bibliography ...................................................................................... 10
101I
 1

INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

We take
We take for
for granted
granted that
that the sun
sun rises every
every morning
morning and
and sets
sets every
every night. We

for granted
take for granted that
that when
when we flip the
the switch
switch the lights
lights turn
turn on. Light
Light is vital
vital to our
our

existence yet we fail to take advantage

existence of its gifts
advantage of gifts and we fail to learn
learn from
from its

consequences in our
consequences our built
built environment.
environment. The sun is an abundant
abundant light
light source
source but
but it creates

on our
glare on our computer
computer screens and during
during the hot
hot summer
summer months it heats up our
our spaces.

We block
We block out
out the sun to avoid
avoid the problems
problems it produced
produced and
and relied
relied instead
instead on electric

downfalls as well. It raises our electric bills, overall

lighting. Yet electric light has it downfalls

boring and dull and

lighting makes spaces seem boring and electric
electric lighting
lighting can even make our skin

seem sick and unhealthy. We need to learn from

seem from our mistakes and take advantage of
of the

opportunities that are available to us.

opportunities

Daylight design allows us to incorporate daylight into our buildings while

minimizing its negative aspects. Artificial lighting design can create spaces that use
Artificial

electric lighting in ways to make spaces more effective

effective and interesting. Our built

environment requires the use of

environment of both to obtain safe, efficient,
efficient, and functional
functional spaces that

become places that we enjoy, that make us feel; spaces that induce an emotion.
 2

THE ORIGINS OF DAYLIGHT

DAYLIGHT

The sun is revered throughout history as a source of

of life. The sun was worshiped

of the world still hold

by many cultures and even today people in India and other parts of

nightly rituals to insure that the sun returns to bring the next day. However, with

increasing advances in technology

technology some of
of us have forgotten
forgotten the importance that the sun

has in our lives on earth, and in terms of

of architecture, we even try to shut it out. We rely

instead on artificial of natural sunlight. Daylight

artificial lighting systems in place of Daylight produces

of glare and solar heat gain and so it became easier to shut it out of
problems in terms of of

buildings and replace it with electric lighting, which was cheap and easy to control. The

cost of
of energy nowadays and the diminishing of
of limited resources necessary
necessary to produce

energy have resurrected

resurrected the need for daylight in our buildings and the sun once again can

be revered as a source of
of life and energy.

understand how the sun is used for daylighting in architecture it is necessary to

To understand

understand how the sun relates to the earth. The sun is a fusion
understand fusion reactor which produces

gargantuan amounts of
gargantuan product of
of heat as a by product smaller atoms fusing
of smaller fusing together
together to become

larger atoms. The heat of

of this reaction is 25,000,000°F
25,OOO,OOO°F at the center of
of the sun but the

surface of
surface of the sun is greatly reduced to 12,500°F and it is the sun's surface
surface radiation that

1
earth.! The outer edge of
reaches earth. of the earth's atmosphere has a constant
constant radiation, known

as the solar constant, but the amount

amount of
of radiation that reaches the earth's surface
surface varies

due to the angle of

of the sun relative to the earth and the earth's atmosphere.

Norbert Lechner, Heating,

! Norbert Heating, Cooling, Lighting (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2001). 126.
Cooling, Lighting
 3

The earth orbits the sun on an elliptical

elliptical path which places the earth at an unequal

distance from the sun throughout the year. The earth

earth rotates about its axis which is not

perpendicular to the sun but at an angle of

perpendicular of 23.5 degrees relative to the perpendic ul ar.
perpendicular.

This accounts for the season change. The axis of

of the earth is fixed as it orbits the sun

resulting in two extremes: the summer

summer and winter solstices. The summer
summer and winter

solstices are best explained in relation to the artic

artie circle
ci rcle on the northern hemisphere
hemisphere of
of the

earth. On June 2 1SI the northern hemisphere

st
hemisphere tilts
lilts towards the sun
sun and the area of
of the earth

of the artie
north of artic circle experiences
experiences twenty-four
twenty-four hours of
of daylight. This is considered the

summer solstice as it is the

N
MARCH 21
SPRING EQUINOX
longest day of
of the year. On

December 21
2 1SI the northern
st
northern
N
O£CfNBER
DECEMBER 21
21
hemisphere tilts away from \ WINTER
WINTER
'tiJ.--~\ - 0, SOLSTICE
JUNE 21 .,
the sun resu lting in twenty-
resulting SUMMER .... ~ ....
SOLSTICE
SOLSTICE s :

~
four hours of darkness for
four hours of darkness for •-+
',............- ....
. .'
'- SEPTEMBER 21
SEPTEMBER 21
areas of the earth north of .... -. _. FALL EQUINOX
EQUINOX
areas of the earth north of S
, . . . Figure 1:
I: Positioning or
of the Earth around the Sun.
the artic circle.
Circle. This IisS the Source:
Source: Lechner,
Lechner, 127.
127.

winter solstice, the shortest

shortest day of
of the year?
year. 2

The summer
summer and winter solstices are defined of the earth's axis. During
defined by the tilt of

the summer
summer solstice the sun is perpendicular
perpendicular to the earth along the Tropic of
of Cancer
Cancer at

latitude 23.5 degrees

degrees north of
of the equator. Likewise, during the winter
winter solstice the sun's

rays are perpendicular

perpendicular to the earth along
along the Tropic of
of Capricorn at latitude 23.5 degrees

south of the equator. Because the sun's rays are perpendicular

perpendicular at the highest latitude of
of

2 Ibid. 126-128.
t26-128.
 4

of the Tropic of
23.5 degrees, any latitude north or south of of Cancer or Capricorn
Capricorn will never

have the sun directly over head.3 Instead

Instead the sun, at its highest point in the sky, will
3

appear directly south in the northern hemisphere or directly north in the southern

hemisphere.

The summer longest and shortest days of

summer and winter solstices constitute the longest of the

..
year but there are days which have exactly equal amounts of
of daylight and darkness. The

equinoxes, the 2211st of

of March and September, are defined
st
defined when the sun's rays are

perpendicular to the equator and thus lie directly in-between the extremes of
perpendicular of the solstices.

of the sun relative to the earth can be determined

The exact location of determined with three

of year, and the solar time. Solar time is not

coordinates: the latitude on earth, the time of

simply the standard determined by the position of

standard time we read on clocks, but is determined of the sun

in the sky. At solar noon, the sun is at its highest

highest position in the sky. This varies from
from

standard
standard time depending on the time of
of year and the longitudinal difference
difference your exact

from the longitude of

location is from delegated standard time you use. For example, Salt
of the delegated

Lake City, UT is located at longitude 111 degrees but the longitude determined
determined for

Mountain Standard
Standard Time is 105 degrees. For every degree of
of longitude there is a four

minute difference
difference in time, so Salt Lake City is actually 24 minutes behind, relative to the

sun, then the standard

standard time. Extra complications arise due to daylight savings time as

well. Due to the complicated

complicated nature to convert standard
standard time to solar time, there are

charts that make this conversion

conversion simple. Solar time is important because it is necessary

in calculations of
of sun angles.

33 Ibid. 127.
 5

The solar time, latitude, and time

lime of year, are necessary factors to determine the

solar altitude and azimuth angles. The altitude angle is the vertical angle of the sun 's
sun's

rays that hit the earth. By drawing a line tangent to the latitude of interest on earth,
earth,

altitude can be determine as the difference

difference between the perpendicular
perpendicul ar line of the tangent

and the horizontal projection

projection of the sun'
sun'ss rays. Therefore, the altitude angle is equ al to
equal

90 degrees minus latitude.4 It can be assumed that since the sun is so far away from
minu s the latitude. 4
from

the earth that the

radi ation received from

radiation from ARCTIC CIRCLE 66.5, .
•
TROPIC OF
A = 90°-L \>.l./
the sun is parallel to the CANCER 2 3 5

EQUATOR 0
orbiting plane
pl ane of earth. TROPIC OF
OF 23 5
GROUND
CAPRICORN
PLANE
ANTARCTIC
Solar azimuth is CIRCLE 90
5

determined by the Figure 2:

2: Determining solar altitude.
Soun:e:
Source: Lechner, 129.
di stance
distance the sun is

relative to true south

south.. For simplicity, tables are easil
easilyy obtained to determine the altitude
altitude

and azimuth angles for

for any given latitude, time of year, and solar time
time,, but it is easier to

understand the relation that these angles have to one another and the earth through sun

path diagrams.
diagrams.

4Ibid.
4
128.
lbid . 128.
 6

""""

HOIIIlOHT AI.
SlI~MER
PFIOJECTION
SOlSnQ; 0# SUN R"V

, ~~~~••"~O~"--~--~~
.. WINTER
,
SOlSTICE

Figure 3: Sky dome. Definition of solar altitude and azimuth angles.

Source: Lechner, 130-131.
130-1 31.

To understand how sun path diagrams are laid out, some backwards thinking must

be assumed. We are aware that the earth revolves around the sun, but for simplicity,
simplicity, it is

eas ier to assume the sun rotates around the earth. Also, due to the fact that the site of
easier of

interest is so smal re lation to the earth, it is assumed to be flat with

smalll in relation with a clear hemisphere

placed over the site called a sky dome. On this

thi s sky dome, marks of
of the sun'
sun'ss position

throughout the day plot the path the sun travels over the site throughout the year. When
5
diagram, 5 A sun path
the sky dome is flattened two dimensionally it becomes a sun path diagram.

diagram is a tool to determine the solar altitude and az

azimuth
imuth for any given latitude, time

of year, and solar time. There are two types of

of of sun path diagrams: vertical (cylindrical

projection)
projection) and horizontal (stereographical
(stereographical projection)
projection) sun path diagrams.

5 Nick Baker and Koen $tecmcrs,

5
of Buildings (London: James & James, 2(02).
Steemers, Daylight Design of 2002). 29.
 7

The first example is based off

off a horizontal sun path diagram. Multiple diagrams

ex ist for a multitude of

exist of latitudes. The sun path is marked at monthly intervals based of
of

the 21
2 1st day of
st
of each month and the time of
of day is marked perpendicularly
perpendicularly to the sun path.
66
The concentric circles are the solar altitude and the radial lines are the azimulh.
azimuth.

Examp le: Find the solar altitude and azimuth for Salt Lake City, UT, located at 40
Example:

degrees north on April 2 1Sl at 10am

lOam solar time.
st

1.
Step 1. Since Salt Lake City is

located at 40 degrees north use the sun path

diagram for 40 degrees north.

Step 2. On this sun path diagram

follow the curve for April 2211Sl and locate its

st

intersection with
intersection w ith the solar time curve of

lOam.
10am.
4 - 0 » N ,-ATITUOE
"'OON LATITUDE

Figure 4:
4: Horizontal sun-path diagram.
Source: Lechner, 564.
Step 3. From this intersection , follow
Step 3. From this intersection, follow
the concentric circle to determine the altitude: 50 degrees.
the concentric circle to determine the altitude: 50 degrees.

Step 4. From the same intersection follow

follow the radial lines to determine the

azimuth: 56 degrees East of

of South.

6 Ibid. 29-30.
6
 8

The vertical sun

sun path diagram works similarly to the
the horizontal sun
sun path diagram

in a circle the
but instead of being in the sun
sun path is the 90
is laid out like a chart with the 90 degree

altitude being the

the top
top line along the
the vertical axis and
and the
thebottom
bottom line
line being
being 00 degree
degree

altitude or the horizon. This is photograph.7

is similar to a panoramic photograph. 7

Using the
the same example as above, steps 1 and
and22are
arethe
thesame.
same.

l...:ldtudc
L a t i t u d e 44O"N
0*N
HI"
Step 3.
3. From this I
12
I

I--
1

1200
00 -
intersection follow the
the horizontal 1Il
-
,100
11po -p ....-
12
~_ ,Joo
13 0 0

&R' ~
i-
-
10 0 0
)V~ ^ \ /J
v s .
</ '400
1O 400
-
00 .' >

/ ~I
I-
~'
~
to the
across to the y-axis of the
the chart to
to V
'\5Y \\
,~
'
"I --
/
-
L/
s . /
\
/ It'/ N'\
\/ ~
V' \l50

*
ft
i/ ' / ~
0 --
\
I/
..
1 ~)(
- \\ V /
' 'I
\ /
the altitude: 50 degrees.
determine the 1

V' 1\
V~ ~
0uaw~
600. 1600
(•1600

Z. V 1\ /\
1\ .\
/ \
-
/ f \ j
/ \
\
.<" \
•hi u!
L \ / \
--
..
\~ ~( ~ \1 '\ X\
06i,°iIJ/
J \ 00
..
\ \170 0
07
00/ / / ~>(\ ."~
{'X
N /
\ /
\

/
\
J
20 0 6 0 0 ]
f \ '
1 \

~ ~ :\ \K \/
I
'1/ \; \ y/ \\/ V / \\ K~
/\ yeoo
Step 4.

intersection
4. From the

follow
the same

the vertical
the -
Vli/~
/ \V
~ m
\ /

ij'1
~
Easl
' I\
A >(/
\c ~
/

~ ~
i
e 0
Suulh
South
e
I

ALimuth 'lnl!J;lc
Azimuth angle
~
-A/

•
~ ~
X\ /\A .~
\ 1 /! \
~
A

~
W ..::;t
« -
.2

down to the
down x-axis of the
the X-axis the chart to Figure 5: Vertical sun-path diagram.
diagram.
Source: Lechner, 566.
determine the azimuth: 56 degrees
determine the azimuth: 56 degrees
East of South.
East of South.
This solar data is used for direct sunlight applications however; sky conditions
This solar data is used for direct sunlight applications however; sky conditions
vary the amount of daylight and radiation from the sun. Clouds and even dust particles or
vary the amount of daylight and radiation from the sun. Clouds and even dust particles or
pollution can reflect the sun's rays making the sunlight diffused and become the
pollution can reflect the sun's rays making the sunlight diffused and become the
dominant source of daylight and solar radiation.
dominant source of daylight and solar radiation.

7 Ibid. 29-30.
 9

There are three types of

of sky conditions: Overcast, clear, and partly cloudy.

diffuse light over the sky dome and facilitate the position of
Overcast skies produce even diffuse of

the sun undeterminable due to the density of

of cloud cover. of zenith, light
In terms of

coming from straight above, is three times brighter in overcast

overcast skies than light coming

from the horizon.

from This is so because the cloud density is thinnest directly above, in

zenith, and gets denser as the clouds compact

compact towards the horizon. When ignoring the

direct sun rays, the overcast sky is actually brighter

brighter than a clear sky because of
of the

of reflected
amount of reflected light off
off the clouds. The illumination
illumination from an overcast
overcast sky is

therefore fairly constant throughout

throughout the day and is strongest
strongest in its zenith.

Clear skies are opposite that of

of overcast skies, they are three times brighter at the

horizon then they are in zenith. This is because only a certain amount of
of sunlight can

come from
from above but it accumulates as it approaches the horizon. However, due to the

of illumination
sun's strong rays the amount of illumination varies depending on the position of
of the sun

in the sky.1
sky.l In daylight design it is therefore
therefore beneficial
beneficial to use side lighting techniques

clear sky conditions and to use top lighting

that emphasize the vertical light for clear

techniques which take advantage of

of the horizontal lighting for the overcast
overcast sky.

of sky condition is the partly cloudy sky. This condition

The most common type of

is the most variant because it is classified

classified as an overcast
overcast sky with sunny spots to a clear

sky with a few small clouds. Since the sun position can be determined, illumination

levels vary throughout

throughout the day. Clear skies with clouds will be very bright due to the

direct rays and the reflectance

reflectance off
off the clouds. Overcast skies with sunny spots will vary

cover.8
in illumination levels across the sky dome due to the dispersed cloud cover.
8

Sun, Wind, and

8 G. Z. Brown, Sun, and Light:
Light: Architectural
Architectural Design
Design Strategies
Strategies (New York, NY: Wiley. 1985).30-31.
1985). 30-31.
 10

Cl~"'*?

Figure 6: Diagrams aand

nd fish-eye photographs of sky conditions.
Source: Brown, 30.

It is important in daylight design to know what

what type of
of sky cond ition is prominent
condition

to your site. Sky conditi if so, multiple types of

ons can vary between the seasons and if
conditions of sky

cond itions must be accounted for in the design. This is important because in daylighting
conditions

more then just light can penetrate a building. Light is energy associated with the

production of
of heat. It can be produced by a candle or a light lamp but in the case of
of

daylighting it is produced by the sun. The sun, as mentioned earlier, emi

emits
ts large

quantities of
of heat towards earth and it's because of li ght. When we
of that heat that we have light.

sunlight to enter oour

allow sunlight ur buildings we are letting
leuing in the sun's radiation and thus its heaL
heat.
 11
11

This is called solar heat gain and can be beneficial

beneficial or detrimental to a building, but never-

the-less, needs to be taken into consideration

consideration when daylight strategies are implemented.
implemented.

Light is visible energy and can be considered as a wave or a particle since it

maintains properties of
of both, but in this discussion light is considered to be a wave and

thus obeys the properties of

of a wave. The sun's energy can be broken down and

categorized by wavelength and frequency. The light that enables us to see is defined as

"visually evaluated radiant energy" and makes up a very small portion of

of the wave

energy spectrum. The light energy of

of this portion of
of the spectrum ranges in frequencies
frequencies

of
of 380 -780 hertz (Hz). This constitutes the color spectrum: violet (380 Hz), indigo, blue,

green, yellow, orange, and red (780 Hz).

Hz).9 Light unfiltered
unfiltered from the sun appears white but
9

contains all of
of these colors in the color spectrum. The reason why we don't see the

colored light is because when blended together they produce white light. We see the

colors in the light through objects on earth that absorb certain colors of
of light and reflect
reflect

others. A green blade of

of grass absorbs red and blue light but reflects green light which is

why it appears green in color to our eyes.

FM
1
Gamma
Gamma .2 TV
T V Radio
Radio
Cosmic Rays X·Rays Inlrared Radar
Radar Sound
~
Rays X-Rays Infrared
Rays
Short

..
5 Short
wave
wave

'.
1()22
10* •
1()20
10 2 0
1•0
10" 1 >
. 10'.
10 " ">."JO'·
1
J0 N
0 12
110 1 4 1 2
110'0
0 1 0
100
10»
T
100
10« 10'
10*
.l
100 E~
100
!.
" "
/ ' " VIsible Ught ~ "" in hertz (cycles per second)
Frequency in
' Visible Light
// "
",k'/ '~
,," "
" Wavelength nanometers 1 0 *9 meters)
nanometers ((10. meters) 9
""
N
380 400 500 600 700 ^780 800

FarUV Green Red.

·1

if. Yellow

Orange
':" ,", .
...
·1I
·.1I
Infrared
Infrared

Heaters

Figure 7: Solar energy spectrum with detail of visible spectrum. Source: Stein. 708.

9 B. Stein, Mechanical
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment
and Electrical Equipmentfor Buildings, 8th Ed (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2(06).
for Buildings, 2006). 707-
708.
 12

important role with light in architecture. Light interacts with

Materials play an important

materials in three ways: reflection, absorption, and transmittance. When light hits the

surface of
of a material it can be reflected
reflected or absorbed. In a perfect
perfect world white would have

reflectance of
a reflectance of one and black would have a reflectance
reflectance of zero and the opposite would be

true considering absorption. In the real world all materials reflect

reflect and absorb light. Light

can also be transmitted

transmitted only through transparent
transparent or translucent materials such as glass. In

transparent materials light is also reflected

reflected and absorbed but the absorption takes place

within the material and the amount of

of absorption is dependant on the thickness of
of the

material.
material.10 10

of reflectance
The properties of reflectance are dependant on the source of
of incident light and the

surface material. A specular

surface specular material will reflect
reflect a direct incident beam at the same angle

opposite the incidence angle therefore; the angle of

of reflectance
reflectance equals the angle of
of

incidence. However, since energy must be conserved, the amount of

of reflected
reflected light is

reduced because some of

of the light is also absorbed. In specular transparent
transparent materials the

incident
incident light is transmitted
transmitted directly through the material and the light source can be

viewed in focus through the material. Light can also be diffused reflection and
diffused through reflection

transmittance. This means that even though a light source is directly hitting a surface
surface it is
11
either reflected
reflected or transmitted
transmitted as an evenly
evenly distributed
distributed hemisphere of
of light.
light.I I

10 Baker and Koen Steemers, Daylight

Nick Baker Daylight Design
Design of
of Buildings (London: James & James, 2002). 89-90.
11
11 Ibid. 90.
 13

,,
I j I

,.,

Specular reflectance Specular transmittance Diffuse transmittance

Diffuse reflectance

Figure 8: Diagrams of reflectance

rcnectance and tr ansmittance. Source
transmittance. Source:: Baker, 90.

Just as materials can both absorb and reflect light, they can also have both

specular and diffuse

diffuse properties. A surface treatment such as a varnish or gloss app lied 10
applied to

a diffuse
diffuse material can add specular properties to the material. The light wi ll reflect
will reflect

specu larly off

specularly off the surface treatment but some light will also transmit through the varnish

and reflect
reflect diffusely
diffusely off
off the material surface.
surface. Partial light-scattering can influence
influence

specular properties by smoothing QuI

out the reflected or transmitted light, makin
makingg it appear

fuzzy and out of focus. T his can be accomplished through surface treatments such as
This

12
sand-blasting glass or brushing aJuminum.1
aluminum. 2

I,
;

,., ,.,

White
..'"
Black

Figure 9: Examples of partiallight·scattering.

Brushed anodised aluminium

partial light-scattering. Source: Baker, 90-91.

Baker , 90·91.
Sanded glass

Materials are a necessity of

of architecture and to create dynamic buildings
bui ldings we need

to understand the impact that light can have on materials and their design into a building.

Light can reflect,

reflect , be absorbed, or transmitted, produce colors, and give us adequate

11 Ibid. 90-91
90-91..
 14

source of light for us to be productive. In order to achieve these properties an

understanding of the sun and the eart

earthh is necessary to achieve daylight that produces well

lit environments for

for the occupants that still creates interest and gives value to the

building. We build with light just as we build with materials, the difference
difference is that

material s are tangible while light is emotional.

materials
 15

DA YLIGHTING STRATEGIES
DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES

Daylight was the primary source of

Daylight of light in architecture before
before the advent of
of

electricity and the light bulb. Historically, all different

different types of
of buildings incorporated

daylight. Great classical architecture of

of the Greek and Roman
Roman era and even the small

vernacular peasant
peasant farm took daylight into account. Light requirements and climate

responses have defined

defined regional vernacular architecture which expresses each individual

culture's society and basic needs through the process of

of building shelter.

In vernacular
vernacular architecture, buildings are defined
defined by their regional climate. The

vernacular response to hot and dry climates creates buildings with thick walls and small
vernacular

penetration from
windows to reduce the heat penetration from sunlight into the building. Hot and humid

climates have large windows shaded by porches and high ceilings to allow the breeze to

carry the hot air up and out through high operable windows. Mild and overcast climates

need to maximize daylight intake and therefore, have large bay windows; and in cold

climates buildings are compact

compact with small windows and low ceilings which minimize

heat loss through the envelope of building. \3

of the building. 13
These characteristics of climate
characteristics of

responsive vernacular
vernacular architecture can aid architects today in understanding strategies to

design buildings that take advantage of

of their climate while incorporating
incorporating daylighting.

Designing functional
functional daylighting in a building requires adequate knowledge of
of the

source of
of light. This is directly related to the regional climate. Understanding
Understanding the sky

conditions of
of your building's site will determine the type of
of daylight the building will

of particular
receive. Certain daylighting strategies take advantage of particular sky conditions and

won't
won't function
function properly with the wrong sky condition. For example, overcast
overcast skies are

three times brighter

brighter in zenith then the horizontal, this means that a toplighting strategy,

13 Norbert
Norbert Lechner, Heating, Lighting (New York: John Wiley &
Cooling, Lighting
Heating, Cooling, & Sons, Inc, 2001).
2001).2-4
2-4
 16

like skylights.
skylights, would work well in this sky condition. However, in clear
condition. However, clear sky conditions

loplighting is not effective

toplighting effective because clear skies are three times
limes brighter from the horizontal

and are better in correlation with sideJighling

sidelighting strategies. Weather the climate is hot, cold
cold,,

dry, or humid will inform

inform how the daylight strategies consider
consider solar heat
heal gain
gain,,

cooling, or other thermal

evaporative cooling. thermal properties affected
affected by daylight implementations.

Site anal ysis is critical

analysis critical to determine building
bui lding orientation
orientation and placement
placement to take

advantage of micro-cli mate the site may offer.

of the micro-climate offer. Each cardinal
cardinal direction has its own

specific type of
of lighting. The south direction best access to winter sun angles and
direction has the best

solar heat
heat gain possibilities.
poss ibilities. East and west are the hardest
hardest to shade because of
of the low

sun angle in the morning and late afternoon

afternoon,, and north has even
even lighting from the diffused
diffused

sky.14
sky. 14

Obstacles on site can pose problems or aid the daylight strategy of a building. An

obstacle can block

block needed sunlight or shade a window.
window. Reflective
Reflecti ve glass from
from near by

bu ildings can bounce light

buildings li ght into the proposed
proposed building and cause glare or it can bring ex tra
extra

diffused
diffu sed lighting
lighting into a space. Daylight design strategies can
can be implemented
implemented to take

advantage of
of what the sile
site offers
offers and minimize the negative potential.

\
\

\ \

\ LIGHT
COLORED
SURFACE
OR
REFLECTIVE
.. ,'
GLAZING

.:.
SAND OR CONCRETE x f r . - -

Figu re 10:
Figure 10: Light soun:es
sources determined from
rrom site. Source: Lechner, 209.

14 Ibid. 220-226
220-226
 17

Choice is often
often limited in terms of
of site selection, but when options are available it

is important to choose a location that is best suited for the climate and the program of
of the

building. A south sloping site is ideal in many climate areas. The south facing slope

receives the most sun during the winter because it faces the low winter sun angles.

microclimates in hilly regions. The southern slope is warmest

However, there are many microclimates

in the winter while a west facing slope is hottest in the summer. The north has the most

shade and is therefore the coolest. The highest points of to be the windiest
of the hills tend {Q

while low points in the land tend to be the coolest location. A building in a hot humid

climate would want to locate near the top of

of a hill to take advantage of
of the prevailing

winds. In cold climates buildings want to locate on south facing slopes to

(0 take

of the warm winter sun angles, while avoiding the cool

advantage of cool breezes at the top of

5
the hill and the low areas that collect pools of
of cool air. 15

•I ,-
-

SOUTH SECTION SOUTH

Figure 11:
11: Site conditions on a south facing slope in section and plan. Source: Lechner, 284.

IS Ibid . 283-284
Ibid.
 18

Solar access is becoming

becoming more important
imponant today as energy demands
demands exceed energy

supplies. Solar access laws have been put into place in certain parts
pans of
of the U.S. and

extensively in Europe. In urban areas setbacks for large skyscrapers where implemented
setbacks for

to allow sun to penetrate down through the buildings

buildings which is evident
eviden t in buildings such

as the empire state building in New York

Ci ty. The main source of solar access for a

City.

building is defined by its solar window.

The solar window is determined by the sun

path for the winter solstice and, in general, SOUTH NORTH

Figure 12: Solar window. Source: Lechner, 285.

from 9 AA .M
M to 3 P.M
P.M.. The volume of
of space

created by sun 's rays on the winter

sun's winter solstice from
from 9 A.M.
A.M. to 3 P.M. defines the solar access
P.M. defines

boundary and any object that enters this area will block the winter sun. Shadow
Shadow patterns

also
can al so be used to determine solar access for a multitude of buildings
multitude of buildings on a site. Shadow

patterns can inform when an object's shadow covers a particular

particular area which
whic h can

determine where you locate a building

build in g on a site. Shadow
Shadow patterns are easily
eas ily determined

by sun machines or computer

computer programs that can establish
establish the length and angle of
of a

P.M 16
16
shadow durin
duringg the winter solstice between the times of
of99 AA.M
M .. and 3 P.M.

~q ,Tq'-'-
,-
IB~
i ~~
• . ~ lI
\ i I

Figure 13:
13: Determining shadows and shadow patterns. Source: Lechner, 289.

16 Ibid. 285-292.
 19

In large urban buildings the problem

problem of
of daylight is that only the envelope of
of the

building can have windows. This means that large areas towards the center of
of a building

will have little or no daylight. There are many solutions to this problem but one basic

solution is the building form. Many early 20th century

century urban buildings were designed in
th

certain shapes to maximize light access. These shapes are similar to letters "H" "U" "E"

"O" and "I.

"0" These shapes increase the external envelope of
of the building by adding

courtyards, allowing for more daylight access.

access.17 17

In the early stages of

of building design, the building form can incorporate
incorporate daylight

by considering courtyards, galleries, atriums, or internal or external lightwells. Climate

of these strategies. The courtyard is open to the

plays an important role in the choice of

outside air which works well in mild climates but poses heat loss problems in colder

climates. The gallery and atrium spaces are enclosed

enclosed in glazing and will trap in heat from
from

solar radiation which works well in winter but not in the hot summer
summer months. The

daylight issue with these strategies is that much of

of the sky is blocked
blocked by the building,

limiting the amount of

of light able to penetrate the sides of
of the surrounding floors.

However, in atriums for example, the surrounding walls of

of the atrium and the floor are

able to play an important

important role to help bring light down to the lower levels of
of the atrium.

Light colored surfaces

surfaces reflect
reflect light and if
if the atrium walls and floor are light in color,

light will bounce further

further down into the space. Glass, unlike the opaque reflective
reflective surface
surface

of
of a wall, will not reflect
reflect a valuable amount of
of light. It is therefore, beneficial
beneficial to have

less glazing on the top floors of

of the atrium, since their nearest to the light source, and

more glass near the bottom of

of the atrium. This way there are more reflective
reflective surfaces
surfaces

near the light source to bring more light down to the bottom
bottom floors. The walls, floors, and

17 Ibid. 360-363.
 20

ceilings of adjacent rooms should also be light colored to help the already diffused
of the adjacent diffused

light penetrate further

further into the room. Strategies, like the atrium, work best for shallow

buildings or the top few stories of

of tall buildings so less obstruction from
from the building will

affect daylight.18 Sometimes these large strategies don't work in small

of daylight.
affect the amount of 18

buildings or on small sites. In these cases top lighting can be utilized.

of the many toplighting

Skylights are one of toplighting strategies that can be implemented
implemented into

a building. They allow for high levels of

of illumination because they face the unobstructed
unobstructed

sky. Since skylights get their light from

from the zenith they cannot take advantage of
of the

lower winter sun angles when light and solar heat gain is needed and take in too much

light and heat in the summer when the sun is at its highest position in the sky. Solutions

to this problem can be discovered in the application

application and placement
placement of
of the skylights in a

room. Splaying the opening to a skylight better distribute the amount of

skylight will better of light

coming in and make the skylight of a ceiling,

skylight seem larger. When placed in a high point of

the light from

from the skylight will be able to reflect
reflect off
off the sloped ceiling. This will make

the direct sunlight

sunlight diffused
diffused when it enters the space. The skylight
skylight will also be out of
of the

user's frame of
of view, reducing direct glare. Direct glare can be avoided by placing the

skylight near north walls so that the angled light from

from the southern sun will reflect
reflect off
off the

walls instead of
of entering the offending
offending zone, the area where light can reflect
reflect into the eyes

of
of the user. In order to reduce glare problems further, it is best to use a translucent

glazing in skylight applications instead of

of transparent glazing since there is no valued

view. Translucent glazing will diffuse

diffuse the light coming in to the room, creating an even

distribution of
of light. Reflectors
Reflectors and baffles
baffles can be used in the interior of
of the room to

diffuse
diffuse direct light and bounce it back up to the ceiling. Exterior
Exterior shades can be utilized to

18 Ibid. 368-372.
 21
21

prevent the strong su mmer sun from directly hitting the skyli
summer ght while reflectors
skylight reflectors can
19
19
bounce the lower winter sun angles into the skylig ht when the light is needed.
skylight needed

. OfFfNOIHG
OFFENDING . . \
,~

,,
,,
,,
Mi
I
,

'~"
'~
\ ,
\ \

\.l\. ~-.....I~
.
Figure 14:
14: Skylight strategies to reduce glare. Source: Lechner, 384-385.

Skyl ight strategies can become powerful

Skylight powerful arc hitectural elements of
architectural of a building. T he
The

Kimbell Art Museum designed by Louis Kahn in Fort Worth, Texas, is one great example

of toplighting.
of Loplighti ng. Light
Li ght enters the building through a continuous skylight
continuous skyli ght at the highest

point of
of the ceiling which takes the skyli
skylight
ght out of the user's direct frame of view. The
frame of

implementation of
of the large reflectors
reflectors placed directly

underneath the skylight

skylight opening, reflects
reflects the direct light \

up onto the curved ceil ing, diffusing

ceiling, diffusing the light into the ,.,,.,., ^
x : \

space. These fixtures

fixtures not only reflect
reflect the light up to the ' i

Figure 15: detail light fixture, Kimbell

Art Museum. Source: Lechner, 386.
19 Ibid. 384-388.
 22
22

ceiling but also aJlow perfo rated metal fi

allow light to penetrate through the perforated xture eeliminating
fixture liminating
20
the effect
effect of a dark fi ceiling 20
xture against a bright ceiling.
fixture

~, /
-~w
» PAYU&HY V
-,M I ___ r
I
i i i 8MB I
- ""- _ I-
I • v .L
1 ,3-
'<I-
i i l ]
i t

•
16: Light
Figure 16: Light Fixture, Kimbell
Kimbell Art
Art Museum. Source: Evans.

Skylights, as mentioned earlier, are not the only form of top lighting. Clerestories

and light scoops are great tools that solve some of the issues that skylights inherently

possess. Clerestories are located high in the ce iling as if

ceiling if the roof
roof was cut and raised up.

if facing south,
This allows light to enter from the horizontal instead of the zenith which, if

sun.. Since the clerestories are above the normal ceiling he

favors the winter sun height,
ight , they

direct
reduce di rect glare and reflect diffused
re nee! diffu sed light into the space. Monitors are clerestories that

have windows in multiple

mUltiple directions and are operable. This is an advantage for summer

cooling, to allow hot air to rise up to the clerestory and escape.

% y MONITOR SAWTOOTH
SAWTOOTH SKYLIGHT

CLERESTORY

Figure 17:
17: Different types toplighting.
types of top lighting. Source: Lechner, 373.
373.

20
20 Benjamin H. Evans, Daylight Architecture (New York
Daylight in Architecture York:: McGraw-Hill, Inc, 198 1). 158-162.
1981). 158- 162.
 23

Light scoops are simil ar to a clerestory

similar clerestory in that they ex tend up through the roof
extend roof and

have windows in one direction. Unlike the clerestory,

clerestory, light
li ght scoops have a sloped or

curved wall on the other side to reflect

reflect the incoming light down
down into the space. The

orientation of light scoops is dependant oonn climate.

cli mate. They can
can face south in
in order
order to gain

advantages of
of solar heat gain in colder climates
cli mates or north to allow light into a space

without the heat gain in hot or mild cli mates. South facing
climates. fac ing light
li ght scoops can
can collect more

light in the winter

wi nter and can easi ly be shaded in the summer. North facing
easily fac ing light
li ght scoops

have a less intense but constant source of

of light which
which reduces glare. The light scoop

approach
approach has advantages over the clerestory
clerestory and skylight in the fact
fact that it is self
self

diffusing. The des ign of the light scoop allows light

design li ght to bounce off
off the cei ling of
ceiling of the light

scoop di sLributing an even amount of

distributing furth er into spaces.
of light further

\
\
\
\

13U SOutH
SOUTH NORTH
NORTH

18: Solar heat gain potential and prevention. Source: Lechner,

Figure 18: LC(:hner, 390.

As in the case of skylights, there are certain

certai n implementations
implementations that
that can
can aid in the

function and successfulness

function successfulness of clerestory and light scoop
scoop strategies. Light colored

roofing materi als can reflect light from

roofing materials sky into the clerestory
from the zenith sky clerestory increasing
increasi ng the

source of Reflectors and baffles

of light. Reflectors baffles outside of
of the clerestory can
can allow light from
from the

south to reflect
reflect into a north fac ing light
facing li ght scoop. In east-west
east-west facing
facing clerestories they can
 24

block the afternoon

afternoon sun from entering west
west facing light scoops while bouncing
bouncing earl
earlyy

morning light into the light scoop. Thi

Thiss can
can also work for
fo r east
east facing light scoops in

terms of
of morning light, which allow for east-west orientations that are otherwise hard to

con trol. Interior baffles

control. baffles can be implemented to reduce direct sunlight penetration
penetrat ion and

diffuse light into a space. Light scoops can be arranged in a continuous

diffuse con tinuous line
li ne to create a

more even distribution of

of light in larger spaces. This design
design is called a saw tooth since
si nce it
21
resembles of a saw?1
resemb les the blades of saw.

Figure 19:
19: Saw-tooth daylighting strategy with baffles.
barnes. Source: Lechner, 390.

Dallas City Hall,

Hall , designed by I.M. Pei and Partners
Partners and Harper and Kemp

architects,
archi tects, is a good example of
of light scoop design. The series of
of clerestories
clerestories along the

roof of the building bring light

roof of li ght down into its seven stories. The light scoops
scoops face the

north direction
direction 1to heat gain in the hot
0 avoid solar heal hOi climate
c1imale of
of Dallas, Texas. The use of
of

exterior reflectors
refleclors bounce southern light into the light scoops bring in extra light than

north diffused alone.22

diffused light alone. 22

21 Norbert Lechner. Heatjng. Cooling.

Lechner, Heating, Cooling, Lighting York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc,
Lighting (New York: Inc. 20(H).
2001). 389-393.
22 Benjamin H. Evans,
Benjamin Evans. Daylight
Daylight in Architecture
Architecture (New York:
York: McGraw-Hill,
McGraw-Hi lI. Inc,
Inc. 1981).
(981). 173-174.
 25

','.' .. ~ .~ . '

20: Dallas City Hall and detail or

Figure 20: of loplighting
toplighting strategy. Source: Evans, 173-174.
173·174.

Top lighting has many advantages in daylight design but it also has its

disadvantages. High illumination levels are achievable on a uniform level with

toplighting, but toplighting can't bring light down into multistory

multi story buildings. Inherent

prob lems of
problems of solar heat gain are difficult
difficult to combat in skyli ght strategies because they face
skylight

the summer sun. However, shading devices can be easily implemented in sidelighting
sidelighting

st rategies and can prevent direct sun light from penetrating a building.
strategies During the

summer months when heat gainn from the sun is unwanted, shading acts as a passive
heal gai

cooling system blocking so

solar
lar radiation while still allowing daylight.
daylight.

Classical as well as vernacular

Classical vernacu lar architecture of the past have utilized passive

cooli ng strategies in the form of exterior shading devices. Ancient Greek and Roman
cooling

porticos and colonnades are excellent examples of ex

ponicos exterior shading
terior shadi ng because they block

direct sunlight from hitting the ex

exterior of the building. This blocks the absorption of
terior of

heat in the exterior materials so they can't be radiated into the interior of
of the building;

keeping it cooler in summer months or in hot climates. This strategy is repeated through

out history. Neoclassicism and Greek Revival movements in America were preferred in

of the southeast because it al

the hot and humid climates of allowed
lowed for breezes and daylight to
 26

enter with
enter with out heat
heat gain. Victorian
Victorian and
and bungalow
bungalow architecture
architecture also
also shades
shades the exterior
exterior by
by

incorporating large covered

incorporating covered porches. urban environments
In urban environments when
when masonry
masonry building

techniques were
techniques were the
the norm, the
the thickness walls blocked
thickness of the walls blocked the
the sun
sun from
from the
the deeply

recessed windows keeping direct heat gain out of the interior.23

23

recessed windows keeping direct heat gain out of the interior.

The need for shading or solar heat gain is determined by the climate that a
The need for shading or solar heat gain is determined by the climate that a
building is located in. If climate temperatures rise above or fall below the thermal
building is located in. If climate temperatures rise above or fall below the thermal
comfort level, shading or solar heat gain is necessary. Thermal comfort is a standard
comfort level, shading or solar heat gain is necessary. Thermal comfort is a standard
range of temperatures that feel comfortable to people. Unfortunately, most climates have
range of temperatures that feel comfortable to people. Unfortunately, most climates have
short amounts of time when the outside temperature corresponds to thermal comfort
short amounts of time when the outside temperature corresponds to thermal comfort
temperatures. When the outside temperature falls below the thermal comfort level, solar
temperatures. When the outside temperature falls below the thermal comfort level, solar
heat gain is beneficial to reduce mechanical heating needs; but when the outside
heat gain is beneficial to reduce mechanical heating needs; but when the outside
temperatures raise above thermal comfort levels passive cooling strategies are needed to
temperatures raise above thermal comfort levels passive cooling strategies are needed to
reduce mechanical cooling needs. For example, climate region 4, based on Salt Lake
reduce mechanical cooling needs. For example, climate region 4, based on Salt Lake
City, UT, the outside temperature is only within the thermal comfort level for a small
City, UT, the outside temperature is only within the thermal comfort level for a small
portion of the year. The rest of the year passive heating and cooling are required to attain
portion of the year. The rest of the year passive heating and cooling are required to attain
thermal comfort. Shading is one passive cooling strategy that is easily incorporated into
thermal comfort. Shading is one passive cooling strategy that is easily incorporated into
the daylight design of a building?4
4
the daylight design of a building.
Climate Reference
Reference
Region
Region City
City
I
MAR. APR. MAY
JAN. FEB. MAR. MAY JUNE JULY DEC.
JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.

~t:::::);:;l:;:;:;:;:il I I::::;::::~:;:::~
I | | | | I j| I I 1 I I I
44 Salt
Salt Lake
Lake City. UT
City, UT
I T 1 i i ! ^^^^i I 1 T I
IJUNE 21
JUNE 21
• • • • • OVERHEATED PERIOD
PERIOD
UNDERHEATED
UNDERHEATED PERIOD
PERIOD
y//////0m//////A TRANSITION PERIOD
t;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::::;:;:;:J TRANSITION PERIOD

Figure 21:
21: Salt Lake City'S
City's thermal year. Source:
Source: Lechner, 217-218.
217·218.

23 Norbert Lechner, Heating,

Heating, Cooling, Lighting (New York: John Wiley &
Cooling, Lighting & Sons, Inc, 2001). 202-207.
24 Ibid. 216-218.
 27

The goal of
of shading is to provide thermal comfort
comfort during the hot summer
summer months

without compromising
compromising daylight. Shading is most effective of a building to
effective on the outside of

prevent solar radiation from exterior of

from hitting the exterior beneficial to
of a building. Although it is beneficial

shade the exterior walls to prevent

prevent heat absorption; blocking direct radiation through

exterior windows is the priority. The penetration of

of sunlight into a window allows direct

radiation inside the space which will heat up the space much faster than through thermal

radiation from
from exterior walls. Strategies to obtain effective
effective shading for thermal comfort
comfort

are horizontal overhangs, vertical fins, and eggcrate or brise-soleil architectural

elements. 25
elements. 25

Most shading devices incorporated

incorporated into buildings are fixed because they serve a

multifunctional use or because of

multifunctional of cost. However, fixed shading devices have inherent

problems. The problem is that the solar year and thermal year are not in sync with each

overheated and underheated

other. The overheated underheated time of
of the year is not symmetrical
symmetrical around the

if you shade a window for the entire

summer and winter solstices. This means that if

overheated part of
overheated of the year it will also shade for a time period during the underheated
underheated part

of the year. This can be avoided by the use of

of of moveable shading devices that adjust
adjust to

the difference if passive heating

difference between the solar year and the thermal year. In general, if

is not required a fixed

fixed shading system can be used and if
if passive heating is required then

movable shading systems should be considered. 26

25 Ibid. 210.
26 Ibid. 212-215.
 28

JAN. F E B . M A R . A P R . M A Y J U N E J U L Y A U G . S E P T . OCT
OCT. NOV. D E C .
1 1 1 1 1 p+- 1 1 1 1 1

UNDERHEATED OVERHEATED PERIOD UNDER-

SHADE UNTil
ENO Of OVER-
HEATED PERIOD

~I
I
JAN.
JAN. FEB.
F E B . MAR. APR.
MAR. A A Y J U N E JJULY
MAY
PR. M U L Y AUG.
A U G . SEPT. OCT.
SEPT. O C T . NOV.
NOV. DEC.

1 1 1 1 1—l-l 1 1 1 1 1
UNDERHEATED OVERHEATED PERIOD UNDER-

llllllllllllllllllllllll Ft/?- iiiiiiiiiiii

' T R A rISITION P E R I O D S —

... !:!!:~~~
, ,.......................................
M O V E A B L E SHADING
S H A D I N G DEVICE
DEVICE
'~ " .
M
E X T E h J D S H /\ D I N G RETRACT SHADING
RETRACT S hH A D I N G
D E V I C E D UR I N G DEVICE
DEVICE D DURING
lJ R I N G
THI S P E R O D THIS
T PERIOD
HIS P E FM O D

Figure 22: Thermal benefits of movable shading devices. Source: Lechner,

Lethner, 213.

The orientat ion of the window will also help determine the type of
orientation of shadi ng device
shading

that is to adequately shade the window. South facades

is necessary to fajfades require the use of
of aa

horizontal
horizontal overhang due to
to the fact that the sun is
is high in
in the sky during the summer.

This
T his also allows for
for lower wi
winter sun angles to
nter sun to penetrate the
the space during the
the
 29

underheated part of year, providing solar heat

heal gain when necessary. In order to

successfullyy shade the fa<;ade

successfull facade no sunlight should penetrate the window
window during the entire

overheated period. The full shade line is determined by the sun angle at the end of
of the

overheated pe riod. However, the sun angle for the overheated period is different
period. different in

spring and fall therefore, the lowest sun angle (the fall
faJI sun angle) should be used to fu lly
fully

shade the entire overheated period. The full shade line is drawn from the window
window sill up

horizonlaJ projection out to that line will successfully

to the sky and a horizontal successfully shade the window

for the entire over heated period.

,.",
~
DEC. 1L

A .-
:r;..... .,.,

Figure 23:
23: Horizontal overhangs and solar heat gain. Source: Lechner, 221.

A solid horizontal
hori zontal overhang can serve another purpose such as a balcony but it

also can cause some problems. A solid overhang

overhang will
wi ll collect snow loads in winter and

trap sununer
summer heat underneath itself
itself and hold the heat against the window. To avoid this

prob lem, horizontal louvers can be used in place of

problem, of a solid over hang. Louvers reduce

structural loads while allowing heat to escape up through them. Horizontal

Horizontal overhangs

can also be smaller vertical elements in front of

of the window.
 30

.:':J.;.•
;~f
\ \ ~
'. \
\
4t'Ti ! . .~
\
'.

~ - ' l0l<'f'" "",M-" $

24: Examples of different types of horizontal overhangs. Source: Lechner, 212, 219.
Figure 24:

However, we have to remember

However, remember that the sun rises
ri ses in the southeast
southeast and sets in the

southwest
southwest and therefore
therefore will penetrate a window that has a horizontal projection that is

the same width as the window. To fully sbade

shade the window throu ghout the day, the
throughout

overhang must be extended beyond the width of

of the window or vertical fins
fins should be

overhang.27
implemented in addition to the overhang. 27

•" • 1
F i g u r e 9 . 6 b the Sun ed-iily OL
\
' ..... t ." ".,. ."'"' '
the w m"",,"""
e width ....
as the
't .... :..~ "window.
•..,.,.,.
\ t,., .. ,.", , ,'....
h.)ng or vertical tins on each Sid ~

Figure 25:
25: As the sun moves across the sky it will out flank
nank a horizontal overhang the same width as
the window. Source: Lechner,
Lethner, 219.

East and west fagades

fa<;ades are difficult
difficult to shade because of the low angle of the sun in

the morning for east fagades

fa'tades and in the
(he late afternoon
afternoon for west fagades.
fa'tades. However, the

morning sun emits heat when the outside temperature is still cool and small amounts of
of

early sun penetration

penetrati on do not add significant
significant amounts of heat to a building.
build ing. The western

window, on the other hand, allows afternoon

afternoon sun penetration during the hottest
hottest part of the

day. Because of
of this situation, east and west windows should be limited and when they

27 Ibid. 2219-224.
19-224.
 311
3

are required, horizontal overhangs andlor vertical fins can be implemented

and/or vertical implemented to prevent

overheatin g. Because of
overheating. of the low sun angle. fu ll y shade an east oorr west
angle, it is impossible to fully

hori zontal overhang,

window with a horizontal
"#.i«V -' N

but the horizontal overhang allows for

, , v
but the horizontal overhang allows for
a vIew. East and west horizontal
a view. East and west horizontal
overhangs would need
overhangs would need to
to be longer
be longer : Required
Figure 26:
F i g u r e Requiredlength
2 6 lengthofofaahorizontal
horizontaloverhang
overhang
01" west ra~ade
on east or facade to fully shade the window,
window.
than south facing overhangs and Source: Lechner,
Lechner. 223.

shoul
shouldd be complemented
comp lemented with a secondary system on the window, such as blinds
bl inds or

curtains
curtains to help protect the
the window when
when the sun breeches under
under the overhang.

fin s are the most commo

Vertical fins commonn type of
of shad ing devices for east-west
shading east-west

windows. However, vertical

vert ical fins
fin s obstruct valued
val ued views, and if
if the fins
fin s are fixed
fi xed and

ooriented
riented directly east or west, sun penetration will st ill occur from the spring to fal
still falll

equinox,
eq uinox, the worst six months of
of the year. Movable fins
fin s are best since they allow lilimited
mited

obstructed views and block the sun penetration on

only
ly when necessary. Angled vertical

fins
fi ns can face north to let in cool daylight oorr to the south to permit
permi t the warm winter sun.

However,
However, a vertical
vert ical fin that on
only
ly reaches to the top of
of a window will allow higher
higher sun

angles to out flank

fl ank them. Therefore, fins should be ex
extended wi ndow or be
tended above the window
28
caped with a horizontal overhang.
overhang

,-!;Ii,
~
"lii,
m _I
-, \
- / ~

, , V

27: Vertical fins in plan view preventing solar heat gain. Source: Lechner, 224.
Figure 27:

28
28 Ibid. 224-226.
 32

Horizontal overhangs and vertical fins when implemented

implemented together create an

affective
affective shading device on east and west facing windows. This is because the vertical

fins block sun angles from

from the south while the horizontal overhangs protect from
from the

higher sun angles. When integrated as one system, vertical fins and horizontal overhangs

create an eggcrate shading device. Eggcrates can be large elements such as Le

Corbusier's brise-soleil, which are typically the dimensions of

Corbusier's of a room, or they can be

very small elements that create a fine screen. The scale of

of the eggcrate system can vary
29
widely and the choice of scale becomes one of aesthetic quality.29
widely and the choice of scale becomes one of aesthetic quality.
North windows only get direct sunlight penetration around the summer solstice,
North windows only get direct sunlight penetration around the summer solstice,
when the sun rises north of east and sets north of west. Only in hot climates are north
when the sun rises north of east and sets north of west. Only in hot climates are north
windows in need of shading in which vertical fins are efficient. Vertical fins on the north
windows in need of shading in which vertical fins are efficient. Vertical fins on the north
fa~ade won't interrupt views as badly as on east or west facades because the number of

facade won't interrupt views as badly as on east or west facades because the number of
fins required is great! y reduced since the angle of the sun is dramatic. 30
30
fins required is greatly reduced since the angle of the sun is dramatic.

~I
L

Figure 28: Vertical fins on north facing windows in plan view. Source: Lechner, 226.

Sidelighting takes advantage of

of the vertical elements of
of the building envelope.

Apertures or a transparent skin of building will allow light to enter the interior of
of the building of a

space. This light can come from

from the sun, the illuminated
illuminated sky, or from reflective
reflective surfaces.
surfaces.

The light will provide highly directional illumination

illumination since the light will decrease as an

29 Ibid. 227.
30 Ibid. 226.
 33

object further away from the window. The amount of

object moves further of light that will penetrate a

room is approx imately equal to two and a half

approximately half times the height of
of the window.

Therefore, if a window is 8 ft high then usable light will penetrate 20 ft into the room.
Therefore.

This means that the higher a window is the further

further useable daylight will penetrate into the

room. However, the height of

of the window sill also can be a factor if it is high off
off the

ground plane. As window sill height

he ight increases, the maximum illumination
illumination point will

move further
further away from
from the window. A room is able to have windows unilaterally, from
unitaterall y. from

one di rection, bilaterally,

direction, bilaterally, from opposi te directions, or multilaterally,
opposite multilaterally, light coming from
from at

least two nonopposing walls. The horizontality

horizontaJity of li ght can cause glare problems. To
of the light

combat this issue, shading devices located on the exterior of the apertu
exterior of aperture
re will reduce

we ll as control solar heat gain. 31

glare as well

Daylight des ign can cause subject

design ive brightness which is the affect
subjective affect we see when

our eyes are looking at two differently

differently lit surfaces. Our eyes can on ly adjust to one
only

lighting condition at a time and windows, for example.

example, are much brighter than the interior

wall that surrounds it. T

This
hi s will make the window appear very bright and the interior

wall very dark. A solution to this problem is to create a transition space between the

window and the wall. Splay

Splaying
in g or curving the surface from the window out to the wall

will limit the effect

effect of
of subjective brightness.32
subjective brightness. 32

Figure 29:
29: Strategies to prevent subjective brightness. Source: Lechner,.

31 Gregg D. Ander,
Ander. Daylighting
Daylighting Performance
Performance and Design (Hoboke
and Design n: John
(Hoboken: Jo hn Wiley & Sons, Inc,
Inc. 2003). 93-95.
J2 Norbert Lechner. Heating. Cooling.
Lechner, Heating, Cooling, Lighting York: John Wiley &
Lighting (New York: & Sons.
Sons, Inc, 200 1). 342-343.
2001).
 34

Elements such as light shelves can aid in bringing light into a space. Light

shelves are reflective

reflective elements which need to be light in color in order to function
function

of the window and extend from

properly. Light shelves are located near the top of from the

exterior into the interior, reflecting from the outside to the inside ceiling, creating an
reflecting light from

even diffuse
diffuse lighting condition. Reflected
Reflected light from
from the ground can also bounce off
off the

bottom of
of the light shelf space.33
shelf allowing for additional light to enter a space. 33

Light borrowing is a means of

of achieving daylight in areas that do not have access

fa<;ade of
to the fagade of the building. Borrowing light can be achieved by the use of
of transparent

materials allowing daylight from one space to enter an adjacent

adjacent space. Passive solar

design strategies can be adapted to allow for daylight in adjacent

adjacent spaces. Trombe wall

systems and sun spaces allow the sun's radiation to enter the building and heat up the

interior thermal walls or floor surfaces

interior adjacent rooms. This can
surfaces which radiate heat into adjacent

of a thermal wall with glass block for

also be applied for daylighting. By replacing a part of

of daylight can be borrowed

example, a portion of borrowed by adjacent
adjacent rooms.

The United Gulf Bank designed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill LLP, in
Gulf Bank

Manama, Bahrain is a great example of

of the different
different strategies of
of shading in sidelighting.

The daylight design strategy utilizes vertical glass louvers, light shelves, and deep

fa<;ade to shade the windows from

window wells on the southern fagade from solar heat gain. The hot

sunny climate of
of the Middle East demands a daylight design that limits solar heat gain.

Like masonry buildings of

of the past, this design has implemented
implemented deeply recessed

windows which allow the thick exterior

exterior walls to shade the southern windows. The

building curves along the southeast, south, and southwest, and vertical fins are placed on

the windows to defect

defect solar radiation. The building has a limited amount of
of narrow

33 Ibid. 379.
 35

windows on the western far;ade

facade which minimize the amount of
of sun penetration. Light
Li ght

shel ves allow for even diffused

shelves diffused lighting without direct sun penetration by bouncing

li ght up to the light colored cei

incoming light ling and into the spaces. All of
ceiling of these strategies

allow for ample dayJighling

daylighting without negative solar heat gain potential.
potential.34 34

Figure 30:
30: The United Gulf Bank daylight strategies that
thai prevent solar heat gain.
Source: Ander,114-123
Ander, 114-123
•
Architectural elements are not the only way to achieve shad in g on exteri or
Architectural elements are not the only way to achieve shading on exterior
windows. Landscaping is another way of achieving daylight in buildings while
windows. Landscaping is another way of achieving daylight in buildings while
preventing over heat ing in the summer whi le allowing for passive solar opportunities
preventing over heating in the summer while allowing for passive solar opportunities
during the winter. When designed appropriately landscaping can enhance or replace
during the winter. When designed appropriately landscaping can enhance or replace
other shadi ng devices like vertical fins. Trees and tall bushes can easil y shade east and
other shading devices like vertical fins. Trees and tall bushes can easily shade east and
west facing windows just like vert ical fi ns and should therefore. aJ so be talJer than the
west facing windows just like vertical fins and should therefore, also be taller than the
window to accommodate higher sun angles. When trees or bushes cannot be
window to accommodate higher sun angles. When trees or bushes cannot be
implemented. trelli ses can be used to support plants like ivy to shade high windows.
implemented, trellises can be used to support plants like ivy to shade high windows.
Landscaping is climate orie nted and plants used for landscaping should be
Landscaping is climate oriented and plants used for landscaping should be
accommodated for the climate a build ing is located in. In dry, water scarce regions,
accommodated for the climate a building is located in. In dry, water scarce regions,
xeriscaping techniques should be considered to help reduce water needs. in general,
xeriscaping techniques should be considered to help reduce water needs. In general,

J4 Gregg D. Ander, Daylighting

Daylighr;ng Performance
Performance alld (Hoboken : John Wiley
Design (Hoboken:
and Design Wi ley & Sons. 2003). 114-123.
Sons, Inc, 2003).
 36

landscaping can be implemented (0

to help block unwanted solar heat gain in hot climates,

block cold winds in cold climates, and increase wind flow in hot and humid climates.

Landscaping usually is necessary in most building projects and designers shou ld consider
should

its potential
poten ti al to aid the building
bu ilding in its passive cooling, heating.
heating, and ctaylighting
daylighting needs.
needs.

ft'··
: :"/
... ,~, ,
"
SUMMER WINTER

Figure 331:
1: Vegetation as shading del/ice.
device. Source: Lechner, 215.

Technology is a great resource for designing and implementing daylight

strategies. Computer modeling saves time and money

mo ney by evalu ating the performance
evaluating performance of

dayli ght strategies before a des

daylight ign is constructed by simu
design latin g the sun throughout the
simulating

year. Technology has aJsa

also lead to new materials and films that can aid in dayli ghting.
daylighting.

Selecti vely transmitting glazes allow for certain parts of the radiation spectrum to pass
Selectively

through the material wh il e reflecting

while refl ect in g other radiation. Regu lar clear transparent glass
Regular

allows about 90 percent of

of the visible energy spectrum to transmit through the material

and allows about 79 percent of

of the heal infrared radiant energy.
heat producing infrared Heat

absorbing glass, more commonly known as, tinted windows, reduce the amount of visibl
visiblee

light and infrared

in frared lilight,
ght, the heat producing part
pan of the energy spectrum
spectrum,, that transmit

through the material. Common colors of

of tinted glass reduce light differentl
differently.
y. Gray glass

transmits equal amount of

of visible and infrared
infra red light. Bronze glass will transmit more

infrared light and less visible light. Blue and green glass reduces more infrared whi
while
le

allowing
allow ing more visib
visible
le light to pass through. Low emissivity (low-e) coating reflects
re fl ects light
 37

instead of
of absorbing it like tinted glass. This reduces heat gain in the material which

radiates out into the interior spaces. Low-e glass reflects 40-70 percent of infrared lilight
of infrared ght

and also reduces the transminance of uitravioJeliight by 5-37 percent. 35 Thi s allows for
and also reduces the transmittance of ultraviolet light by 5-37 percent. This allows for
large amounts of glazing to be implemented into a bui lding 's design without as much
large amounts of glazing to be implemented into a building's design without as much
solar hear gain as clear glass would transmit
solar heat gain as clear glass would transmit.
Other material s refract li ght inside the material which redirects the light coming
Other materials refract light inside the material which redirects the light coming
into the space. Glass block, prismatic devices, enclosed louvers, angle-selecti ve coatings,
into the space. Glass block, prismatic devices, enclosed louvers, angle-selective coatings,
and holographic films are examples of directional ly selective materials. For example, fcit
and holographic films are examples of directionally selective materials. For example, frit
is a common type of angle-selecti ve ceramic coating which is screen printed in small
is a common type of angle-selective ceramic coating which is screen printed in small
patterns onto a glaz ing surface. The pattern will control incomjng daylight based on its
patterns onto a glazing surface. The pattern will control incoming daylight based on its
angle of incidence. If applied to both sides of the glazing the glass will appear
angle of incidence. If applied to both sides of the glazing the glass will appear
transparent form certain angles and opaque from other angles. 36
transparent form certain angles and opaque from other angles.

REFLECTIVE GLASS

Figure 32: Materials as a means to prevent solar heat gain while allowing fo
forr daylight.
Source: Ander, 37.

Daylight has direct relations to our health. The exposure of sunlight helps us

wake up in the morning by switching off

off the production of
of melatonin which makes us

sleepy. The rise and set of

of the sun affects
affects how our bodies function
fun ction and connects us to the

Ibid . 35-36.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid. 37.
 38

natural cycle of
of the earth. Even views outside to trees, parkland, clouds, or other natural

features are important to occupant health. Access to a window affects

affects the sati sfaction
satisfaction

that occupants feel

feel towards the buildings in.37
bui ldi ngs they work in. 37

The benefits
benefits of
of dayligh
daylightt in architecture give us the ab ility to des
ability ign more eenergy
design nergy

efficient for electric lighting, and help reduce heating

efficient buildings. We can lower the need for

and cooling loads on the mechanical

mechanical equipment
equipment. Daylight plays an important role in the

experience of
of a space and like the Kimbell Art Museum;
Museum ; it can
can be a defin ing element in
defining

the architectural
architectural design of
of a building. In general, people prefer
prefer daylight over art ificial
artificial

light. It gives us a sense of

of a connection
connection to the outside world and to nature. Wi th
With

dayJigh ting, you can tell if it's a clear and sunny day outside or if
daylighting, if a storm has moved in.

However, we have to understand the sun 's harmful

sun's harmful potential.
potential . The sun can
can add immense

amounts of
of heat into a space when the sun is strong and this needs to be avoided but it

shouldn ' t be at the cost of

shouldn't of daylight.
daylight.

T he sun is our friend

The friend and our enemy. The use of
of the sun 's resources has to be
sun's

designed into buildings

buiJdings as a balance between dayJight
daylight and solar
soJar radiation in order to have

well designed buildings.

bu ild ings. Good design makes all the difference
difference in our everyday
everyday lives, and

good design involves daylighting.

Figure 33:
33: Le Corbusier's drawing of the sun. Source: Baker, 186.

37 Design of Buildings (London:

Nick Baker and Koen Steemers, Daylight Design 181- 186.
(London: James & James, 2002). 181-186.
 39

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

Everyday we interact with light. forms our world through brightness and
It forms

shadow and gives it color. Light is the medium which makes the world visible. It is

produced naturally oorr artificially

artificially from a source that emits light
ligh t as a form of
of energy_
energy. This

energy is carried in the form of

of waves and is categorized in terms of wave length and
of wavelength

frequency. The light

li ght we can
can interpret with our eyes makes
makes up the visible spectrum;
spectrum; a

small segment of the electromagnetic spectrum. T he visible spectrum is a series of

The

wavelengths ranging from

wavelengths from 380 to 760 nanometers
nanometers (om).
(nm). These diffe ring wavelengths
differing

produce the colors of

of the visible spectrum:: violet, indigo,
visi ble spectrum ind igo, blue,
blue. green, yellow,
ye llow, orange, and

red; red having the longest

longest wavelength of 760nm and violet having the shortest

wavelength of
wavelength 380nm.38
of 380nm. 38
When mixed together the colors of
When of the visible spectrum

combine and create white light. White light is what we see emitted from a source such
such as

the sun. We cannot see the individual colors that

that make up white
whi te light until
untiJ the lilight
ght

comes into contact wi th an object. When white light

contact with li ght comes into contact with a glass

prism the differing

differing wavelengths
wavelengths of the light bend the colored light at different
different angles

which separates them out and produces the visible spectrum of

of colors.

1x10 1x10 O.I 10 1 000 1 x 10 s

1 x 10 7
1 x 10 9
1 x to" 1 x 1 0 n
1 x lo'

Gamma I intra
flays I J Viole

X-Rays

Bactericidal "Black Infrared Lamp Steam

Light' j Radiator

Optical Prism
*•••••«
Ultraviolet I Erythemal

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 1000

Incandescent!
Coll Heater J

1 5 0 0 2.000 3,000 4 000 5 000

Figure 34: The visible spectrum. Source: Gardner, 3.

38 Gardner & Barry Hannaford,

Carl Gardner Hannaford. Lighting Design (New York:
Ughtirlg Design Wi ley & Sons,
York: John Wiley Sons. Inc, 1993).
1993).3.
3.
 40

The colored world that we see is based on the wavelengths of

of the visible

spectrum. As in painting,
paintin g, the colors of light
li ght are placed into categories of
of primary and

secondary colors. Primary colors consist of blue, red, and gree n, while secondary colors
green,

are yellow, cyan, and magenta. When two primary colors mix together they produce a

secondary color. Red and green make yellow,

blue and green creme

create cyan, and red and blue.
blue,

produce magenta. When all three primary

When aU

colors mix together they create while

white lilight.
ght.

When white light shines on an object,

When while object, that

object will appear to be colored by reflecting

reflecting the

of the color that we see while

wavelength of

absorbing
absorb ing the other colors of the visi
visible
bl e

spectrum. For example, a green object will

Figure 35: Primary and secondary colors or
of lighl
light.
Source: Baker,
Bakel', 92.
absorb red and blue wave lengths and reflect the
wavelengths

green wavelength which is perceived by our eyes. A yellow object will absorb blue

wavelengths and reflect red and green wavelengths which are perceived by our eyes as

yellow?9
yellow. It is important in lighting design to remember
remember how light interacts with objects
objects

and that color is produced by the reflection and absorpt ion of light on surfaces.
absorption surfaces.

Li ghting conditions are not always the same. White light can be achieved with
Lighting

different
different balances of the wavelengths of the visible spectrum
spectrum.. Natural daylight contains
contains

the most even di stribution of

distribution of the visible spectrum
spectrum.. No artificial
artificial light can produce the

same balance of
of wavelengt hs as natural dayli
wavelengths ght, all though some come very close. All
daylight,

artificial light contains the full

fu ll spectrum range from violet to red but the balance of the
39
39 Nick Baker & Kocn Stcemcrs,
& Koen Daylight Design
Steemers, Daylight Design of
of Buildings & James, 2002). 92495.
Baildings (London: James & 92-95.
 41

different
different colors is not the same. Every
Every lamp has its own specific spectral composition

and therefore
therefore its own color appearance which determines the lamps color-rendering

capabilities. 4o
capabilities. 40

The color appearance of

of light is expressed by its color temperature. The

relationship between color and temperature of

of light is reciprocal and can be compared to

a metal rod slowly being heated. "It starts off

off black, and in the initial stages of heating, it

infra-red rays (i.e. heat); it then changes to a dull red as it heats up;
radiates only invisible infra-red

as it gets hotter, it appears more and more orange, then yellow, and at very high

commonly said, 'white hot.'"

temperatures it is, as is commonly hot.'" The color temperature of
of a light is

measured in degrees Kelvin (K). A source of

measured of light produces heat and the hotter the

source, the bluer the light will appear. This may seem contradictory
contradictory since cooler

temperature light sources produce 'warm' lighting effects. A candle burns

bums at very low

temperature, 2000 degrees K, but emits a soft, warm yellow light; a 'cool' florescent
florescent

lamp emits light rays at high temperatures, 4000-5000 degrees K, but gives off
off a cold,

appearance.41
blue appearance. 41

The color
color temperature of
of a lamp affects
affects the general mood of
of a room, making it

feel either warm or cool depending on the type of

of lamp. The more important
important aspect of
of

color temperature is the impact it has on how we see color. This defines
defines the color-

rendering capability
capability of
of the lamp. Determining
Determining the color-rendering
color-rendering capability of
of a lamp is

rather subjective, but the International Commission

Commission on lllumination
Illumination (CIE) developed
developed the

color-rendering
color-rendering index (CRI) which ranks lamps based
based on their spectral content on a scale

from
from 0 to 100, the higher the number
number the truer the color rendition based on the color

4 0
40 Carl Gardner
Gardner & Hannaford, Lighting
& Barry Hannaford, Design (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993).
Lighting Design \993).3.
3.
4 1
41 Ibid., 4-6.
 42

temperature. Lamps are ranked at the same color temperature. Thi

Thiss means that

fluorescent and incandescent lamps at 3(x){)

3000 degrees K can be compared for color-

rendering, but a fluorescent lamp at 4000

4(x)() degrees and an incandescent lamp at 3(x){)
3000

degrees can not

nol be compared because they are not at the same color temperature.
temperature. 42 4 2

We see the world not only in color, but in shadow and brightness. In order
order to

see properly we need a certain amount of li ght. Too much light will wash out OUf
of light. our

surroundings and too little light will not

nol permit us to see detail or hardly anything at all.

Our eyes are ab

OUf le to see in a wide range of
able of the
of lighting conditions by changing the size of

pupil with a muscle called the iris.

iri s. This allows us to effectively
effectively see in brightness

conditions from 1000 to 1I and limitedly see in brightness ranges from 100,000,000 to 1.
I.

T he eye can take up to an hour to fully

The ROD CELLS

adjust
adjust to variant levels of
of brightness and CONE
CELLS
un til then vision isn't optimal. The eyes are
until PUPIL

able to see by bringing in light through the

focused onto the retina at

pupil the light is focused IRIS
OPTIC
the back of
of the eye where cone cells sense NERVE
ROD CELLS
motion.43
colors and rod cells respond to motion. 43

Figure 36: The components of

of the human eye.
L«hner, 335.
Source: Lechner,
In order to attain proper lighting levels for the eye to function comfortably the
In order to attain proper lighting levels for the eye to function comfortably the
correct brightness level must be calculated and the correct lamp mu st be chosen.
correct brightness level must be calculated and the correct lamp must be chosen.
Although brightness is subjective, dependent on the observer, luminance is the objective
Although brightness is subjective, dependent on the observer, luminance is the objective
44
measurement of the intensity of a light source per projected area. We can see because a
44
measurement of the intensity of a light source per projected area. We can see because a
source is projecting light on to a surface which then is reflected into the eye. This
source is projecting light on to a surface which then is reflected into the eye. This
42
42 Ibid
Ibid.,.• 2. 9.
2-9.
4 3
4J Norben Lechner,
Norbert Lechner. Heating,
Hearing. Cooling. Lighting (New York: John Wiley &
Cooling, Lighting Inc. 2(01).335
& Sons, Inc, 2001). 335..
4 4
.t.I Gary Gordon, Imerior Lighting:
Gordon, Interior Lighting: For Designers (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
For Designers Sons, Inc, 2(03). 25.
Inc. 2003).
 43

process is divided into four stages: the actual source of

of light,
light, the flow
flow of li ght from the
of light

source, the arrival of

of light on an object,
object, and the absorption and reflection
refl ection of from the
of light from

object
object. The luminous
lu minou s intensity of a source is measured in candelas (cd), based on
intensity of on the

intensity of a cand le. The luminous

candle. lu minous flux or light output is the quantity of lighllhat
of light that flows

from the so urce~ this is measured in lumens (1m).

source; Thi s value is important in determining
(lm). This

the type of lamp and the number of lamps

number of lamps needed to accu
accurately
rately light a space. Light is

di scussed in terms of
discussed of its illuminance
illuminance when it hits the surface
surface of
of an object. Illuminance
llluminance is

measured in lux (one lumen per square meter) and in the USA the foot-candle
foot-cand le (one lumen

per square foot

foot;; one foot-candle
foot-candle is equal to 10.76 lux) and is the quantity of
of light hitting

the surface. Thi

Thiss measurement is important when
when measuring the amount of
of light on a

determine
desk surface to de termine if
if the amount of
of light
li ght is sufficient
sufficient for the task. How we

perceive an object's bri ghtness is dependant on the surface

object's brightness surface of If the surface of
of the object. If of

shinyy or light in color

the object is shin color it will seem brighter
brighter and if
if a matt dark finish
finish is used

the object
object will appear dimmer.
dimmer. A
A white surface
surface will appear much brighter
brighter than a black

surface under the same illuminance

illu minance level. This is the objects luminance,
luminance, which
which is

measured in candelas per square meter/foot.

meter/fool. The lighting design of a room is therefore
design of

very dependant on the type of

of material finishes
finishes and colors of
of the interior space.45
interior space.
45

LUMENS
.~~~
GALL~~
i . ;
n
V PER MIN: :
INCANDESCENT
INCANOESCENT FLUORESCENT HIGH PRESSURE
PRESSURE SODIUM
,row
100W 100W
lOOW lOOW
100W
1.740 LUMENS
1,740 7,800 LUMENS
7.Il00 9.!500 LUMENS
9,500

Source : Stein, 863.

Figure 37: Diagrams defining lumens. Source:

4SCarl Gardne
Gardnerr & Barry Hannaford, Lightillg Design
Hannaford. Lighting Design (New York: John Wiley
Wiley & Sons. Inc. 1993).
Sons, Inc, 1993).8-9.
8-9.
 44

There are many options when it comes to choosing a lamp for a room. Let it be

clear that the term lamp refers to a source of

of light, what is commonly known as a light

bulb. A light bulb is the glass surrounding the light source. The device that holds the

lamp is called a luminaire. This used to be called

called a 'fixture.' "A luminaire is a complete,

functional
functional lighting unit, including the lamp(s), housing, electrical components required to

power and operate the unit, and control media to direct and enclose the lamp housing.,,46
housing." 4

Just as there are many types of

of lamps there are also many options for luminaires, but the

lamp is the source of

of the light and the type of
of lamp will determine the color temperature,

of the space.
color-rendering capabilities and overall lighting quality of

There are a number of

of factors that can aid in the choosing of
of a lamp. As

discussed previously, the color-rendering capabilities and color temperature of

of the lamp

are very important but there are other factors as well. The rated lamp-life is a factor that

should be considered especially if

if the lamp is installed in a hard to reach place. The rated

lamp-life is the length of

lamp-life of time it takes for a lamp to either burn-out
bum-out or reache the state

where they are no longer meeting their required light output demands and their further
further

use is uneconomical. More importantly a lamp's luminous efficiency,

efficiency, or efficacy,
efficacy, is a

major
major factor especially in a world more concerned about growing energy needs and going

green. The luminous efficacy

efficacy of
of a lamp is measured in lumens per watt (lmIW)
(lm/W) and is the

ratio of
of the units of
of light per unit of
of energy consumed. For example, a 100W tungsten

lm and its luminous efficacy

lamp emits 1200 1m efficacy is 12 lmIW.
lm/W. This means that 95 percent of
of

the energy consumed by the lamp is given off heat.47 Only 5 percent of
off as heat. 47
of the energy is

producing light. This is highly inefficient

inefficient and if
if energy cost or carbon foot prints are of

4 6
46 Ronald N. Helms & M. Clay Belcher, Lighting
Lighting for
for Energy-Efficient
Energy-Efficient Luminous
Luminous Environments (Englewood
(Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1991). 5.
47 Carl Gardner && Barry Hannaford, Lighting Design
Design (New York: John Wiley & & Sons, Inc, 1993). 14-15.
4 7
Hannaford, Lighting
 45

value a more energy efficient

efficient lamp would be chosen. Of course the best solution is rarely
Of cOllrse

the cheapest and cosl

cost is also a major factor
factor in choosi ng lamps. Some lamps have better
choosing

color-rendering capabi lities than others but unless the task demands for the highest
capabilities

quality of color-rendering (over 90 in the CRJ

CRI index), like in the printing industry for

example, a lamp with a rating between 80-90 is considered excellent where co1or-
color-

48
48
important. Usually the more energy efficient
renderin g is important.
rendering efficient a lamp is the more it costs but

that is just considering first cost

cost. A highly energy effi cient lamp over time will save
efficient

enough money in energy costs to pay for

for the initial
initi al increase in fifirst
rst cost.

The incandescent lamp was developed in the late 1800's and is the oldest existing

form
form of electrical lilighting.
ghting. The incandescent lamp produces light by running
runn ing an electrical

currant through a filament,

filamen t, usually tungsten, which
whi ch heats up the filament
filame nt very quickly.

The filament
filamen t glows a whi te color when it reaches its optimum luminous flu
white fluxx at around

2773-2973 degrees K.49 The fil

49
filament
ament
Bulb
Bulb
is encased in a glass bulb
bu lb filled
fi lled with an
Filament
Filament
inert gas or a vacuum. This is because Support wires
Support wires ~::=::tjif
Lead-in wires - - - ' \ -......~~(..J
Lead·ln
regular air contains oxygen which
whic h will
Vacuum or IllS
gas filled

....
filled - .........

react with the tungsten

tungsten filament. Since Base

the tungsten heats up to such high

temperatures, the tungsten

tungsten begins to

evaporate until it becomes so thin that

it breaks causing lamp fai lure.

failure.

Figure 38: The components of an incandescent lamp.

Stein, 868.
Source: Stein.

48
48 Ibid. 6.
49 Ibid. 15.
15.
 46

incandescent lamp comes in a variety of

The incandescent of shapes and sizes, lamp bases, and

from 5 to 2000 watts. They are made with cheap materials that lower
wattages, ranging from

first cost and are easily disposable. They have good color-rendering
color-rendering and are easy to

control since the point source is very small. They can be turn on with virtually no

perceptible warm-up time and are dimmed easily. The most valued factor
factor of
of tungsten

lamps is there warm quality. They emit light in the red-yellow spectral range and create a

feeling of
of warmth in a room. Ironically, this is very close to the truth. Tungsten
Tungsten lamps

are highly energy inefficient.

inefficient. Over 90 percent of the energy they consume is in the
percent of

production of heat.
production of This adds heat gain to a room, which can be beneficial
beneficial in cold

weather or for implications when food needs to keep warm (heat lamps) but in hot

weather
weather it can add to air-conditioning
air-conditioning costs. Not only do they waste energy in the heat

they produce but they also have short a lamp-life, which adds cost in terms of
of

maintenance replacement. The thin filament

filament is also susceptible to shock and can break

50
easily and running the lamp at a higher voltage can also decrease its lamp-life.
lamp-life.50

Incandescent lighting and tungsten filaments are still widely used today even with
Incandescent

their energy inefficient

inefficient problems; but they have been improved. There are different
different types

of
of tungsten lamps that are more energy efficient.
efficient. Tungsten halogen lamps are one

example. The tungsten halogen adds a small trace of

of halogen to the gas surrounding the

filament
filament in the bulb. This increases lamp life and prevents bulb blackening by turning

some of
of the evaporated
evaporated tungsten into tungsten halide which collects back onto the

filament. They run hotter and produce a whiter light increasing its color-rendering.

However, tungsten halogen lamps are still very inefficient

inefficient compared
compared to discharge

sources.

5 0
50 Ibid. 15-17.
 47

Figure 39: Comparison between the visible spectrum range of a nd an incandescent

of daylight and incandCS(:c nt lamp.
Source: Stein.
Stein, 863.

Florescent lighting is becoming more and more popular

popular nowadays due to the

cost of
increased cost of electricity. Florescent lamps are much more efficien
efficientt and have a longer

life than incandescent lamps which are slowly being replaced by their florescent counter

parts. florescen t lamp is a type of discharge lamp but characterized

The modern florescent

separately. It produces light

li ght by sending an electric currant through a gas, typically
typical ly argon

or krypton, which fills the glass tube.

lUbe. The gas inside the tube becomes excited by the

electricc currant and emits ultraviolet radiation which

electri excites
which exc ites a phosphor powder coaling
coating

on the interior of the glass tube.

tube . The phosphor,
phosphor, in turn, starts to glow which produces the

lilight
ght we can see. The exact
Glass tube

mixture of
of the phosphor

coating determines the light

- -(!)-

quality, whether warm or cool,

Visible light
and either poor
poor or excellent

color-rendering capabi lities.

capabilities.
Figure 40: The components of a florescent
norescent lamp.
Source:: Stein. 874.
Source
 48

Florescent lighting comes in a wide range of

of sizes, shapes, and wattages and

either cool or warm lilighting

ghting effects. However, florescent lamps don'
don'tt produce an even

amount of visible
visib le light radiation and therefore appear as spikes on the co lor spectrum
color

chart: this
thi s is the major
major downfall of florescent lighting. The perception of
of florescent light

can be considered cold, unfriendly, and bland due to this unbalance of the visible

spectrum,, but can be countered when in use with other types of

spectrum of lighting sources. Another

problem of florescent lamps is that they produce light in pulses which can be noticed by
of florescent

the human eye. This flickering

fli ckering effect
effect can cause headaches and eye strain. The use of
of a

ballast
ball ast can increase the frequency
frequency of the pulses so that they occur so rapidly they are not

perceivable. Ballasts also allow florescent lights to be dimmed while increasi ng

increasing

efficiency, increasing lamp-life,

efficiency. lamp-life. and lowering the loss of energy in control gear.

wi th florescent lamps are that they require a short but noticeable warm-
Additional issues with

up period and are difficult

difficult to dispose due to the presence of
of phosphor and mercury.51
mercury. 51

Figure 41: Comparison of the visible spectrums of cool and warm florescent
norescent lamps.
Source: Stein.
Source: Stein, 863.

5 1
5 1 Ibid. 21 -23.
21-23.
 49
49

Florescent lamps
Florescent lamps are technically
technicaJly low-pressure
low-pressure discharge
di scharge lamps
lamps and
and therefore

discharge lamps
discharge lamps function
functi on in similar
similar way. There
There is
is no
no filament
filament but
but a gas
gas which
which emits
emits light

two electrodes
when excited by two electrodes which
which form
fonn an arch
arc h of
of electrical
electrical current
current in
in aa tube.
tube. The

of gas used, the shape of

type of of the arch, and the
the shape
shape of
of the
the lamp
lamp will
will alter
alter the

charac teri stics of

characteristics of the produced light. The two main
The two main types
types are low-pressure
low-pressure discharge

florescent, low-pressure
lamps, such as, florescent, low-pressure sodium,
sod ium, and cold
cold cathode,
cathode, and high-pressure

discharge
di scharge lamps, such
such as, high-pressure sodium,
sodium, metal halide,
halide, and mercury
mercury lamps.

Discharge lamps pose a choice between

between efficiency
effic iency and color-rendering
color-rendering because

hi gher the efficiency

the higher effic iency the worse the color rendering ability. The
color rendering The most
most efficient
effic ient light

source, low-pressure sod ium, has the

sodium,

worst color-rendering
color-rendering capabilities while
OUter bulb coatin,
high-pressure sodium has the best color-

rendering capabilities but is the least

efficient
efficient discharge lamp. Discharge
Disc harge
AIr. tube seal -~~\

lamps are limited in their

the ir orientation,
orientation, Reslstor - -____

eeither
ither vertical or horizontal, and will Supports - -____

decrease in efficiency
efficiency if oriented in the ....--,
wrong direction. This is an important

note for lighting design in that it restricts

the application of discharge lamps. The

The

hazardous materials suc

suchh as, sodium and Figure 42: The components or a hdischarge
F i g u r e 4 2 : T h e a r g e lamp.
lamp.
c o m p o n e n t s o f a disc

Source: Stein, 875.

mercury, used in discharge lamps requ ire
require
 50

that they be disposed of properly

properl y and can even require protective
protecti ve gear, such as safety
safety
52
goggles, during
durin g the re-lamping
re-Iamping process.
process. 52

Low-pressure sodium lamps are mainly

mainl y used in large outdoor
outdoor lighting

situati ons, such as street lighting. Thi

situations, Thiss is because of the extremely
extremely poor
poor color-rendering
color-rendering

capability of
of the lamp. Low-pressure sodium

lamps only produce light in a narrow part of the

visible spectrum producing

producing a monochromati
monochromaticc
Bulb

yellow-orange overtone.
yellow-orange They are the most
"'"
Arc '""',-
tube - - -+-1
efficient
efficient lamp which makes street lighting
li ghting an ideal

for this lamp.53

use for lamp. 53

Sodium-retaining
Sodium-retaining
reservoirs --~t'
Hi gh-pressure sodium lamps are mostly
High-pressure

used in large indoor applications

applications where little or no

daylight is avaiJ able, or in exterior lighting

available,
Electrode
applications.

yellow-orange part of
They emit light mostly in the

of the spectrum but produce

. ,.
Base

enough light
li ght in other areas of
of the spectrum to

achieve limited co l or~re nde rin g

color-rendering capabilities.

However,
However, the white high-pressure
hi gh~ pressure sodium lamp is

able to achieve good co

color-rendering
l or~ rend e rin g but at around Figure 43: The components of a low-
low·
presseure sodium
presseure sodium lamp.
lamp.
, , «. . , , ,. Siein, 877.
Source: Stein, 877.
half the eeriiciency
ffi ciency or h.i g h ~ press ure sodium
of regular high-pressure
r £
hall
54
lamps.54
lamps

52 Ibid. 223-24.
3~24.
SJ Ibid. 25.
54 tbid. 25.
Ibid. 25.
 51
51

Figure 44: Comparison of different types of sodium lamps and daylight. Source: Stein, 863.

The metal halide lamp is mainly

main ly used for commercial and industrial indoor use as

well as for green house and atrium applical ions when daylight is limited. They emit light
applications

in simil ar spectrical pattern to natural daylight and are excellent for plant life. They
similar

therefore, have good color-rendering capab

capabilities.
ili ties. Metal halides are effec
effective
tive light

sources when mixed with alternative

alternati ve light sources, like daylight, but alone they appear

co ld or sterile. The metal

cold metal halide
hal ide lamp emits its light only from the arch of
of the electrical

current, not through the entire tube. This makes metal halides
hali des good point sources and are

more controllable then other types of discharge

di sc harge lamps. They are efficient
effic ient and also have

long lamp-li fe. 55

lamp-life. 55

~~ Ibid. 26-27.
5 5
 52

45: Comparison or
Figure 45: of the visible spectrum of different
different metal halide lamps. Source: Stein, 863.

Cold cathode lamps are mainly

mainl y used for
for decorati ve purposes and create colorful
decorative colorful and

vibrant atmospheres. Cold cathode lamps use two types of

of gas; argon.
argon, which produces

blue-green li ght, and neon, which

blue-green light, which produce red-orange light.
lighl. These lamps come in a

variety of colors, shapes, and sizes, and are almost al ways custom made for
almost always for use as

signage, display features, or hidden lighting applications. This increases their

signage. the ir initial cost.

Cold cathode lamps

lamps run at dangerously
dangerously high
hi gh voltages, around 4,000-5,000V
4,OOO-5,OOOV and require

56
safety sw
safety switches
itches at entrances of buildings
build ings which use this
thj s type of lamp.
lamp.56

As noted in the above description

description of
of the different
different types of
of lamps, many lamps are

of tox
composed of toxic
ic materials
material s that can'
can'tt be easily d
disposed
isposed of
of or dumped into landfi
landfills.
ll s.

environmental
This poses certain env ironmental concerns
concerns which question
question the sustainabi
sustainability
lity of
of lamps.

Commonly
Common ly used florescent lamps
lamps are beginning
beg inning to replace incandescent
incandescent lamps. If
If oone
ne

60V florescent lamp replaced one 16V incandescent lamp it would eliminate the

production of 300lbs
3001bs of carbon
carbon dioxide from
from fossil-burning
fossil-burning power plants
plant s every year.

However,
However, manufacturing
manufacturing florescent
florescent lamps, for
for example, require high
hi gh energy demands and

they are made with mercury and therefore

therefore cannot be dumped in a landfill.
landfilL The
5 6
S6 Ibid. 28-29.
 53

incandescent lamp does not contain toxic materials or have a high energy requirement for
incandescent

manufacturing. These factors make it difficult

manufacturing. decipher what types of
difficult to really decipher of lamps are

not.57
sustainable and what types are not. 57

perfect artificial
There is no such thing as a perfect artificial lamp. Compromises
Compromises are constantly

made between efficiency, color temperature, lamp-life, and cost.

efficiency, color-rendering, color A

major concern in the future of

major of electric lighting is based on the fact that our limited

resources are depleting which is increasing attention to lamp efficiency.

efficiency. The main issue

with most lamps is that they waste energy in the form of perfect lamp would run
of heat. A perfect

entirely cool, producing no radiation in the form of ultraviolet or infra-red

of ultraviolet infra-red light. Though

this lamp is not attainable in a foreseeable

foreseeable future other attempts at creating more efficient
efficient

lamps are underway. For example, filament possibility of

filament lamps have the possibility of introducing
introducing an

infra-red coating on the interior of

infra-red of the bulb which would reflect
reflect the radiation back

needs.58
towards the filament, keeping it hot while reducing its energy needs. 58

There are many different

different options to consider
consider when choosing a lamp. Color

temperature, color rendering, efficiency,

efficiency, and cost are important factors that can determine

which type of particular settings. Different

of lamp is used in particular Different types of
of lamps have different
different

visible light spectrums which create unique color

color characteristics. Different
Different shapes, sizes,

and wattages are available in all types of

of lamps and are a valuable asset in lighting

design. The versatility of

of lamps allows for a wide range of
of lighting affects
affects and can create

interesting atmospheric interior spaces.

57 Ibid. 187-191.
58 Ibid. 200-205.
 54

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN

ARTIFICIAL

Our ability to light spaces is only limited by our creativity. There are so many

effects those strategies can produce. Lighting

ways in which to light a room and various effects

important element to consider

design is an important consider in a building even though it is over-looked
over-looked in

some cases. The way spaces are lit can affect

affect us emotionally
emotionally and physically
physically and different
different

of light sources and their design will produce different

types of different effects.
effects.

Controlling and producing good lighting effects

Controlling effects can be a difficult
difficult task which is

assigned to a lighting designer. Lighting designers are not people who primarily
primarily design

lighting fixtures but are people who design with light. Lighting designers have typically

been either, the architect, interior designer, electrical engineer, or people from lamp

manufacturers or suppliers. However, these people do not specialize in lighting design.

manufacturers

Architects and interior designers typically do not have the time to keep up on the

constantly changing lighting industry nor can they typically afford

constantly afford to have a full-time
full-time

designer on staff. Many times, architects and interior designers know the effect
lighting designer effect

they want to achieve in a space but they don't

don't necessarily know how to achieve it.

Electrical engineers are vital in the design of

of the installation of
of electrical lighting and

circuits but usually don't have experience in the aesthetic or psychological effects of
psychological effects of

lighting design. Manufacturers

Manufacturers and suppliers know only about the products they are

selling and will design lighting schemes based on their product lines. This will produce a

lighting design that is compromised

compromised based on the limited products available. It is best for

the owner
owner to hire an independent
independent lighting designer to be a part of
of the project
project team from
from

the beginning and to work alongside the architect. This will provide the breeding ground

for producing a well designed artificial

artificial lighting scheme within an architectural project.
 55

Having a lighting designer as part of project team will also assign liability if
of the project if there are

problems in the lighting design.

The job of
of the lighting designer is to create a lighting scheme that corresponds to

the designer's or client's vision by creating renderings and plans which plot out the

locations of
of lighting fixtures. The second part is to specify
specify equipment, details, and

mounting requirements and lastly, to review the completed

completed system and monitor its

performance. Lighting design is a balance between science and intuition. The lighting

designer must have technical knowledge of

of lighting while incorporating
incorporating creativity
creativity and

experimentation
experimentation to achieve a good lighting design.
design.59 59

There are many types of

of design strategies to be utilized in a lighting scheme. The

first and most widely used is downlighting. The essence of

of downlighting is quite simple,

there is a light source located at a high point of

of a room directing light down onto a

surface where it is needed. This can be one of

surface efficient strategies for lighting a
of the most efficient

horizontal surface, such as a desk. Ceiling mounted luminaires are easy to fit into the

grids of
of dropped ceilings which makes it very popular
popular in commercial
commercial programs along

with the nearly infinite

infinite amount of
of luminaire choices available.

Downlighting
Downlighting can be implemented
implemented to create a wide range of
of lighting effects.
effects.

They can light large areas of

of a space or create narrow beams of
of light for small areas.

Downlighting can be placed along the top of

Downlighting of walls to provide indirect
indirect light from
from the

reflection off
reflection off the wall surface. The principle downfall
downfall of
of downlighting is glare, which is

caused from a bright light entering a person's eyes which can be either
either directly from a

light source or indirectly from a reflecting

reflecting surface. The problem with downlighting
down lighting is

59 Carl Gardner and Barry Hannaford,

5 9
Lighting Design:
Hannaford, Lighting Design: An
An Introductory
Introductory Guide for Professionals
Guide for Professionals (New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1993). 194-197.
 56

that the source is visible and computer

computer screens are highly affected
affected by glare. Louvers and

diffu sers have been placed within lighting

diffusers li ghting fixtures
fixtures to eliminate the problem of
of glare by

changing the incidence angle of [f downlighting is the only source of

of the light. If of light
li ght in a

space and louvers

lou vers are used to reduce glare, a cave effect
effect is created. This
Thi s produces
produces a dark

ceil ing where there are no light

ceiling light fixtures, over
over lit desk tops, dark walls,
waJls, and deep shadows

on faces. Spacing of
of grid mounted luminaires produce a dotted ceiling effect
effect in a boring

series of light
li ght and dark spots and luminaires
lumin aires that are spaced too far apart will provide

uneven light distribution. Downlighting

uneven Downlighting can also pose maintenance issues either
either by re-

lamping
lampi ng with the wrong type of
of lamp oorr by locating fixtures
fi xtures in
in hard to reach
reac h places.

Overall,, downli
Overall downlighting
ghting is an effective
effective form of lighting
fonn of li ghting when designed appropriately, and if
if

it is designed poorly down

downlighting
lighting can result in glare problems, monotonous ceiling
monotonous ceil.ing

effect.60
patterns, and the dark cave effect. 60

Figu.-e
Figure 46:
46: Various types or
of downlighting. Source: Gardner,
Gamner, 32-37.
32·37.

The reverse of downlighling upli ghting. Uplighting

downlighting is uplighting. Upli ghting shines a light
li ght sou rce on
source

light colored surfaces such as, ceilings and walls,

wall s, to reflect diffused
diffused light
light down into a

space. Uplighting luminaires are mounted above eye level and cast a wide distribution of

lilight
ght which prevents veiling reflections
reflections and glare; the main problem of
of downlighting.

When uplighters were deve

developed
loped in the 1920s they were mostly
mostl y used in hotels for their

60 Ibid, 32.37.
Ibid. 32-37.
 57

dramatic effect
effect and ability to highlight
hi ghli ght decorati ve features
decorative featu res of
of the building, such as

cornices or murals. However,

However, their popularity decreased as hotels were no longer
longer built on

such grand scales and offi ces required high levels

offices leve ls of ill umination. Because uplightin
of illumination. uplightingg

relies on reflected
refl ected light
li ght to brighten a space, they are naturally inefficient.
ineffic ie nt. But today

advantages of upli gbter are bringing

of the uplighter bringi ng it back to favor.
favo r. Offices
Offices that suffe
sufferr from
fro m glare

on their computer screens have benefited

benefi ted by the diffused
diffused effec
effectt of
of uplighting. Uplighters
upli ghting. Up li ghtcrs

now come in a variety of

of sizes, shapes, and function
funct ion with diffe rent types of
different of lamps.

Upli ghting can be fixed,

Uplighting fi xed, either mounted or concealed within cornices, or freestanding,
freestanding,

which allows for flexibility

flexi bili ty within
withi n an offi ce and they can be relocated if
office if a company

benefi t of uplighting
moves. A benefit uplight ing is that it can be easi ly integrated into the arc
easily hitecture of a
architecture

building or furniture. However, the ceiling or wall finish

However, fin ish has to be appropriate for

uplight ing strategies. If a surface is too reflective

uplighting reflective high spots near the luminaire will glare

and surfaces that are dark won't reflect

reflect enough light and are ine
enough light fficie nt. 6 1
inefficient. 61

Figure 47:
47: Various types of uplighting. Source: Gardne r, 38-45.
Gardner,

Uplighting can be combined with downli ghting to create an interesting eeffect.

downlighting ffect. An

upli ghting luminaire that has small sli

uplighting ts or holes at its bottom allows for
slits for downlight

penetration. This
penetration. T his can be helpful in ceiling or wall mounted luminaires by eliminating
eli minating the

of the luminaire
apparent darkness of lumi naire itself.

61 Ibid. 38-45.
 58

The Dress Circle, Harrods in London is a great example of down lighting and
downlighting and

together to create an
uplighting working together an interesting
interesting space. The
The entire cafe
cafe is artificiaJl
artificiallyy

li t and
lit and the
the lighting sche me is to provide
scheme

a light airy atmosphere 10

to emphasize
emphasize

modem interior. To obtain an airy

the modern

feel in
feel in the
the space, reflected
reflected light
li ght is
IS

emphasized by using uplighters to

bri ghten the

brighten the ceiling and
and downlighting

to hi ghlight the
to highlight walls.
the walls. A trough
A trough Figure 48: Interior
Interio .. of the Dress Circle,
Cin:le, Harrods, showing
downlighting and uplighting techniques,
techniques.
running along the outer edge of the Source: Gardner-,
Gardner, 124-125.

ceiling utilizes cold

co ld cathode
cat hode lamps to reflect light onto the ceiling. This lamp produces a

cool lighting effect

effect which contrast the
the warm effe ct of the
effect the tungsten
tungsten halogen
halogen lamps used in
in

the custom-made wall mounted uplighters. Semi -recessed low-voltage

Semi-recessed low-vohage dichroic sources

angle close to the high-gloss wall creating a double scallop effect.

effect. The
The simplicity of the
the

lighting strategy provides an effective

effective technique and
and creates
creales a space that is interesting

complex.62
and complex. 62

Another design strategy that

Another thai emphasizes interest in a space is spotlighting.

Spotlighting is mainly
mainl y used for its dramatic effect
effect to highlight specific
specific elements of a

space. Ori
Originating
ginating in the
the theatre, the
the attention grabbing technique
technique of the spotlight
spotlight is now
now

used in the commercial sector. The

The narrow beam of light emanating from
from spotlights

requires cruc
crucial focusing to be effective.
ial focusing Spotlights come in
in a variety of types with

different lenses. filters, and

different lenses, can be used with the
and reflectors. Gobos can the spotlight to ccreate
reate

Ibid.
62 Ibid. 124- 125.
124-125.
 59

patterns on walls
waJ ls or floors for decorative effects. However, spot lights require lamps with
spotlights

small poi nt sources and therefore

point therefore mainly operate with incandescent
incandescent sources whkh
which are

less efficient
efficient and need more frequent
frequent replacement, which can be problematic for spotlight
spotlight

applications. Spotlights are most commonly used in museums, art galleries, lei sure
leisure

fac ilities, and retail spaces 1O

facilities, to attract the viewer to specific elements.
elements, such as, ex hib its or
exhibits

product di splays. By highlighting

displays. hi ghli ghting certain attribu tes of
attributes of an interior the spotl ight helps to
spotlight

create visual interest within a space. Spotlights are flexible

flexible and allow for change and

rearrangement
rearrangement but need to be focused properly for use in different
different applications. If
If nol
not

properly maintained a spotl.i ghling scheme will

spotlighting wi ll deteriorate or cause glare or backlighting

issues. Spotlights can be mounted singularly, but with large schemes they are typically

track mounted to allow for further

furthe r flexib ility.63
flexibility.

Figure 49: Various types of spotlighting. Source: Gardner, SO-55.

50-55.

Track lighting comes in many variations and is popular

popu lar for many different
different kinds

of
of lighting strategies. Track lighting is a convenient electrical distribut ion system that
distribution

contains a current in an insulated

insul ated metal structure. With the use of a compatible lamp

connector, the current is accessible along the entire track which allows for flexibl
flexiblee lamp

placement. Tracks are easy to install since they contain a closed circuit requiring powe
powerr

The
at only one end. T he track can be fitted with a single or multi-circuit
multi -circuit so lamps on the

track can be turned on or off

off individually or on sets. Tracks can be mounted directly onto
onto

6 3
61 Ibid. 50-55.
 60

a wall or ceiling or suspended to provide a decorative effect

effect or can be recessed so that

only the lamps are seen. The organization of

of lamps on track systems is infinite. Lights
Li ghts

can rise above the track and hang below it to provide light at different
different heights or provide

downli ghting simultaneously. The form of

uplighting and downlighting of the track can be straight or

curved to accentuate design and locate luminaires where they are needed.64
needed. 64

Figure 50: Various types of track lighting. Source: Gardner, 56·61.

56-61.

Linear lighting systems are similar to track lighting but instead of lilight
ght

sources located at points along a track the entire track is a light source. Linear
Linear lighting

stnlctures
structures can be suspended, mounted, or recessed in a surface
suspended, mounted, surface and are characterized by

their continuous form. As in track lighting, linear lighting carries a closed circuit
continuous tubular form.

wi thin their structure although they can be complicated

within complicated to install. It is also possible
poss ible to

have multiple types of

of lamps located on the same system. Their linear directional quality

feature 65
65
can be used as a gu ide within a building
guide buiJding or arranged creat ively as a decorative feature.
creatively

6-1 Ibid. 56-6 1.

56-61.
65 Ibid. 62-65.
 61
61

Figure 51: Examples

Exa mples of linea
linearr lighting systems. Source: Gardner, 62·65.
62-65.

Fiber optic lighting is one of forms of

of the more unique fOnTIS of lighting avai lable today.
available

However, it has many lilimitations.

mitations. Fiber opt ic lighting is created by a bundle
optic of glass or
bundl e of

acrylic strands which create a flexible cab le. The diameler

cable. diameter of the bundle is dependant on

the light intensity required in the space. A light source is located at one end of the cab
cable
le

and ljlight
ght is internall
internallyy refracted down the material. This produces two differe nt types of
different

fiber opt
fiber optic
ic light sources. In onc
one version,
version. light is contained through the material
material and is

released at the other eend

nd as a small beam. The other version, refracted
refracted lilight
ght is released

throughout the length of the cable creating a rope of light. Since only light from the

refracted down the cable and not heat, fiber optic lighting is cool to the touch
source is refracted

and is useful in heat sensiti

sensitive
ve applications. Fiber optic light can be manipulated to create

decorative elements and are flexible

flexible enough to be bent around corners or into compl
complex
ex

shapes, and can even be submerged in water. With the addi

addition
tion of infra-red
infra-red and

ultraviolet filters
fillers fiber opt
optic
ic lights prevent the transmission of harmful rays, and color

filters can be added and are easily interchangeable to create decorative effects.
effects.

Maintenance is easy si
since
nce only the fiber optic cable needs to be cleaned and re-lamp
re-lamping
in g

only takes place at the unit at the end of the cable(s). However, fiber optic lighting
 62

produces low levels of

of illumination
illumination and the equipment is expensive however, it is cheap

to install and maintain which can reduce the overall cost. One metal halide lamp can

provide light for about eighty-five

eighty-five 3.1 mm
mm light cables which would replace the use of
of

space.66
multiple lamps in that space. 66

of the lighting strategies mentioned

Many of mentioned above can produce decorative effects
effects in a

of lamp or luminaire to create

space. Decorative lighting strategies can utilize any type of

of decorative lighting; one focuses on

glamour and dramatic effects. There are two types of

of the light produced, such as, fiber optic star-like ceilings; the other focuses
the quality of focuses

on the decorative quality of

of the luminaire. Decorative lighting can be unpredictable if
if it

has been custom designed for certain applications and has not been tested. When

luminaires are chosen for their appearance their light quality is often
often ignored. Decorative

of ambient lighting, which should be

lighting should be used in accordance with forms of

discrete or hidden to not distract form the quality of the decorative sources. 67
discrete or hidden to not distract form the quality of the decorative sources.
Saint Mary Axe in London is a great example of decorative lighting. Since the
Saint Mary Axe in London is a great example of decorative lighting. Since the
building is historical and ceiling heights were limited all the luminaires had to be surface
building is historical and ceiling heights were limited all the luminaires had to be surface
mounted with the control gear integrated into the design of the lighting fixtures.
mounted with the control gear integrated into the design of the lighting fixtures.
Research was conducted to custom design lighting fixtures that would correspond to the
Research was conducted to custom design lighting fixtures that would correspond to the
period in which the building was built but function with modern lamps. Lighting levels
period in which the building was built but function with modern lamps. Lighting 68levels
appropriate for its office use were achieved by extensive use of decorative lighting.
68
appropriate for its office use were achieved by extensive use of decorative lighting.

66 Ibid. 66-69.
67 Ibid. 70-75.
68 Ibid. 108-109.
108-109
 63

Figure 52: The decorative lighting of Saini

Saint Mary Axe. Source:
Source: Gardner, 108-109.

When overall lighting

When li ghting strategies have diffi cu lt y providing the light levels necessary
difficulty

for certain types of

of tasks, task lighting
li ghting can be implemented.
implemented. Task lighting
li ghting is a great way

to provide extra light in task spec ific areas, it is personally controlled and is generall
specific generallyy

preferred by workers in office

preferred office spaces. Task lighting shou ld not be used by itse
should lf but with
itself

other amb ient lilighting,

ambient ghting, however, since task lighting provides the necessary brightness

needed for adequate vision, ambien

ambientt lighting levels can be lowered to save energy. Task
Task

lilighting
ghting is smaJl
small in scale and luminaires can be placed and angled where they are needed.

It can also be incorporated into furniture

furniture for
fo r example, under cab
cabinets
inets or bookshelves, but

this eliminates the versatility and personal adaptation

adaptation of the task light.
Iigbt. Task lighting is

excellent for providing different amounts of brightness where it is needed, not all eyes
providing different eyes

require the same amount of

of brightness to function
func tion properly. The disadvantage with task

lighting especially in compact office

office areas, is that a well placed light
li ght for one person
person can

cause glare problems for another. The initi

initial
al investment is also higher, havi
having
ng to provide

task and ambient lilight

ght sources. Task lighting also takes up space and numerous wires

from individual hazards 69

individual luminaires can create safety hazards.

69
Ibid. 46-49.
 64

otTask
Figure 53: Types of Task Lighting. SouN:e: Gardner. 46-49.
Source: Gardner, 46· 49.

Li ghting is always necessary for

Lighting for safety purposes to
(0 insure that ample amounts of

circulati on but in emergency situations lighting

light is provided for tasks and circulation li ghting is never

more important to have. Unfortunately,

Unfortunately, many
many times emergencies
emergencies inhibit the function
function of

the usual
usual lighting system, therefore; emergency
emergency lighting
lighting needs to be provided. There are

two types of emergency

emergency lighting. The first
first is stand-by
stand-by lighting, which runs on a separate

generator to prov ide overall but reduced

provide red uced lighting
lighting levels if
if the main sources fail. The

other is escape lighting;

li ghting; often
often powered by batteries they accentuate escape routes and

exits.

The purpose of emergency lighting

of emergency li ghting is purely
purely functional,
fun ctional , to insure the safety
safety of
of the

occupants. The challenge with emergency

emergency lighting
li ghting is that it needs to be unobtrusive
unobtrusive and

not interfere wi
nO( with
th the interior design
design while not compromi
compromising
sing its function. There are

three options for eemergency

mergency luminaires. There are luminaires dedicated solel
solelyy for

emergency lighting. A second type is maintained luminaires that

that uses one lamp for

general lighting and in emergencies it switches into emergency

emergency mode at lower

illumination levels.
leve ls. And combined systems where a single housing
housing unit contains two

lamps, one for gene

general
ral use and the other for emergency
emergency illumination.
illuntination. Emergency lilighting
ghting
 65

for public buildings is regulated by national and local standards and these should be

observed at the beginning of

observed of the design process. Certain elements must be illuminated in

emergency situations such as, fire alarms, changes in escape route direction, floor levels,

emergency equipment storage, and final outside exits. Routine maintenance must be
emergency fire equipment

done on a set schedule and should be documented for fire inspection. 7o

70

done on a set schedule and should be documented for fire inspection.

Lighting can be controlled by more than just a switch or a dimmer nowadays.
Lighting can be controlled by more than just a switch or a dimmer nowadays.
Technology has provided very advanced control systems for artificial lighting. In office
Technology has provided very advanced control systems for artificial lighting. In office
applications technology is helping to allow the user to adjust lighting levels to their
applications technology is helping to allow the user to adjust lighting levels to their
personal needs. Task lighting along with general ambient lighting achieves this quality.
personal needs. Task lighting along with general ambient lighting achieves this quality.
Pre-programmed timeclocks can tum the lights on and off when the building is and is not
Pre-programmed timeclocks can turn the lights on and off when the building is and is not
in use and if ample amounts of daylight are available, a solar timeclock can be used to
in use and if ample amounts of daylight are available, a solar timeclock can be used to
tum on the lights when natural lighting levels are low and tum the lights off when natural
turn on the lights when natural lighting levels are low and turn the lights off when natural
light is sufficient. These automated systems can take into account the change in daylight
light is sufficient. These automated systems can take into account the change in daylight
hours through the seasons as well. Through time it has been proven that people don't
hours through the seasons as well. Through time it has been proven that people don't
tum lights off after use and proximity detectors ensure that the lights are turned off when
turn lights off after use and proximity detectors ensure that the lights are turned off when
not in use.
not in use.
The advantage to automated controls is that the lighting effect can be changed
The advantage to automated controls is that the lighting effect can be changed
without human reliance over time. This could be through the day, or throughout the year.
without human reliance over time. This could be through the day, or throughout the year.
By altering the lighting quality, there is potential to save energy by reducing the use of
By altering the lighting quality, there is potential to save energy by reducing the use of
lamps when they are not necessary. Changing the lighting effects of a room are required
lamps when they are not necessary. Changing the lighting effects of a room are required
if the room serves multiple functions. An example is that a conference room could be
if the room serves multiple functions. An example is that a conference room could be
used as a boardroom, a seminar room, exhibition space, and could also have visual
used as a boardroom, a seminar room, exhibition space, and could also have visual
presentations. These different functions have different lighting needs and by the push of
presentations. These different functions have different lighting needs and by the push of
70 Ibid. 76-79.
7 0
Ibid. 76-79.
 66

a button a computer system can automatically set the lighting conditions for each

purpose. An example of
of the need for ambiance change would be for a hotel restaurant.

The restaurant might need a brighter

brighter atmosphere in the morning during breakfast
breakfast hours,

more business oriented atmosphere during lunch, and a more subdued

subdued and romantic feel

for dinner hours. Retail and hotel facilities benefit

benefit from
from a change in the mood of
of their

spaces to create intrigue to encourage customers to return.

monitor lighting levels and room occupancy.

Photocells and proximity detectors monitor

Photocells will turn

tum off
off a luminaire when daylight levels are sufficient.
sufficient. The problem is

that until the luminaire switches off combined amount of

off the combined of daylight and artificial
artificial light

will be at high levels and then the sudden switch off of the artificial light source will be
off of

noticeably dimmer. For example, if

if lighting levels in a space require 500 lux the lights

will produce this amount of

of light until the daylight reaches 500 lux. This means that a

of 1000 lux is produced

total of produced when the artificial
artificial lights tum off which reduces the
turn off

brightness to the level to that of

of the daylight at 500 lux. This is a noticeable difference.
difference.

Solutions to this problem would be to set the photocell to turn

tum the lights off
off when

daylight levels reach 1000 lux to reduce the drastic change in lighting levels. The best

solution is to gradually increase.71

gradually decrease lighting levels as daylight levels increase. 71

The Sterling Hotel at Heathrow Airport in London is a great example of

of how

of a space. The scheme for this

lighting controls can dramatically change the ambiance of

large atrium interior is to create an enclosed street-like feel that is gently light. The

floor-to-ceiling glazed openings at either

atrium is lit during the day by the large floor-to-ceiling either end of
of

the atrium. When daylight is no longer sufficient,

sufficient, during the night or overcast days,

various scenes are created and the atmosphere is constantly changing. The lighting is

71
71 Ibid. 94-99.
 67

controlled by photocells
photocell s which are linked to a Lutron
Lutra n dimming system which changes the

throughout a 24 hour cycle.

various scenes throughout There is also some decorative lilighting.
ghting.

Upli ghlers highlight the underside of

Uplighters of palm trees, and different
different luminaires are used to

different spaces, such as the cafe, cocktail lounge,

define different lounge. and reception
reception areas.72
areas. 72

Figure 54:
54: The interior of the Sterling Hotel demonstrating lighting techniques.
Source: Gardner, 118-119.

T he lighting
The li ghti ng of buildi ngs not onl
of buildings onlyy pertains to its interior
interio r but also to its
ils exterior.

T
The lighti ng des
he lighting ign for the exterior of
design of a building can
can do many things. Exterior
Ex terio r lilighting
ghting

of ccivic
can evoke a sense of religious
ivic or reli gious pride, it can connect areas of
of a town into a

cohesive environment, and in commercial aspects

aspects it can
can be used as a marketing tool to

draw people in and increase the usage of

of a building
building into the night.
nigh t. The
T he main
mai n purpose for

exterior lilighting
ghting is the issue of safety whether real
safety whether real or perceived.
perceived. Well
We ll lit buildings have

less vandalism or break-ins and provide

prov ide a sense of
of security for its patrons and employees.
security for

7 2
72 Ibid. 118- 119.
118-119.
 68

However. there are major

However, mosl problematic is light
major downsides to exterior lighting. The most

pollution Floodlighting contributes most to this

pollutio n and nuisances. Floodlighting thi s problem by flooding the

exterior of
of a building with light. Not only does this wash out the architectural features
features of
of

a building by casting too much light onto its surface, but

bu t the wide beam of
of light is hard to

controll and spreads where it is not wanted. The

contro

use of fl oodlights cuts down on the number

of floodlights number of

exteri or lights
exterior li ghts to save money, but the ideal

solution is to use a larger number of

of luminaires to

highlight areas of
of interest and safety concerns

which will waste less light. Another problem is Figure 55: Example of excess c1rtcrior
exterior
lighting washing out the archiledural
architectural
the use
u se ooff oopal
pal luminaires in exterior
exterior settings features of buildings. Source: Gardner, 177.

which cast just

just as much light into the sky as on the ground. These are all examples of
of

light pollution. Light pollution is an annoyance for neighbors, astronomers, and even the

people occupying the building at night. Hotels are a great example because they use

exterior lighting as a marketing tool

too l but also have guests residing in the building. Having

ooutdoor li ght shining into your room when you're trying to sleep is definitely
utdoor light definitely a nuisance.

Avoiding
A voiding floodlights
floodli ghts and using a larger
larger number

of smaller luminaires will help to avoid this

of

problem. The Savoy Hotel in London uses

narrow beam lighting close to the walls which

wash up the building while avoiding the clear

glass windows, creating an interesting

inleresting lighting

effect.
effect.
Figure 56: Savoy Hotel, example of good
Figure 56: Savoy Hotel, example of good
exterior lighting. Source : Gardner, 179.
exterior lighting. Source: Gardner, 179.
 69

Exterior lighting needs to take into consideration the materials of

of the building and

its architectural features. Light colored concrete does not require the same amount of

illumination as red brick and multiple materials on the outside of

illumination of a building need to be

planned into the lighting design. The materials of

of the building will also affect
affect the choice

of
of lamp used for lighting. Color temperature and color rendering can either enhance a

building's materials or make them look bland and gray. Considering the use of
of other

exterior lighting in the building's vicinity helps the building stand out or cooperate with a

neighborhood lighting scheme. For example, if

if low sodium lamps are being used to light

the street using a cooler temperature lamp will make the building stand out or, as in the

Edinburgh City Vision Plan, color temperatures are assigned to connect and differentiate
differentiate

certain areas of
of the town. The older parts of
of town are being lit with high-pressure sodium

lamps to have a warmer

warmer color temperature like the old gas lamps used in the past and the

new parts of
of town are using cooler mercury halide lamps to contrast the older section and

the warmer light from the interiors of homes.73

of the homes. 73

Whether lighting the interior or exterior of

Whether of a building, good lighting design is

indispensable. Lighting can be used in accordance with daylight in order to save energy

and to connect the interior to the outside environment. Daylight is always changing

throughout the day and artificial

artificial lighting can change with it. Lighting controls can dim

lights down when daylight increases or increase in brightness as the sun sets. Artificial
Artificial

lighting is an absolute necessity for safety or marketing in exterior use or to create

intriguing atmospheres in interior use. Contrasting color temperatures, lighting controls,

and the use of

of different
different design strategies can create different
different ambiances and lighting

effects that inspire emotion.

effects
7 3
73 Ibid. 176-181.
176-181.
 70

LIGHT IN RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

Light is not only used as a strategy to provide ample amounts of li ght whether
of light

artificial or natural but

bUI it is also used to evoke emot ion. Religious architecture of
emotion. of any

faith utilizes light in a way that creates a spiritual feeling whether

whether ascending towards

heaven or an inward reflectance

reflectance to find nirvana. Analysis of religious architecture
of religious

reveals the lighting techniques

teChniques that inspire.

North Shore Synagogue

Synagogue

Kings Point, New York, USA

Alexander Gorlin Architect

As an addition to an existing Hebrew academy, the North Shore Synagogue is

most ly underground in accordance with zoning height limitations. However, the chapel
mostly

space is filled with light. The light is very symbolic in this synagogue, pouring in

through stained glass cleresrory

clerestory windows. The colors of
of the stained glass correspond

li ght of
with the light of the emanations of
of the sefirOl
sefirot and in combination with their geometry, the

stained glass windows represent each day of

of the creation,
creation, depicting the creation of light ,
of light,

vegetation, the sun, moon and stars

stars,, animals, man and women.
 71
71

or stained glass windows. Source: Crosbie, 42-43.

Figure 57: Interior of sanctuary and detail of 42·43.

Along with the stained glass windows

windows a glass cube reflects
reflects daylight into the space

that creates a rocaJ

focal point al
at the front of
of the chapel. "This cube of
of light is fractured
fractured by two

inverted
invened triangles that evoke not only the star
slar of
of David,
David, but al
also
so 'emanations of the
'emanations of

sefirot' and the ''breaking

breakin g of Kabbalah, the ancient Jew
of the vessels' described by the Kabbalah, ish
Jewish

. 1 tca
mystical
mysltca d"!tlOn. ,,74
tradition." 74
The cube is composed
composed of
of translucent and clear
clear glass that reflect

light from the square opening at the top of

of the cube into the chapel. The glass panels al
also
so

reflect sound when the cantor, a ritual chanter,

chanter, faces the cube during services.

58: The light cube and detail. Source: Crosbie, 44-47.

Figure 58: 44·47.

74 Michael 1. Architecture/or
J. Crosbie, Architecture the Gods
for the Gods (New Watson-Guptill Publications,
(New York: Watson-Guptill Publications. 2(00).
2000). 42.
 72

Reo rgan ized Church of Jesus C

Reorganized hri st of
Christ of Latter Day Saints Temple
Temple

Missouri , USA
Independence, Missouri,

Hellmuth , Obata + Kassabaum (HOK)

Hellmuth, (HOK)

The striking element of

of the RLDS temple is its unique
uniq ue outer form.
Fonn. The form of

the spire is developed as an extrusion of

of the nautilus seashell. The exterior is clad in

granite which its reflective quality creates a pattern of

of light and shadow to reveal the

form during the day and exterior uplighting enhances the form at night. Clerestory

windows along the spiral bring light into the sanctuary, creating an airy at mosphere as the
atmosphere

spiral
spiral cei ling swell
ceiling swellss above like a cloud. Stained glass windows illuminate
illumin ate the foyer space

and recessed downli ghting reveals the very rough textured concrete wall
downlighting wallss along the

Worshiper's Path. 7S

Figure 59: The RLDS Temple exterior and interior. Soun:e:

Source: Crosbie, 66·69.
66-69.

15 Michael J. Crosbie, Architecturefor

Michael 1. Architecture for the Gods
Gods (New York: Watson·Guptill Publications. 2000). 66·67
Watson-Guptill Publications, 66-67..
 73

Tarumi Church

Kobe-city, Hyogo, Japan

Nishijima / Prime
Masaki Nishijima

The imposing concrete structure of

of this church evokes a monolithic form of
of

intersecting planes emphasized

emphasized by the sharp contrast of
of highlights and shadows cast by

the exterior form. The interior of

of the church retains the exterior's monolithic quality but

the large amount of

of side lighting coming in through the gaps of
of the structure lightens the

otherwise heavy and cold space. The openings along the side walls are translucent so that

only light can enter, eliminating views to the outside world. At the front of the sanctuary
front of

there is a recessed concrete panel with a rough texture which contrasts the smooth

of the rest of
concrete of of the sanctuary. Daylight enters from the gap separating the recessed

artificial uplighting washes the bottom of

panel along its top and sides and artificial of the panel in a

of the concrete and creating a

warm orange glow contrasting the cool color temperatures of

strong yet subtle focal point. Luminaires in the sanctuary reflect

reflect the exterior
exterior design

composing of
of intersecting panels of
of translucent
translucent glass.
 74

Figure 60: The Tarumi Church, exterior and interior. Source: Fujiki, 45·48.
 75

Church of the Li
of the ght
Light

lbaraki-city, Osaka, Japan

Ibaraki-city,

Tadao Ando Architect & Associates

The dramatic use of

of light in this church immediately calls for
church immediately for your attention.
attention. The

slivers of li ght cut into the fron

of light frontt concrete wall form the shape of a cross and create a focal

point un ique and unexpected. To fully

po int that is unique fu ll y appreciate the lighting
li ghting quality that
that the thin

openings produce requires that the rest of the chapel be rather dark ""for
for light
li ght shows its

brilli ance only against a backdrop of

brilliance darkness.,,76 As the day goes on the
of darkness." 76
tbe pattern of light
li ght

will change in response to the changi ng sun angles. The small sHts
changing slits in the wall allow for

oonly
nl y a restricted view to the outside vegetation but the movement of
of the light throughout

the day references

references man's
man 's connection
connection with nature. The light reveals the smoothness of
of the

walls
wall s and the rough texture of the floors
fl oors and pews.

Figure 61: The church of the light, interior and exterior. Source: Fujiki, 51,
5 1, 55.

76 Takao Fujiki, New Concepts in Architecture & Design. (Tokyo: Meisel

Fujiki. Religious Facilities: New
Publications .• 1997).
Publications., 1997).55.
55.
 76

Jodo Shinsyu Hangwanji-ha

Hangwanji-ha Koenji
Koenji Temple and Residence

Fukuoka-city, Fukuoka, Japan

Schri Kakinuma

The pathway
pathway to the building leads you through a hole in a thick concrete wall into

an oasis of
of garden space. On the axis with the opening is the entrance into the main hall,

of the
the door is an iron grid gate which casts interesting shadow patterns onto the floor of

entryway. Above the door is a semi circular

circular opening that allows light from a tall thin

window to enter the first floor as well as the second. The door glows from
from the daylight

translucent glass which creates a focal point in the space.

shining through the translucent The

sanctuary space uses light in ways opposite the entryway

entryway in that it uses the lack of
of light as

the focal point. The front of the sanctuary is matt black while bright blue light filters in
front of

from side aisles running along the second story; the cool blue light transitions to warm
from

of yellow-green
light by a swatch of yellow-green between
between the light blue walls of
of the upper floor and the
upper floor

of the sanctuary. Artificial

warm orange color of Artificial lighting is used in the sanctuary space to

cast warm colored light onto the columns, seating, floors, and walls that increase the

color temperatures of
contrast in color of the space.
 E
ET
B*

B"
as

B»
B"
Figure 62: Exterior nnd interior views showing dirrerntlighting techniques. Source, Fujiki, 118-120.

ere
ere
m

©
C
S

e
n
3

n
c
g
ere

o
a

s
S
n

s
C
CfQ

o
a
p
o
 78

Kaze-no-oka Crematorium
Kaze-no-oka

Nakatsu-city, Oita

Maki and Associates

of light in this chapel crematorium

The purpose of crematorium complex
complex is to lead you through

the building. From outside you walk along a path defined

defined by metal louvers which cast

of the entry is
shadows on the pathway leading to the entry porch. The path coming out of

patterned light on both sides by either a repetition of

outlined with patterned of vertical lines or

through iron grid gates. There is a courtyard defining

defining the space that is filled
filled with water

which reflects
reflects daylight into the hallway either through a large window which washes the

space with light or through thin vertical slits creating a rhythmic pattern that encourages

movement. Further into the building the ceiling stops before

before reaching the wall allowing

for recessed light to wash down the wall as a guiding line towards the waiting room. The

waiting room is drastically different from the cold concrete walls of

different from of the previous spaces.

It is a warm space generated by the use of

of wood and the large quantity of
of daylight

filtering in from above making it much brighter

brighter then the highly controlled
controlled lighting quality

in the previous spaces. The chapel space however, is darker allowing light only to enter
however,.is

from
from a slit along the bottom of
of the side wall where a small linear
linear pond reflects
reflects the light

up into the chapel space, a second slit of

of light placed vertically up the side of
of the front
front

wall, and four circular skylights that allow ambient light to enter from above.
 79

Figure 63:
63: Interior views
views that
that demostrate the change in the lighting strategy moving through the
strategy moving
building.
building. Source:
Source: Fujiki.
Fujiki, 173-177.
173-177.
 80

Chapel of
of St. Ignatius

Seattle, Washington, USA

Steven Holl Architects

concept for this chapel, Steven Holl interviewed

In developing a concept interviewed students and

of St. Ignatius, the founder

faculty and visited the mission sites of of the Jesuit order. "In
founder of

his writings St. Ignatius is noted for viewing spiritual life as a balance of
of consolations and

desolations, or lights and darks.'.77

darks." The chapel is designed as seven bottles of
77
of light in a

stone box assigning different of lighting conditions for different

different types of different aspects of
of the

program. The sanctuary space is a mixture of

of blue and yellow light, the choir and entry

contain red and green light, purple and orange light fill the Blessed
Blessed Sacrament
Sacrament and the

confessional. The procession space acts as a transition from

from the profane
profane world to the

sacred by allowing for views to the outside in the foyer and by frosting
frosting glass in the

procession space which leads you into the chapel where the reflected
reflected colored
colored light and

the colored lenses create a sense of

of mystery to heighten spiritual emotion. The light in

the chapel reveals the texture of

of the white plastered
plastered concrete walls which contrast
contrast the

polished floors.
dark highly polished The artificial
artificial lighting in the chapel is contained
contained in

irregularly blown glass pendants hanging like inverted chalices or votive candles.

Recessed into the walls are florescent

florescent lights which allow for the reflected
reflected light to be seen

at night. These lights also project

project the colored light through the sculptural light scoops on

the exterior of
of the building which is captured
captured in the pond, the seventh bottle of
of light, in

front of
front chapel.78
of the chape1.
78

77
Michael J. Crosbie, Architecture
77Michael A rchitecture for
for the Gods (New York: Watson-Guptill
Gods (New Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000). 83-84.
7B"Most
7
"Most Recent Work: Chapel of of At. Ignatius, Seattle University, Seattle, Washington, USA." Kenchiku
Bunka. USA. 1997.26.
 81

Figure 64:
figure 64: Concept
Concept and
and exterior
exterior and
and interior
interior views
views demonstrating reneded
reflected light.
light.
Source:
Source: Kenchiku
Kenchiku Bunka,
Bunka, 27·31.
27-31.
 82

Notre Dame du Haul

Haut

Ronchamp, France

Le Corbusier
Corbusier

View ing the exterior, Notre Dame du Haut

Viewing HauL is a uni que sculptural building
unique

interio r is even more interesting. From the outside you can see a large wall
however, the interior

with several small window-like openings, bur

but from the interior these ope nings increase in
openings

size and change shape as they pierce through

through the thick
thic k wall creating
creating an emotional lighting

eeffect.
ffec t. The increasing size of the openin
openingg allows for light
li ght to enter more evenly from the

ooutside
utside while also eli
eliminating subjective
minat ing subj ective brightness problems. Selective areas of
of the

windows are stained glass brin ging in colo

bringing bl ack and white space. This
colorr in an otherwise black

intriguing
intri gu ing wall is not at the front of the church but along the side and although eye
front of eye

catching,
catc hing, it is not the focal
foca l point of
of the chapel. However, a focal point is created at the

front of the church by the placement

placemen t of one window and a few small holes. The large

dark heavy roof appears to be flfloating

oati ng above the church as viewed from
fro m the inside

because of small sli

slits
ts of light placed where the roo
rooff should meet the wall.

Figure 65: Exterior aand

nd interior or
of the southern wall. Sou rce: Geisinger, 34-35.
Source:
 83

After analysis of the collection

After collection of religious buildings above it is noted that light is

used in many different

different ways in order to ex.press
express certain qualities. Light is used to show

religious symbolism
symbolism in the building and to represent specific
specific aspects of the reli gion.
religion.

hi ghli ghts a piece of

Light highlights of architecture, a sculpture, or a sacred decoration
decoration,, or the use of

light becomes the focal point. Light connects a person to nature when
when the path of the sun

can be seen, such as in the Church of

of the Light.
Li ght. Transitions between
between the profane
profane world

and the sacred realm is achieved by changi

changing
ng the quality of
of the light as a person
person enters

the building. Colored light creates a specific

specific quality that
that is unique to every application

that uses color and it has a profound

profound impact on the viewer. All
AJI these techniques
techniques use light

to create eemotion
motion or a specific atmosphere in the space that evoke a sense of
of the sacred to

the viewer.
 84

DES IGN PROJECT: CHAPEL

DESIGN CHAPEL-CREMATORlM
- CREMATORIM COMPLEX

The design project

project for spring semester
semester 2008 is an interfaith
interfaith funerary
funerary chapel

complex located along Eleventh Avenue above the Salt Lake City Cemetery. My

researc h informs
previous research informs the des ign of
design un ique use of
of this complex by the unique of daylight
daylight that

shapes its facade.

fa<;ade. Daylighting
Day li ght ing strategies such as horizontal
horizontal over hangs and vert
vertical
ical

louvers are implied in the design through

through openings in the thick ou ter wall acting as brie
outer

soleilI elemen
solei elements.
ts. The outer wall is cu
curved
rved to increase the southern exposure to the exterior

wall in resemblance of historical buildings

of historical bui ldings that took on certain
certain shapes to increase the ir
their

access to dayli ght. Electrical lighting is kept to a minimum during the day while utili
daylight. zed
utilized

at night to mimic the light qUaJ

quality
ily the dayli
daylight
ght provides. Warm fluorescent
fl uorescent lamps are

used in the openings in the wall to allow for good color rendering and to save on energy.

In the gathering space between the chapels metal halide

haJ ide lamps in conjunction
conjunction with

clerestory widow are used to provide the plants within

withi n the space the light
li ght energy they

require
req uire to sustain life. T
These
hese design strategies in combination with the dichotomy of
of the

sacred and the profane combine to form the complex.

 85

Case statement

What makes a sacred place? Is it possible to create a building that welcomes the

many different of Salt Lake City? As the population grows, it grows in religious
different faiths of

diversity forming a need for a funerary

funerary chapel and columbarium
columbarium complex
complex that embraces

this diversity, and serves as a place of

of community. In order to develop a complex that

evokes a sacred essence across religious discrepancies it is important

important to focus on the

individual who has a personal and unique definition of what sacred is. The solution is
definition of

simple, to create a place that inspires awe and individual contemplation

contemplation and allow the

individual to access their own perspective on what makes a sacred place.

Salt Lake City was founded

founded in 1847 by Mormon
Mormon pioneers and was built on this

faith's religious beliefs. Mormonism grew more and more came to Utah to flee
As Mormonism

religious persecution. The city grew based on the beliefs

beliefs of
of the Mormon faith and still

today the majority of the population

majority of population believes in Mormonism. However, as the population

of different
grew and the city started to develop other people of journey to
different faiths began to journey

Salt Lake City. Today there are many different

different types of
of religions in the Salt Lake Valley

that have their own identity and way of

of life. An interfaith funerary chapel complex will
interfaith funerary

stand as a sign of
of religious tolerance and encourage community
community coherence as a place

where people of
of all faiths can morn
mom their loved ones and remember
remember them.
 86

Project description
Project

of the interfaith
The purpose of interfaith funerary
funerary chapel complex is to inspire the individual

to find their own sense of

of the sacred in the profane
profane world. This is achieved by defining
defining

programmatic elements as either sacred or profane

profane and separating them out so they are

relevant to one another. The individual is given the chance to find their own meaning of
of

sacred by having places to sit and contemplate that are inspiring by the unique and

beautiful use of
beautiful of light.

The basic diagram

diagram of
of the building is two lines, one straight and the other curved.

profane part of
The straight wall represents the profane of the program
program by facilitating
facilitating efficiency
efficiency and

of the building. The curved

the mechanics of curved wall embodies the sacred as it bends with the

of human emotion.
ups and downs of It plays with light to evoke the sacred in the

individual and contrasts the profane

profane and the everyday straight edged architecture that we

experience daily.

Figure 66: Parti Diagram of Funerary Chapel Complex.

 87

Program statement

The program requirements for the inter-faith

inter-faith funerary
funerary chapel, columbarium, and

crematorium complex are defined

crematorium defined by the needs of
of the area the complex is serving and by

the necessary components for it to function of the community

function properly. The people of community are

using this complex for sacred purposes where as the functional

functional aspect is rather profane.

codependent and dictates the program as well as the form of

This creates a duality that is codependent of

the building.

The main elements of

of the program
program are the chapel, the crematorium, and the

columbarium. These components require other programmatic spaces as well as define

define

adjacencies. In order for the complex

complex to function offices are required for the employees.
function offices

There are five offices sqft to allow for expansion in response to increased
offices each 150 sqft

different needs of
personnel. There are two chapels to serve the different of the community
community allowing

for large or small funeral services. The large chapel is 1600 sqft
sqft and the small chapel is

800 sqft. The chapels require a prep room, at 150 sqft, to prepare the body to be viewed

in a public setting. It also necessitates storage space of

of 330 sqft
sqft for the assorted props of
of

funeral
funeral services and restrooms to service the users a total of
of 420 sqft. The columbarium
columbarium

requires a storage facility, 225 sqft, to file the documents noting the use of
of the

columbarium sqft crematorium entails a mechanical room of

columbarium space. The 300 sqft of 500 sqft
sqft and

a ceremonial place for "the

the body to transfer
transfer to the crematory and for the ashes to be

enshrined
enshrined in the urns.

Adjacencies are determined

Adjacencies determined by function
function and acoustics to limit sound interference.

The crematory
crematory is located near the chapel easily allowing for casket, urn, or memorial

services. Restrooms are also located near the chapels and the mechanical room which
 88

also needs to be near the

tbe crematorium.
crematorium. The offices of the
offices are separated by the noise of

restrooms and mechanical

mecbanicaJ room by storage facilities
faci lities which
whic h require being close to the

chapel. most noticeable

The final and most noticeable adjacency
adjacency determinate is the sacred and the

profane,
profane, the organizing principal that places each
each space according
according to its function. The

profane elements of
profane linearly expressing
of the program are organized linearly ex.pressing function,
function , efficiency,
efficiency,

and the mechanics of

of the complex. The sacred components
components are expressed by a curve

which symbolizes the emotional aspect of

of the program and the individual's
individual's definition
definition of
of

the sacred.

Loading Doc!;
Loadin£ Dock S10rngc
Storage Prep Room Offius
Offices Fill inll Room
Filling

Vi~wi ng Room
Viewing Room

Wa iti ng Room
Waitina Roou. 1I
Chapel 1I

Internment Room Ell s h r ill~mf,'m Room

Enshrinement Columbarium
Columbarium
Waili n! Room 2
Waiting
Cremlliory
Crematory

Chaptl2
Chapel 2

Waiting
Waitine Room 3
,
Mechanical Room
Mechanical

Ch.:lpe1
Chapel 3

Ualluooms
Bathrooms

PROGRAM
PROGRAM

Figure 67: Program and adjacencey study.

 89

Site Analysis

undeveloped property of
The site is located on undeveloped of the Salt Lake City Cemetery
Cemetery north

of
of 11 th avenue. This is a primarily
primarily residential neighborhood, quiet, with not much traffic
traffic

and is accessible to the Salt Lake Cemetery. This site rests on the southern foothills of
of the

Wasatch
Wasatch Mountain Range; a soft
soft slope that dramatically
dramatically increases in progression
progression towards

of the property. There is no large vegetation, just

the back of just small native plants that protect

of Salt Lake City and the

the hill from erosion. The site looks out upon a vast view of

surrounding valley, stretching between the Wasatch and Oquirrh Mountain Ranges. The

general climate consists of

of hot and dry summers with cold and wet winters and near

desert amounts of
of precipitation.

informs the design of

The site informs of the building by its favorable southern solar access.

of the southern sun for daylighting

Being a south facing slope it is easy to take advantage of

exterior of
and passive solar opportunities. This is achieved by increasing the southern exterior of

the building to gain daylight and to heighten the amount of

of solar access in the winter

when the outside temperatures are cold. A southern slope location also is beneficial
beneficial to a

building in response to the climate of

of Salt Lake City taking advantage of
of breezes in the

hot summer months and the lower sun angles for passive heating in the cold winter

months. The steepness of

of the slope poses structural challenges requiring the need for

retaining walls and drainage systems to detour the run off

off away from the building. The

vegetation
vegetation on site consists of
of low growing plants native to the area. The lack of
of tall trees

or plants gives the opportunity

opportunity to take advantage of
of the breathtaking
breathtaking views of
of the valley

while demanding attention to landscape design.

 90
90

\'

-~
----
------ -

--
68: Site Plan or
Figure 68:
-----
of Inter-faith
Inlu-raith Funerary Chapel Complex.
 91

Precedent Analysis

Light is
Light is a top
top priority
priority in the design
10 the design of
of the
the funerary
funerary complex. Research of
Research of

precedent buildings
precedent bui ldings is focused
focused on
on this
this area
area of
of expertise. To
To obtain aa lighting
lighting quality
quality that

inspires the individual

inspires individual to find
find their
their sacred
sacred place,
pl ace, initiated
initiated inquiry
inquiry of
of the
the Chapel
Chapel of
of St.
51.

Ignatius in Seattle. Washington, designed

Seattle, Washington, designed by
by Steven
Steven Holl
Holl Architects
Architects and
and Le
Le Corbusier's

Notre Dame du Haut

HaUL in Ronchamp, France.
France.

Figure 69: Chapel of 81. Ignatius, exterior and interior.

Source: Kenchiku BUDka, 34·36.

The unique use of

of colored light
li ght both

reflected and transmitted into the sacred places of

of

the Chapel of S1.

St. Ignatius demanded investigati on
investigation

and study. Holl's

Hall 's concept of
of "seven bottles of
of lilight
ght

in a stone box" guided the design of

of the church. He

uses colored lenses in complementary

complementary combinations
combinations

with reflected lilight

ght to create a mystical lilighting
ghting

effect. The sanctuary space is a mixture of blue and

 92

yellow light, the front of

of the sanctuary lit by blue lenses with yellow light reflecting
reflecting on

the rough textured plaster wall surface, while behind the opposite occurs; the walls are

bathed in a rich blue light with yellow lenses. The choir and entry play with red and
79
green light and purple and orange light fill the Blessed Sacrament and the confessional. 79
green light and purple and orange light fill the Blessed Sacrament and the confessional.
Holl plays with the concept of transition taking the user out of the profane world
Holl plays with the concept of transition taking the user out of the profane world
and into the sacred realm. The procession space acts as a transition from the profane
and into the sacred realm. The procession space acts as a transition from the profane
world to the sacred by allowing for views to the outside in the foyer and by frosting glass
world to the sacred by allowing for views to the outside in the foyer and by frosting glass
in the procession space which leads you into the chapel where the reflected colored light
in the procession space which leads you into the chapel where the reflected colored
8o
light
and the colored lenses create a sense of mystery to heighten spiritual emotion. 80 The light

and the colored

doesn't lenses
overwhelm thecreate
small achapel
sense but
of mystery to heighten
fills it with interest. spiritual emotion. The light

doesn't The
overwhelm
lightingthe small chapel
technique usedbut
in fills it with interest.
the Chapel of St. Ignatius is studied further in

The lighting
combination with thetechnique usedby
paper church, in Shirgu
the Chapel of the
Ban and St. developed
Ignatius is concept
studied of
further in
the site.

combination withconceptual
Developing this the paper church, by Shirgu
model, ideas Banand
of unity andrhythm
the developed
from theconcept of the site.
paper church and

Developing
its thisof
unique use conceptual
paper as model, ideas material
a structural of unity and rhythm from
for columns werethecombined
paper church
with and
the

its unique
lighting use ofofpaper
strategy as a structural
St. Ignatius. material
The concept forfor
thecolumns
site was were combined
inspired with the
by the dramatic

lighting
view andstrategy of St.
the journey to Ignatius.
get to it. The concept for the site was inspired by the dramatic

view and the journey

Standing on 11tothget to it. looking at the site all you see is earth. As you climb to
avenue
th
the hill Standing on 1it
investigating avenue
1 you feel looking at the
the uneven site allbeneath
ground you seeyour
is earth.
feet asAsyour
youbreathing
climb to

the hill investigating

depends in response toit the
youstrain
feel the uneven ground
of climbing the steepbeneath
slope. your feet asa your
You reach breathing
spot where the

depends in response
ground levels to and
slightly the strain of climbing
you turn around. the
Thesteep slope.
ground You reachdisappears
completely a spot where the
as you

ground
suddenlylevels slightly
see the and you
vast view turnvalley
of the around. Thesurrounding
and its ground completely disappears
mountains. You feelas asyou
if

suddenly
you see the when
are floating vast view
just of the valley
seconds andyou
earlier its felt
surrounding mountains.
so connected to the You feel This
ground. as if

you are floating when just seconds earlier you felt so connected to the ground. This
79
7 9
"Most Recent Work: Chapel of At. Ignatius, Seattle University, Seattle, Washington, USA." Kenchiku
' MostUSA.
Bunka. Recent Work: Chapel of At. Ignatius, Seattle University, Seattle, Washington, USA." Kenchiku
1997.52,26-67.
Bunka. USA. 1997. 52,Architecture
80 Michael J. Crosbie, 26-67. for the Gods (New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000). 33-35.
8 0
Michael J. Crosbie, Architecture for the Gods (New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000). 33-35.
 93

experience was embodied as the concept of

of the contrast of
of solids and translucence. The

concept model became two walls one that was solid and the other translucent. The solid

wall consisted of paper columns

columns that convey the rhythm and form of
of the paper church.

Openings in the column

columnss play with reflective
reflective colored panels and lenses to represent the

Chapell of
Chape of St. Ignatius. In
Ln front of thi s wall the translucent elemen
of this elementt captured the colored

light from the lenses while still letting you gglimpse

li mpse the reflections
reflections on the soli
solidd wall

behind it. Thi

Thiss lighting qual ity became the focus of
quality of the design.

Pr«edencc model, light study.

Figure 70: Precedence

The conceptual funct ioned well in terms of

conceptual model functioned tbe des
of making the ired lilighting
desired ghting

quality but
bu t could not function
fun ction as it is in the building.
build ing. Some des ign changes needed to
design 10 be

made in order to
10 simpli fy the solid wall element.
simplify elemenl. In search for a solulion
solution altenlion
attention was

transferred 10
Iransferred to Le Corbusier's Notre
NoIre Dame du Haut,
Haul, more specifi
specifically
cally a certain
cerlain wall. The

southern wall of
of Notre Dame du Haut is punctured with small openings of
of different
different

shapes and sizes scattered about when viewed from the outside. Viewing
Viewi ng the
Ihe same wall

from the interior is a completely different experience.

completely different The thickness of the wall is
 94

revealed as the small ouler

outer openings increase 10
in size while simultaneously
simultaneously changing
changing

shape.
shape, play with light as it filters aJong
along the slopes of
of the openin gs. 81
openings. 81

Figure 71: Notre Dame du Haut, interior view. Source: Geisinger, 32-33.

These precedent studies in combination lead to the design of

of the curved wall. The
The

curved wall became a two wall system consisting of off

off sel
set openings that connect
connect

together to sculpt the path of light. The concept

concept of the reflected
reflected and transmitted
transmi tted light
li ght of
of

the Chapel of St. Ignatius was retained by allowing light to enter in the first wall's

openings and reflect off

off the second wall system. Light
Li ght is transmitted into the space when

openings in (he
the two walls overlap. The openings consist of squares and horizontal and

vertical rectangles which overlap, and openi

openings
ngs on the outer wall correspond with

openings on the inner wall. The openings change from the outer wall to the inner wall,

meaning if
if an opening on the outer wall is square then the correspondin
correspondingg opening on the

inner wall would either be a horizontal or vertical rectangle. This relates back to Notre

Dame du Haut's
Haut 's thick southern wall as the openings change in shape on the interior.

81 Marion Geisinger.
Geisinger, The House or
of God (New York: A&W Publishers,
Publ ishers. Inc., 1979).
1979).32-33.
32-33.
 95
95

Li ght is oonly
Light nly seen through the openings
openmgs of the inner wall
waJl where both reflected
reflected and

li ght of complementary
transmitted light complementary colors interact.

Figure 72: Large section model of chapel space.

The concept of
of transition from the Chapel
Chapel of St. Ignatius played an influential
infl uential role

in the des ign of

design funerary complex. The idea of being able to
of the funerary profane world
(Q see the profane world,,

slowly
slow ly transition
transition to an obsc
obscure
ure view, and then
then become engulfed in a mystical
beco me engulfed mystical lilighting
ghting

scheme plays out in the curved walls

wall s of the complex. Approaching the complex you are

able
able to see the
the vast view of the
the profane
profane world.
world . focus then
Your focus then changes to your

destination as you approach the translucent walls

destination of the colu
wal ls of columbarium.
mbarium . Once behind this

walll you can no longer see in clarity the profane

wal profan e world,
world. yet being outside you are still

connected to it. Moving inside the building

build ing you walk
waJ k through
thro ugh the threshold created by

the thickness of the curved wall

waJl into the realm of the sacred as you
you no longer have any

notion of the outs

outside
ide world as the thickness and play of light of the wall disconnects you.

Lastly
Lastl y you enter the chape
chapell where a thin layer of translucent
layer of translucen t glass captures the eman
emanating
ating

light of the curved wall. T

The
he light moves across the translucent wall as the day
day goes on
 96

and the seasons change creating spiritual atmosphere that connects you to nature and the

natural cycle of the earth.

natural

Light Fixture

For this design project

project a light fixture was developed for the gathering space

between the chapels to provide atmospheric light reflecting li ghting quality that is
reflectin g the lighting IS

experienced within the chape ls. The light

chapels. li ght fixture
fixture functions
functions as the thick wall
waJl and the

frosted glass; light passes through the openings of

frosted of the solid curved element and is

captured on the frosted

frosted glass. The fixture uses a warm fluorescent
flu orescent lamp to provide
prov ide the

light,
light , which is removed by a panel on the top of
of the fixture. The diagrams below show

the light pattern emitted from the fixture determined by reading light meter measurements

in foot-candles
foot-candles three feet
feet away from the fifixture.
xture.

180*

Figure 73:
73: Light
Lighl fixture documenting the
fixlure and diagram documenling
_..
Ihe pattern
"""
emitted light.
pallern of emilled lighl.
 97

Design

The design of
of the inter-faith
inter-faith funerary
funerary chapel complex is guided by logic, reason,

and the intense desire to create an emotional space. The complex is here to serve a

community of different
community of different religions in order to bring them together
together in religious tolerance

and understanding to elicit personal and spiritual connections in times of

of mourning. This

complex will serve as a place where religious diversity is seen as an asset and where

of different
people of different faiths remember
remember their loved ones. The complex evokes emotion

through the use of

of light in order to let the individual define their sense of
of sacred.

~DD
•
! 1
• n :-]~9~!=ID~
I I
Figure 74: South elevation.

The program
program is laid out to remove the visitor from
from the everyday functions of
everyday functions of the

complex allowing them to immerse themselves into the sacred realm. This ordering

principal in turn separates acoustic noise from the functional

functional uses such as, the mechanical

room, from interfering

interfering with the sounds of
of the chapel spaces. The floor
floor plan also allows

for the complex use of

of the building easily permitting casket, urn, or memorial services,

and allowing visitors to access the building for services, to make arrangements, to

enshrine the ashes of

of a loved one, or to revisit the internment
internment site of
of their loved one.

Light is vital to the design of

of the complex
complex and guided the form of
of the building.

The site is located on a southern slope which is ideal to take advantage of

of the southern

sun angles in the winter and in the summer

summer for daylighting and passive solar. Historic

buildings in urban environments would increase their exposure to daylight by increasing

 98

the ir exterior by incorporating courtyards or U-shaped eelements

their lements in their design since
si nce they

were heavi ly dependant on daylight as their primary source of

heavily By curving the
of light. By

southern wall of
of the complex the ex terior exposure is increased allowing more
exterior mo re daylight to

penetrate the bui lding.

building.

--- .
Figure 75:
75: Top
Top:: West section. Bottom:
Boltom: South Section.

In order to protect the bu

building
ilding from the intense heat of
of the summer
summer sun it is

typical in southern applicatio

applications
ns to use horizontal louvers to block
block the direct sunlight
sunlight from

entering the interior of the building but still allow ing for ample amounts of daylight. For
allowing

eastern and western applications it is commo

commonn to use vertical fins to block
bloc k the rays of
of the

sun Ln comb
sun.. In combination
ination these elements create brie-soleil
brie-soleil systems that protect
protect apertures from

the ddirect while

irect summer sun whi forr the lower
le allowing fo lower winter sun angles to penetrate the

winter months. 82 The concept

building adding warmth during the cold winter concept of brie-soleil
brie-solei! is

carried out by the thickness of the curved wall which blocks harsh summer rays to enter

the building. The openings in the wall

wallss are cut on a north-south
nort h-south axis so the vibrant

doesn'tt cause glare or heat up the building. Each opening is six

eastern and western sun doesn'

feet thick which still allows for the lower

feet lower winter sun angles to penetrate
penetrate the building

8 2
82 Norbert Lechner, Heating, Cooling, Lighting (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2001). 342-343.
 99

while also giving a varying thickness to

(0 the wall as it curves. It is o bvious that light
obvious

dictates the form of Lhe building.

of the

Figure 76: Plan.

The complex is des igned not

designed not as a hierarchy
hierarchy but as a dichotomy
dichotomy between the sacred

and the profane. It aallows

llows the visitor
visi tor to transition
transition from
fro m the profane
profane world into the sacred

world while still understanding

understanding where the sacred lies within the everyday.
everyday. The amount
amo unt of
of

openings in the thick curved wall represents

represents the porous nature of
of the complex permitting

all religions to be welcome. It does not stand as a wall that

thal separates people from
fro m one
 100
100

another but as a threshold from

another from cruelty,
cruelty. hate,
hale, misunderstanding,
misunderstanding, and petty
petty differences
diffe rences to a

pl ace of
place of community, understanding, and peace.

conclusion, the funerary

In conclusion, funerary chapel
chapel complex functions
functions as a sacred place to people

of many
of many religions by focusing
focusing attention
attention to the individual
individual so the sacred becomes

something personal. The use and oorganization

something rganizatio n of
of the program reinforces
reinforces the di stinction
distinction

between the sac

between red and the profane
sacred profane as well as dictates the form of
of the building.
building. The site's

attributes encourage the use of dayli ght as the southern slope allows for
of daylight for great
great access to

the southern sun. Precedence studies

the of the
studies aid in the development of the curved creale a
curved wall to create

lighting
li ghting qquality
uaJity that evokes emotion
emotio n and awe in the individual
indi vidual to inspire spiritual
in spire spiritu al

emotions. All of these components

components working together
IOgether create a building
building that
that is sacred

across religious
rel igio us boundaries and serves as a beacon of hope in times of grief.
beacon of

77: Finished Model or

Figure 77: of Funerary Chapel Complex.
 101

ANNOTATED BffiLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ander, Gregg D. Daylighting

Daylighting Performance
Performance and
and Design. & Sons,
Design. Hoboken: John Wiley &

Inc., 2003.

of this book discuss the fundamentals

The contents of of daylighting strategies including
fundamentals of

benefits of
segments on the benefits integration of
of daylighting, glazing choices, and the integration of electric

lighting in daylight design. The book

book also discusses how to calculate for daylight design

with worksheets, computer

computer programs, and physical modeling and offers
offers case studies with

extensive daylight strategy information.

information.

Baker, Nick and Koen Steemers. Daylight

Daylight Design
Design of
of Buildings. & James.,
Buildings. London: James &

2002.

Daylight design, the interaction of light with materials, daylighting systems, along with
interaction of

the design of
of windows define the role of
of light in architecture in this book; including

artificial lighting controls and daylight design and criteria.

artificial

Brown, G. Z. (1985). Sun, Wind,

Wind, and Light: Architectural
and Light: Architectural Design Strategies. New York,
Design Strategies.

NY: Wiley.

This book is about the effect

effect that sun wind and light have on architecture. This book

provided useful
useful information
information on sky conditions. Giving details on overcast, clear, and

partially cloudy conditions.

 102

Architecturefor
Crosbie, Michael J. Architecture for the Gods. Watson-Guptill Publications,
Gods. New York: Watson-Guptill

2000.

A gathering of
of many different
different religious buildings fill the contents of
of this book. Providing

of the different
descriptions and pictures of different modern religious buildings this book is an

overview of
of the many different
different types of
of religious facilities there is in the world.

Evans, Benjamin Daylight in Architecture.

Benjamin H. Daylight Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1981.

The need for daylight and how it behaves in architecture is basis of

of this book. It

evaluates the effectiveness

effectiveness of
of the daylight design through models and cost-effectiveness.
cost-effectiveness.

book gives examples of

The book of buildings that utilize daylight strategies.

Religious Facilities:
Fujiki, Takao. Religious Facilities: New
New Concepts Architecture & Design.
Concepts in Architecture Design. Tokyo:

Meisel Publications., 1997.

Religious buildings are displayed visually in this book. It contains many pictures of
of each

building and describes them in short paragraphs. This book is a compiling of

of many

architectural firms located in Japan.

Gardner, Carl &

& Barry Hannaford. Lighting Design.
Hannaford. Lighting Design. New York: John Wiley &
& Sons, Inc.,

1993.

of this book. It provides case studies as well as descriptive

Lighting design is the focus of

analysis of different lighting design strategies. It

of lamps and their properties as well as different

exterior lighting and lighting control systems as well as environmental

discusses exterior environmental concerns

and how lighting can improve in the future.

future.
 103

Geisinger, Marion. The House

House of
of God. New York: A&W Publishers, Inc., 1979.

Providing a more historic look at religious architecture this book provides examples of

religious buildings throughout time. Pictures and brief

brief descriptions allow the reader to

understand the buildings visually.

Interior Lighting:
Gordon, Gary. Interior Lighting: For
For Designers.
Designers. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,

2003.

Properties of
of light and of
of different
different lighting sources are discussed in this book as well as

vision, brightness perception, electricity, daylight, and lighting design

design....

Lighting for
Helms, Ronald N. & M. Clay Belcher. Lighting for energy-efficient
energy-efficient Luminous
Luminous

Environments. Englewood
Environments. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1991.

The technical applications of

of artificial
artificial lighting is explained in this book in terms of
of

lighting design. It describes the properties of

of light through vision, color, and

psychological concerns and gives descriptions of

of different
different light sources.

Heating, Cooling,
Lechner, Norbert. Heating, Lighting. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Cooling, Lighting.

2001.

of this book. It covers passive solar heating, passive

Sustainable design is the focus of

cooling, and daylighting in architecture design. It discusses electrical lighting,

photovoltaics and active solar, as well as mechanical equipment for buildings.

 104
104

"Most Recent
"Most Recent Work: Chapel
Chapel of
of At.
At. Ignatius,
Ignatius, Seattle
Seanle University,
Univers ity, Seattle,
Seattle. Washington,

USA." Kenchiku
USA." Kenchiku Bunka. USA. 1997.
Bunko. USA.

is focused
This article is focused on the Chapel of St.
Chapel of Ignatius. ItI.t provides
51. Ignatius. provides short descriptions
descriptions in

Japanese and English

Japanese English but
but most
most its content is visual
conlent is visuaJ giving
givi ng the reader
reader a visual
vi sual tour
tour of
of the

building.

Stcin, B.
Stein, Mechanical and
B. et. al. Mechanical and Electrical
Electrical Equipment
Equipmefltjor Buildings, 10th Ed., New York:
for Buildings,

Wi ley & Sons, 2006.

John Wiley

Thi s book
This book is a technical rev iew of
tec hnical review of mechanical and electrical
e lectrical equipment and how
how they

function in a building. This book

function book provided
provided information
information on
on solar
solar radiation
radiation in terms
tenns of
of

Iight and the energy spectrum.

light
Name
N or
a m e of Candidate:
Candidate Bennet! Kristin
Bennett

Birth Date:
Birth August
A u g u s t 8,
8, 1986

Birth Place:
Birth Salt LLake City. Utah
a k e City,

Address:
A ddress: 22687
687 KKenwood
e n w o o d Dr.
Dr.
Salt Lake
Salt Lake City,
City. Utah
Utah 84106
84106