July 2021.

qxp_4/06 Cover 6/9/21 2:59 PM Page C1

JULY 2021
WELDING JOURNAL • VOLUME 100 NUMBER 7 • JULY 2021

Naval Applications
Safety and Health
FABTECH Preview
Page C2 Select Arc.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:36 AM Page C2
page 1 FABTECH.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:29 AM Page 1
page 2 Camfil.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:20 AM Page 2
July-21.qxp_Layout 1 6/6/21 9:06 AM Page 3

July 2021 • Volume 100 • Number 7 CONTENTS

FEATURES
22 How to Use Your Grinder Safely and Soundly
Recommendations to help you avoid some of the 22
most common hazards associated with grinding
D. J. Williams

*26 Solar Power Area Monitors Help Keep Outdoor

Welding Locations Safe
If you think your site could benefit from a
solar-powered area monitor, ask yourself the
three questions presented in this article
J. Kettler

28 Welding Glove Upgrades Fight the Burn

Developments in textile technology and leather
production have improved glove dexterity and
durability — P. Harris and P. Le Sage
38
30 Changes to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code Section IX
A quick review of what’s new and revised in the
2021 edition of this important code
W. J. Sperko

*34 Robotic Welding of U.S. Naval Ships

Find out about the recent perspective and
investments in U.S. naval shipbuilding welding
robotics — M. Sinfield

38 Plasma’s Role in Shipbuilding Operational

Excellence 42 A View from the Gulf Coast
Plasma cutting technology can address many of Learn about the Shipyard Act and read a Q&A
the shipbuilding industry’s most pressing series addressing the state of the maritime
problems — M. Avila industry — R. Blythe et al.

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

221-s A State-of-the-Art Review of Laser Welding of
Polymers — Part I: Welding Parameters
This paper reviews the influence of different
processing parameters, including laser power,
scanning speed, standoff distance, and clamping
pressure — N. Kumar et al.
229-s Post Underwater Wet Welding Heat Treatment
by Underwater Wet Induction Heating
This exploratory research into postweld underwater
electromagnetic induction heating shows that this
method is able to control the heat-affected zone
hardness of underwater wet welds
E. C. P. Pessoa et al.
239-s Parametric Study of Automated Electrospark
Deposition for Ni-Based Superalloys
The use of this system for deposition of Inconel
718 on similar (Inconel 718) and dissimilar (316L
stainless steel) substrates was demonstrated
P. D. Enrique et al.

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

July-21.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 6:23 PM Page 4
DEPARTMENTS
5 Editorial
6 Press Time News
7 News of the Industry
11 Point of View
14 Stainless Q&A
16 RWMA Q&A
18 Product & Print Spotlight
44 FABTECH Preview
53 Coming Events
OFFICERS
President Robert W. Roth
RoMan Manufacturing Inc.
Vice President W. Richard Polanin
WRP Associates
Vice President Dennis K. Eck
Consultant
Vice President Michael A. Krupnicki
Airgas USA
Treasurer Carey Chen
Incodema Holdings LLC
Executive Director & CEO Gary Konarska II
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
R. Ashelford (Dist. 13), Rock Valley College
T. Brosio (Dist. 14), Major Tool & Machine
D. E. Clark (Dist. 20), DEClark Welding Engineering PLLC
D. A. Desrochers (Dist. 1), Old Colony RVTHS
D. L. Doench (At Large), Consultant
D. A. Flood (Past President), Consultant
K. R. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
M. Hanson (Dist. 15), Compass Electronics Solutions
R. E. Hilty (Dist. 7), Hilty Sign & Fabrication Co.
R. L. Holdren (At Large), ARC Specialties
T. S. Holt (Dist. 18), Tech Corr USA Management
J. Jones (Dist. 17), Harris Products Group
T. Kostreba (Dist. 10), Erie High School
D. H. Lange (Dist. 12), Northeast Wisconsin Tech. College
T. J. Lienert (Past President), T. J. Lienert Consulting LLC
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
S. M. McDaniel (Dist. 19), Big Bend Community College
S. Moran (Dist. 3), Philly Shipyard Inc.
R. Purvis (Dist. 22), Purvis Welding Inspection
S. Raghunathan (At Large), Saudi Aramco
H. Record (Dist. 5), Record Tool & Die
K. Shatell (At Large), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
L. E. Showalter (Dist. 4), Newport News Shipbuilding
M. M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Consultant
W. J. Sperko (At Large), Sperko Engineering Services
R. H. Stahura (Dist. 6), ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
P. I. Temple (Dist. 11), Welding Consultant
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
J. Thompson (Dist. 8), Consultant
4 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
56 Certification Schedule
57 Society News
59 Tech Topics
63 Section News
68 Guide to AWS Services
69 Welding Workbook
70 Personnel
76 Classifieds
76 Advertiser Index
WELDING JOURNAL
Publisher/Editor Annette Alonso
Editorial
Managing Editor Kristin Campbell
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco
Associate Editor Alexandra Quiñones
Education Editor Roline Pascal
Peer Review Coord. Brenda Flores
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Managing Editor, Digital and Design Carlos Guzman
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores
Advertising
Senior Sales Executive, Corp. Sandra Jorgensen
Manager, Sales Operations Lea Owen
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Marandi Gills
mgills@aws.org
MARKETING ADVISORY COUNCIL
(MAC)
D. Doench, Chair, Consultant
A. Sepulveda, Vice Chair, Hypertherm Inc.
D. Brown, Astaras Inc.
C. Coffey, The Lincoln Electric Co.
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
G. Konarska II, American Welding Society
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash Compressed
S. Molenda, ESAB Welding & Cutting
M. Muenzer, ORS Nasco
W. Newell Jr., Euroweld Ltd.
N. Schmid, Weiler Abrasives Group
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Wilson and Associates
C. Chen, Ex Officio, Incodema Inc. and Newcut Inc.
S. Fyffe, Ex Officio, Astaras Inc.
L. Kvidahl, Ex Officio, Ingalls Shipbuilding
T. Lienert, Ex Officio, Consultant
S. Moran, Ex Officio, Philly Shipyard Inc.
R. Polanin, Ex Officio, WRP Associates
R. Roth, Ex Officio, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
On the cover: Portland (LPD 27),
seen here in the middle of launch
early one morning at Ingalls
Shipbuilding, a division of Huntington
Ingalls Industries, in Pascagoula,
Miss., is the 11th San Antonio-class
landing platform dock. (Photo credit:
Ingalls Shipbuilding.)
aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
AWS Promotes Diversity
AWS values diversity, advocates equitable and inclusive
practices, and engages its members and stakeholders in
establishing a culture in the welding community that
welcomes, learns from, and celebrates differences
among people. AWS recognizes that a commitment to
diversity, equity, and inclusion is essential to achieving
excellence for the Association, its members, and
employees.
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296 Print) (ISSN 2689-0445
Online) is published monthly by the American Welding Society
for $120.00 per year in the United States and possessions,
$160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50 per single issue for
domestic AWS members and $10.00 per single issue for non-
members and $14.00 per single issue for international. Not
available for resale in either print or electronic form. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL
33166-6672; telephone (305) 443-9353. Periodicals postage
paid in Miami, Fla. and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER:
Send address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672. Canada Post: Publications Mail
Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip
International, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2, Canada.
AWS Claims Policy: All hardcopy editions are shipped
FOB Origin. Publisher reserves the right to investigate and
make a determination on all claims submitted for missing
editions not received by a subscribing member or institution.
Any claim request determined to be valid will be fulfilled with
a digital copy of the edition. Publisher will NOT send any
hardcopy replacement issues for any reason.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles
for personal, archival, educational, or research purposes and
which are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to
quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded from
copyright.
Copyright © 2021 by American Welding Society in both
printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible
for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data
and information developed by the authors of specific articles
are for informational purposes only and are not intended for
use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
Editorial July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:23 AM Page 5
Naval Shipbuilding Relies on Quality
Welding
Naval shipbuilding and the American
Welding Society have been intertwined since
World War I. This history is shared at
aws.org/resources/detail/welding-and-the-
society. The following paragraph is a summa-
ry from that resource:
An evolving metal joining process, weld-
ing suddenly became very necessary to en-
hance the war effort. To ensure that industry
took advantage of this technology, President
Woodrow Wilson called upon a Harvard pro-
fessor, Comfort A. Adams, to chair the Weld-
ing Committee of the Emergency Fleet Corp.
Welding performed well in the war effort
Lynn Showalter and its success motivated Adams in 1919 to
AWS District 4 Director bring together industry leaders for the pur-
pose of merging the Welding Committee of
the Emergency Fleet Corp. and the National
“Everything that Welding Council into a new organization, the
precedes the purpose of which was to provide dependable
and objective information on the developing
welder is important, technology of welding. On March 28, 1919,
but it is all depend- the American Welding Society was formed
ent on how the with Adams as President.
welder executes AWS has developed many standards that
the weld. The team help promote safety in naval shipbuilding.
is counting on the The process begins with the preliminary and
concept design phases. The engineering de-
welder to follow the sign team must determine the conditions
procedure and put the ship will be exposed to as well as the
his or her heart and ship’s role and mission, service life, and dam-
soul into making age control systems. Most importantly, the
every weld with team must identify what is needed to bring
the sailors home safely.
the best quality For this editorial, I will focus on the weld-
possible.” ing aspects of the design, fabrication, and
construction.
A robust, workable design should have the
weld joints located away from high-stress
locations. The weld joints should also be fab-
ricated so they meet the specifications and
do not require extra weld metal to compen-
sate for excessive root openings or prior poor
workmanship. Additionally, welds should be
designed and configured so the welder or the
mechanized welding equipment has ade-
quate access to complete the joints safely
and with the utmost quality.
The Welding Engineering division, which
is a functional department at most ship-
yards, is responsible for qualifying and devel-
oping the welding procedure that has been
validated with significant nondestructive
and destructive examination of the weld and
the surrounding base materials. The welding
procedure defines the essential elements and
EDITORIAL
variables to follow for the production welds
to function as designed by engineering.
These welding procedures may include mini-
mum and maximum preheat and interpass
temperatures and heat input ranges. These
are not suggestions; they are requirements.
Violating them is a deviation from the speci-
fication, which could have liability implica-
tions and may cause the weld and surround-
ing base material to become weak or brittle.
Therefore, the welders need to check the
welding procedure before they strike the arc.
Once a welder touches the base material
with the welding arc, that event cannot be
easily erased without some significant cor-
rective actions or intervention. The welders
are probably the last craftspeople, other than
the inspectors, to touch the component, and
their efforts should fulfill the design intent
for each completed weld joint.
Welding that’s just good enough may not
provide an adequate margin for extreme con-
ditions. For example, the U.S. Navy submarine
USS San Francisco, which was built by Newport
News Shipbuilding (NNS), hit an uncharted
undersea mountain at flank speed on January
8, 2005 and was able to make it back to port
due to the heroic efforts of the crew. Unfortu-
nately, one sailor was killed and others were
injured, but the submarine was repaired and
put back into the fleet. The survivability of
that submarine can be attributed to the robust
design and technical rigor and compliance that
went into every step from the design to the
completion of the welds.
Naval shipbuilding is not just limited to
the shipyards. For example, businesses that
supply NNS can be found in nearly every
state of the United States. More than 2000
active suppliers support the construction of
nuclear-powered submarines, construction
and mid-life overhaul of nuclear-powered
aircraft carriers, ship repairs, maintenance of
NNS facilities, and numerous other opera-
tions. NNS and the Navy are counting on all
of the welds to be completed to the quality
standards mandated in the specifications.
Everything that precedes the welder is im-
portant, but it is all dependent on how the
welder executes the weld. The team is count-
ing on the welder to follow the procedure and
put his or her heart and soul into making
every weld with the best quality possible. One
of the signs that we have posted throughout
NNS is “Would you trust your family with the
work that you completed today?” WJ
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 5
PTN JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 3:38 PM Page 6
PRESS TIME NEWS
Women Welders Capture the TODAY Spotlight
This screenshot from the TODAY coverage features welders
(from left) Lily Kline, Teia Leonard, and Bailey Steele.
On May 17, three women joining the male-dominated
world of welding — Lily Kline, Teia Leonard, and Bailey
Steele — shared their personal stories on NBC’s
TODAY morning news program. As part of its “Women Are
Essential” series, the 5-min video can be watched at nbc-
news.com/business/business-news/female-welders-torch-glass-
ceiling-male-dominated-field-n1264212 as well as
youtube.com/watch?v=qkkHareoT2U.
Toward the start of the segment, Cynthia McFadden,
NBC senior investigative correspondent, provided the fol-
lowing narration:
“This is what sparks their passion — welding — often
seen as a man’s job, these young women are torching that
old glass ceiling.”
After historic shots of Rosie the Riveter were highlighted,
she continued, “Eighty years ago, there were women picking
up the torch, thousands of them stepping up during World
War II, but when the men returned, most departed. These
three — part of a new generation.”
An engaging discussion with the women began after Mc-
Fadden stated, “Only about 4% of welders right now are fe-
male. You are pioneers, all of you.” The women spoke to-
gether from Ganas, a custom furniture shop outside Detroit.
They shared stories about being underestimated by men
when they first started their jobs, what it means when
“flash” is hollered (don’t look), being a woman in a male-
dominated world, and more. Presently, Kline makes custom
furniture at this shop; Steele is welding cells for the new
county jail; and Leonard helps build the elaborate ovens
used to bake on car paint.
The three welders are graduates of a Detroit-based pro-
gram called Women Who Weld® (womenwhoweld.org), which
has 100% program completion and employment rates. Note:
Due to the pandemic, all intensive welding training classes
and introductory workshops are suspended, but the non-
profit organization plans to resume this summer; visit its
website for updates. And to learn more, read “Women Who
Weld®: Lighting the Way Out of Poverty” in the July 2018
Welding Journal by Associate Editor Katie Pacheco.
When the women were asked what they would say to girls
in the audience about their profession, Leonard encouraged,
“It’s okay to want to be something that isn’t the norm, you
know? It’s okay to want to be a welder. It’s okay to be in a
room full of men and know what you’re doing.”
6 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
Apply for an ITSA Scholarship
Applications for the International Thermal Spray Associa-
tion’s (ITSA’s) Scholarship Program are accepted annually from
May 1 to July 15. Up to three one-year scholarships worth
$2000 each may be awarded and announced in August. The
form can be accessed at itsa2.awsmarketing.org/scholarship.
Only those meeting all of the following criteria will be accepted
for consideration:
• Student must be actively pursuing a postgraduate de-
gree in thermal spray processes (plasma, flame, arc, high ve-
locity oxygen fuel) or materials at an accredited university
(United States only).
• Student must have at least one more year left in studies
(after the current year).
• Student must be recommended by a supervisor of the
university he or she is attending. The student’s financial
need must be verified by a professor.
• Student must be recommended by at least one industry
source.
Via letter, the student must present his or her interest in
pursuing a career in thermal spray (maximum of three typed
pages). The following conditions must also be met:
• Student must include the completed application form.
• Paperwork must be received from May 1 to July 15; if
received outside these dates, the paperwork will not be
considered.
Fincantieri and Comau to Manufacture a
New Welding Robot Vehicle for Shipyards
Italian-based Fincantieri, one of the world’s largest ship-
building groups, and Comau, a global company in the industri-
al automation field, have signed a letter of intent to develop
prototypes of robotized steel welding solutions, as well as the
resulting construction of a series of machines, to be imple-
mented at first in Fincantieri shipyards.
The first joint project, of which the operating agreement is
underway and related tests are scheduled at the Fincantieri
shipyards by the first half of 2022, will involve a welding robot
vehicle consisting of an anthropomorphic welding robot and a
remote control tracked vehicle.
Hypertherm Awards 2021 Spark Something
Great Grants to 12 Schools
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., a manufacturer of industrial
cutting systems and software, has revealed the recipients of its
2021 Spark Something Great educational grant. The program,
now in its seventh year, is designed to place the latest plasma
technology into schools.
This year’s recipients were Bluestone High School, Skipwith,
Va.; Clark County Area Technology Center, Winchester, Ky.;
Felicity-Franklin High School, Felicity, Ohio; George Stevens
Academy, Blue Hill, Maine; Iron Eagle Welding Academy, Stock-
ton, Mo.; Morrilton High School, Morrilton, Ark.; North Amer-
ican Trade School, Baltimore, Md.; South Carolina School of
Welding LLC, Beech Island, S.C.; Spotswood High School, Penn
Laird, Va.; Terre Haute North Vigo High School, Terre Haute,
Ind.; University of Tennessee at Martin, Martin, Tenn.; and
Vincent Massey Secondary, Windsor, Ontario, Canada. WJ
NI JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:32 AM Page 7

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

Naval News Sets Sail

VOC Amsterdam, the replica of an 18th century Dutch East

India vessel, has returned to the National Maritime Museum USS Shiloh (CG 67) prepares for its departure from Fleet Ac-
in the Dutch capital after work at Damen’s yards. (Credit: tivities Yokosuka, a U.S. Navy base in Japan. (Photo by Rokuro
Damen.) Igarashi.)

• BWXT Reveals $2.2 Billion in Contracts. BWX Tech- equipment and tools contemporary with the original vessel.
nologies (BWXT) Inc., Lynchburg, Va., has announced the • Colonna’s Shipyard Establishes New Weld Division.
award of U.S. Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program contracts Colonna’s Shipyard Inc., Norfolk, Va., has named its new di-
totaling approximately $2.2 billion, including future-year vision Weld America, a newly formed subsidiary. An impor-
options, for the manufacture of naval nuclear reactor com- tant aspect of this subsidiary will be the development of a
ponents and fuel. The initial contracts were awarded in the Quick Reaction Force, which will mobilize anywhere in the
first quarter of 2021 and will constitute about half of the United States within 24 h and globally in 48 h.
$2.2 billion. In addition, the contract options are subject to “Weld America was created to fill a serious void in the lo-
annual Congressional appropriations and constitute the re- cal, national, and international marketplace for maritime
mainder of the total value. and industrial welding,” explained Randall Crutchfield, co-
Columbia and Virginia-class naval nuclear reactor compo- chair of the board.
nent manufacturing and material procurement activities
will take place at BWXT Nuclear Operations Group Inc. in
Lynchburg, Va.; Barberton and Euclid, Ohio; and Mount
Vernon, Ind., over an eight-year period starting in 2021.
Manufacture and delivery of fuel and support activities for
the U.S. Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, as well as devel-
opment work for future naval reactor programs, will be con-
ducted by Nuclear Fuel Services Inc., Erwin, Tenn.
• VOC Amsterdam Back at National Maritime Muse-
um Following Maintenance at Damen Yards. VOC Ams-
terdam has returned to the National Maritime Museum in
the Dutch capital after work at Damen’s yards. The replica
of an 18th century Dutch East India vessel visited Damen
Shiprepair Amsterdam (DSAm) and Damen Shiprepair
Oranjewerf for a ten-year maintenance project.
The ship arrived at DSAm in September 2020. Its rigging
and masts were removed. The project had challenges, includ-
ing the removal and replacement of all caulking. Additional-
ly, the vessel underwent cleaning of underwater areas and
was repainted at the yard. In October, the vessel was taken
to the Oranjewerf yard for a floating maintenance scope. In
March, it was moved to Damen Shiprepair Amsterdam for
the final installation of masts and riggings. The ship re-
turned to its position outside the museum in April.
Pictured is a 3D image of the Phoenix test tank to be built in
The replica vessel was built in Amsterdam between 1985 Bayou Vista, La. It will be used for many subsea applications.
and 1990 by volunteers using a combination of modern

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 7

NI JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:33 AM Page 8
Kenny Mebane, the driving force behind the inception
and growth of the company’s Steel America subsidiary, will
lead the new welding division along with Nathan Lortz, di-
rector of Weld America, and Charles Colonna.
• USS Shiloh’s Availability Finishes on Time. The ship
Repair Facility and Japan Regional Maintenance Center
(SRF-JRMC) has completed Ticonderoga-class guided mis-
sile cruiser USS Shiloh’s (CG 67) surface incremental avail-
ability on April 26. This availability provides greater mainte-
nance support and is part of the U.S. Navy’s 36-month Opti-
mized Fleet Response Plan maintenance cycle.
“This project wouldn’t have been successful without the
outstanding support from all the SRF-JRMC engineering
and planning codes and the coordination support from our
Commander Naval Surface Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet port en-
gineer. Specifically, the efforts of our chief test engineers —
who successfully completed all testing during a continuously
changing schedule — was nothing short of amazing!” said
Capt. Neil Sexton, SRF-JRMC commanding officer.
• Newport News Shipbuilding Expands Programs to
Offer Academic Degrees. The Apprentice School at New-
port News Shipbuilding, Newport News, Va., has been certi-
fied by the Council for Occupational Education to provide
academic degrees in 26 educational programs. Starting in
2023, the school will grant associate degrees of applied sci-
ence in maritime technology to apprentices who complete
the required coursework and skills training, including weld-
ing, maintenance electrician, marine designer, and more.
“We’re proud to expand our competitive skills training
and leadership program to offer academic degrees to appren-
8 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
tices,” said Latitia McCane, director of education at The Ap-
prentice School. “This historic achievement is a natural pro-
gression to the investment in workforce development we
have made to recruit, train, and develop the next generation
of shipbuilders and provide continued opportunities for per-
sonal and professional growth.”
• New Test Tank under Construction at Phoenix Bay-
ou Vista Yard. Phoenix International Holdings Inc., a ma-
rine services contractor, has announced the construction of
a new test tank at its Bayou Vista, La., facility.
The one-atmosphere dive tank will measure 13 ft 6 in.
outside diameter × 40 ft height and hold 39,700 gal. It will
be utilized for multiple subsea applications, such as under-
water weld testing (both wet and dry habitat conditions),
underwater nondestructive examination, and performance
trials including underwater welding certifications and un-
derwater tooling calibration and testing.
Phoenix plans to have the tank completed by the 2021
fourth quarter.
Path Robotics Raises $56 Million to Help
Build the Future of Manufacturing
Path Robotics, Columbus, Ohio, which claims to be re-
sponsible for designing the world’s first truly autonomous
robotic welding system, has received $56 million in Series B
funding, bringing the total invested in the company to $71
million. Addition led the round and was joined by returning
investors Drive Capital, Basis Set, and Lemnos Lab.
NI JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:33 AM Page 9

“Path Robotics is solving a complex and critical problem

in our country by bridging the gap between the supply of
skilled welders and demand,” said Lee Fixel of Addition. “We
look forward to supporting the company as it works to lead
American manufacturing into the future.”
The company’s technology was designed to ensure no
system programming and require no perfect parts. Through
proprietary scanning and computer vision technology, the
system can see and understand nearly any part it’s given,
with the ability to self-adjust for each unique part. It ana-
lyzes where a weld is needed and generates the planning to
execute a clean weld nearly instantly. Visit path-robotics.com.

AISI Automotive Program Vice President John Catterall wel-

AISI Hosts Its First Virtual Symposium for the comed more than 1400 registrants to the 19th annual GDIS
19th Annual Great Designs in Steel Event virtual event.

On May 19, the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

welcomed more than 1400 registrants from around the
world to the 19th annual Great Designs in Steel (GDIS) sym-
posium. 2021 marked the symposium’s first virtual event.
The showcase seminar brought together automotive original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs), university representa-
tives, steel companies, and suppliers to see the newest offer-
ings in automotive and steel technology and give attendees
the opportunity to network with industry experts. The ses-
sion format included live moderators, prerecorded presenta-
tions, and a Q&A.
This year’s all-day, multitrack program included 27 tech-
nical presentations. Track 1 featured OEM body structure
presentations as well as topics surrounding electric and con-
nected vehicles, design, and fracture prediction. Track 2
presentation topics highlighted spot-welding advanced
high-strength steels (AHSS), liquid metal embrittlement
(LME), springback, laser joining, repairability, and more.
Track 3 covered battery and occupant protection, cold form-
ing, bumper design, tailor-welded hot stamping, laser heat
treatment, and additional topics. Attendees were able to
bounce between tracks to see presentations on multiple
subjects. Below are some highlights.
• The event kicked off with a welcome session,
which included the Award of Excellence and keynote

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 9

NI JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:33 AM Page 10
Keynote speakers John McElroy and Gregory Ludkovsky ad-
dressed the automotive industry as well as innovations and
sustainability in the steel industry during the GDIS virtual
symposium.
speeches. John Catterall, vice president of the AISI auto-
motive program, greeted attendees and announced Ford
Motor Co. as the winner of the Automotive Excellence
Award for its AHSS innovations in the 2020 Ford Escape and
Kuga. Michael Kozak, global body structure manager at
Ford, accepted the award for his GDIS 2019 presentation ti-
tled “The All New 2020 Ford Escape and Kuga.”
“Automotive Excellence Award winners use AHSS in ap-
plications to provide the best value for consumers while also
improving vehicle performance and sustainability,” Catterall
said. “Steel is driving innovation, and Michael and the Ford
10 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
team are a great example of the capability of these next-gen-
eration steel grades.”
• The industry overview keynote speech was deliv-
ered by John McElroy, host of Autoline. McElroy named
his automotive keynote presentation “The Most Exciting
Time in the Auto Industry — Gulp.”
“We’re going through unprecedented change, and the fu-
ture is exciting and wondrous. But I also added a ‘Gulp’ at
the end of the title because we’re going to go through a tran-
sition that’s going to be disruptive and painful,” McElroy
said. “. . . The auto industry is undergoing the greatest tran-
sition in its history, and steel can help them blaze the path
forward.”
He was followed by Gregory Ludkovsky, vice president/
CEO of Global Research and Development at ArcelorMittal,
who delivered a steel keynote address titled “Steel Company
of the Future.”
“The steel industry has undergone phenomenal transfor-
mation changes, and it’s distinctly different from what it
used to be in the past and, like automotive, is evolving to be-
come ‘iPhone on steel.’ So do steel companies become a
high-tech company, which happens to produce steel? If you
believe that already has happened, we need to think twice
because the best and exciting is yet to come,” Ludkovsky
said.
• Speakers offered a broad range of topics that
focused on automotive design, AHSSs, and manufactur-
ing technologies. Track 1 presentations showcased product
— continued on page 72
pov-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 7:33 PM Page 11

POINT OF VIEW
BY DONALD F. MAATZ JR.

A Memory of the USS Pittsburgh

When people learn I served on at a depth of 100 ft, the ship’s pressure the respect one had to have for the en-
board a submarine, the typical reac- vessel was subjected to about 65,000 vironment in which we lived.
tions range from incredulity to ques- tons of force, every drop of it trying to The fabrication of the hull was
tions regarding my sanity (perhaps collapse the boat into itself. highlighted, as it is the most visible
justified). I suppose the reason is the Once completed, the sections are part of any submarine. However, one
mere mention of a submarine conjures spotted — larger components (think should not ignore all of the other
all sorts of imaginative thoughts (How almost anything bigger than a person) welded, soldered, or brazed connec-
do you “make” air?). Having served placed inside — and welded. While all tions required to complete the assem-
aboard a submarine many years ago, of this is fairly straight forward, none bly of the myriad of internal systems
now seems like an appropriate time to of it is easy. HY-80 is hardenable, and that exist in a nuclear submarine.
share a part of the story. the welding procedures have to ac- Frankly, it is impossible to overstate
count for this. The people at Electric the enormity of what was accom-
Let’s Build a Submarine Boat did their job well because the plished during her construction and
rise/dive ratio for the Pittsburgh the skill level required to pull it off.
The contract to build the Los stayed at one. In fact, over the course
Angeles-class attack submarine, also of her career, she made more than Learning (The Navy Way)
known as a 688 (pronounced six- 1000 dives. Not many submarines
eighty-eight), that would become the have done that. Prior to reporting to the Pittsburgh,
USS Pittsburgh (SSN-720) was awarded Despite its immense strength, the I was in the training pipeline required
to the Electric Boat Division in Gro- hull of a submarine moves while un- of those who decided to serve our
ton, Conn., on April 16, 1979. Her keel derway. We, of course, had our own country. The details are not important,
was laid down April 15, 1983. She was way of demonstrating this. Specifical- but to any “navy-nuc” of my era, the
launched December 8, 1984, commis- ly, to indoctrinate new folks, we would following 24-month-long progression
sioned November 23, 1985 (Fig. 1), once in a while tie a line across the en- will sound familiar: boot camp and Ma-
and decommissioned after 35 years of gine room while in port. Once sub- chinist Mate A-School, temporary duty
service on January 17, 2020. However, merged, the line would sag to the deck. on USS Barney (DDG-6), nuclear power
the real story is what occurred in be- We then retied the line and waited for school, and finally, S8G prototype.
tween. It is, in part, a welding story. the boat to surface and the line to However, I had one more stop to make
The first time a nuclear submarine snap. It was an effective expression of before getting my first look at what
begins to look like a submarine is
when sections of the hull are fabricat-
ed. Submarine hulls are made from dif-
fering specialty steels — Fig. 2. In the
case of the Pittsburgh so many years
ago, it was HY-80, a material with a
high yield strength. This means it is
good at resisting plastic deformation
— a great trait for a submarine hull
subjected to the conditions associated
with life under the water. But what
forces of nature are at work when you
go beneath the waves?
To help illustrate this, I will use an
example of a simple cylinder whose sur-
face area (not including the ends) is
2r*h. To compare with another exam-
ple, my home’s hot water tank has a di-
ameter of 20 in. and a height of 59 in.,
which equals to 3705 in.2. The weight
of water equates to 44 lb/in.2 at a depth
of 100 ft. So if the hull was as small as
my hot water tank, at a depth of 100 ft,
the force exerted against the cylinder
would be about 163,000 lb. The Pitts- Pictured is the USS Pittsburgh (SSN-720) moored out. The submarine was launched
burgh was 33 ft in diameter. This means in 1984 and decommissioned, after 35 years of service, in 2020.

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 11

pov-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 7:33 PM Page 12
Fig. 1 — Commissioning of the USS Pittsburgh (SSN-720).
would be my home for four years —
the Navy’s Emergency Welding School.
The Emergency Repair Welder (NEC
3351) is a nuclear-trained Machinist
Mate who successfully completes an in-
tensive 12-week training course, and
his or her function is to provide any
emergency repairs required to get the
ship back to port. The school was
taught by U.S. Navy Hull Maintenance
Fig. 2 — Example of a submarine hull thickness.
12 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
Technicians, and let me tell you, those
guys were good. A truncated overview
of the curriculum indicated that we
were about to be subjected to a large
firehose of information. We, essential-
ly, had to be able to repair any weld on
the boat, for example,
• Shielded metal arc welding for
steel, 300-series stainless, and Monel®;
• Oxyacetylene to include bronze/
copper torch brazing; and
• Gas tungsten arc welding for 300-
series stainless and Inconel® pipes.
To graduate, proficiency had to be
demonstrated with each process and
material. This included passing radi-
ographic testing inspection on both
stainless and Inconel. To get past this
hurdle, we were required to prep the
pipe ends, fit the consumable insert,
pull it, fill the joint, and use a rotary
file to finish the profile. It was also on
a 1-in. schedule-80 pipe in a confined
space, and the pipe we were welding
on was only secured at one end; there-
fore, if we applied the heat incorrectly
and it moved too far from true, we
were instructed to try it again. But it
was a great learning experience. I was
now ready to head out to the fleet.
Away We Go!
The Pittsburgh and I did not meet
until two months before her launch.
By this time, she looked very much
like a submarine. For context, the
shipyard is not where a vessel looks its
best. One need to only look at the
large number of cables and hoses run-
ning into and out of the vessel to see
that this was, hopefully, a temporary
condition. As was typical for boats of
her era, the Pittsburgh was built with
her stern to the water, and that is how
she entered her natural environment
for the first time, with me on board.
I could try to describe the vibrant
sun and crisp December air enveloping
us that morning and maybe the stiff
breeze that was making it feel even
colder. I might try to depict how the
entire boat was, for the first time,
completely unencumbered (not a line
or cable to be seen) and perched, al-
most precariously it seemed, upon the
ramp we called “the ways” leading to
the water’s edge and ready for its ini-
tial big step. Or perhaps, I could en-
deavor to convey the unnatural feeling
of the boat starting to move, rather
rapidly I might add, after hearing a
muted thud as something was knocked
free (after she was christened and
the champagne bottle was broken
by the ship’s sponsor, Dr. Carolyn
Sawyer). But a picture is worth a
thousand words, and in some cases, a
video is better — Fig. 3. Oh, what a
ride it was!
pov-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 7:33 PM Page 13
Fig. 3 — Launch of the USS Pittsburgh (SSN-720). Readers can view the launch on
YouTube at the 28:00 min mark (youtube.com/watch?v=KjUsrDf-G-k).
Out to the Fleet
Once all the pomp and circum-
stance was over, it was time to get to
work, and that meant heading out to
sea. Before being let out on your own,
one needs to prove the capability of
heading out and safely coming back.
Think of a teenage driver. The first
time behind the wheel is never a solo
endeavor. To that end, there were
many tests, drills, sea trials, and
whole-boat certifications accom-
plished. The litany of items (not to
mention the required hours) was long.
A very partial list from that period of
my life would include acronyms that
make sense only to a sub-sailor, such
as NAVSEA; ORSE; NR; COMSUB-
LANT; and many others.
The balance of my time on the
Pittsburgh consisted of doing more
things than I could possibly name, in-
cluding stopping at ports of call in the
Caribbean, Mediterranean, and the
UK; becoming a ‘Blue Nose’ when we
ventured above the Arctic Circle; run-
ning more drills than it would be pos-
sible to recount; being qualified for
every M-Division watch station; and
operating the engine room in every
condition imaginable. What sort of
conditions am I talking about? Being
on the surface and rolling back and
forth like a cork, sometimes as much
as 45 deg, or going through an extend-
ed shutdown and working between the
mains when the temperature was
north of 125˚F. But it all became part
of what you did to get the job done.
I actually needed to break out the
welding machine a few times, with the
most common reason being my annual
qualification. In one instance, we
needed to remove and reattach a
bracket to access equipment requiring
service. My only actual repair weld (a
small support pin on an air dryer) re-
quired me to craft a weld hood out of
duct tape to get in far enough to see
what I was doing. That was it. Electric
Boat built us a good one.
All Good Things. . .
In the four years on board the Pitts-
burgh, I spent about 19 months under-
water, a number that often makes
folks look at me askance. But all good
things must come to an end, both my
time on board and for the Pittsburgh
herself.
This brings us to the real story of
the Pittsburgh — the fine folks who
served aboard her. They did the ordi-
nary in an extraordinary way. So while
the physical entity that is the Pitts-
burgh is no more, the stories, memo-
ries, and feelings are still there, and
that is what’s really important. To
say I am proud to have been a very
small part of that legacy is a vast
understatement.
The De-Commissioning Ceremony
can be found on the Sub Group 9 Face-
book page or YouTube (type USS Pitts-
burgh SSN-720 Inactivation). As one
would expect, it was a formal, moving,
and solemn event punctuated by more
than a few laughs — a magnificent job
by all. Also, I want to send a special ac-
knowledgment to the 14th (and last)
commanding officer of the Pittsburgh,
CDR Jason Deichler, and his entire
crew. They were gracious hosts
throughout and made the trip both
memorable and enjoyable. Finally, if
you attended, or watched online, the
sharp-eared might notice I lifted a few
comments from CDR Deichler’s re-
marks. Thank you for the great and
wonderful words, sir. I did not even
want to attempt to say it better
myself.
Epilogue
On April 15, 2020, the ensign of
the USS Pittsburgh (SSN-720) was low-
ered for the final time. The last com-
manding officer of the Pittsburgh com-
pleted the transfer of the vessel to the
Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, officially
concluding the decommissioning
process. This final act coincided exact-
ly 37 years to the day her keel was laid
down at Electric Boat. WJ
DONALD F. MAATZ JR.
(dmaatz@reautomated.com) spent six
years in the U.S. Navy and, at the
completion of his enlistment, was a
Machinist Mate 1st Class, Submarine
Qualified (MM1/SS), and a plank owner of
the USS Pittsburgh (SSN-720). He is the
laboratory manager for R&E Engineering
Services, Romeo, Mich., past chair of the
AWS Detroit Section, advisor to the C1
Resistance Welding Committee, an AWS
Certified Welding Inspector, vice chair of
the Certified Resistance Welding
Technician working group, and an
instructor for the RWMA School.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 13
Stainless Q&A – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:29 PM Page 14

STAINLESS Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI

The four test conditions produced

Q: In the September 2011 Stainless Q&A column, the following question somewhat similar results. The most
was addressed: consistent results came from the boil-
“A Canadian reader inquired about Clause A7.21 in American Welding ing 65% nitric acid exposure. Not all
Society (AWS) A5.4/A5.4M:2006, Specification for Stainless Steel Elec- details are available, but Table 1 pres-
trodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding. The clause concerns E316-XX cov- ents some of the details for those tests
ered electrodes but not E316L-XX covered electrodes. The portion of the along with the corrosion rates ob-
clause that is of interest states, served. Corrosion tended to be con-
‘Rapid corrosion of Type 316 weld metal may occur when the following centrated along ferrite/austenite in-
three factors coexist: terfaces or in the ferrite of the weld
1. The presence of a continuous or semicontinuous network of ferrite metal. Figure 1 plots the corrosion
in the weld metal microstructure; rates vs. the Cr:Mo ratio for the boil-
2. A composition of the weld metal giving a chromium-to-molybdenum ing 65% nitric acid exposure.
ratio of less than 8.2 to 1; and It is interesting to note that 317L
3. Immersion of the weld metal in a corrosive medium. weld metal (identified by the “A” in Fig.
Attempts to classify the media in which accelerated corrosion will take 1), which is usually considered to pro-
place by attack on the ferrite phase have not been entirely successful. vide improved corrosion resistance over
Strong oxidizing and mildly reducing environments have been present 316L weld metal, performed the worst
where a number of corrosion failures were investigated and documented. in the boiling 65% nitric acid. Moreover,
The literature should be consulted for the latest recommendations.’ it also performed more poorly than the
The reader’s question concerns the origin of the above statement and weld metals tested in the mild reducing
any supporting data for the 8.2 to 1 chromium-to-molybdenum ratio.” medium (1% hydrochloric acid at
175°F). Samples E, H, and I are all 316L
A: I did not know the answer in 2011 welding 316L for use in the as-welded weld metals, but E has a Cr:Mo ratio be-
nor did any of the colleagues I contacted condition, not 316 as stated in the an- low 8.2 and performed poorly in the
at that time, so I invited readers to find nex clause of AWS A5.4. He evaluated boiling 65% nitric acid. In contrast,
the source. No one came forward for al- a number of filler metals, not all the samples H and I have Cr:Mo ratios
most ten years. I am now indebted to same ones, under four test conditions. above 8.2 and performed well.
Frank Lake, senior product develop- The test conditions included a highly Based on these results, it is easy to
ment engineer with Stoody Co. (a divi- oxidizing medium (boiling 65% nitric see why Espy recommended a mini-
sion of ESAB), for finding the answer. acid), a mild reducing medium (1% hy- mum Cr:Mo ratio of 8.2:1 for 316L
While re-reading the 1974 Comfort A. drochloric acid at 175°F [80°C]), a weld metal. It appears that the caution
Adams Lecture by William T. DeLong borderline active-passive medium (2% in AWS A5.4 should be directed at the
(Ref. 1), Lake noticed a reference to a sulfuric acid at 175°F), and a pitting 316L weld metal, instead of, or in ad-
Cr:Mo ratio (incorrectly stated as 7.2:1 medium (perchloric-acetic acid at dition to, the 316 weld metal.
instead of 8.2:1) in a paper by Harry 175°F). The test welds were three-pass I examined various published edi-
Espy ten years before the lecture. butt welds (two passes on the top side tions of AWS filler metal specifications
Espy’s work concerned the 316L followed by one on the root side) in to find out when the warning about
base metal and low-carbon filler metals ¼-in. (6.4-mm) 316L stainless steel, the 316 8.2:1 Cr:Mo ratio first ap-
that might be selected at that time for made mostly with covered electrodes. peared. I also searched for the time
frame in which Espy and DeLong were
involved in the A5 Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials as well as
its A5D Subcommittee on Stainless
Steel Filler Metals because it seemed
logical that one or the other intro-
duced the idea.
Table 2 lists the findings for AWS
A5.4 (stainless steel covered electrodes)
and A5.9/A5.9M (stainless steel solid
wires and rods), Specification for Bare
Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes and
Rods. This ratio has never been men-
tioned in connection with flux-cored
316 stainless steel electrodes in AWS
A5.22/A5.22M, Specification for Stain-
less Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored
Welding Electrodes and Rods, but when
metal-cored stainless steel electrodes
Fig. 1 — Corrosion rate vs. Cr:Mo ratio for 316L weldments exposed to the boiling 65% were transferred from the A5.9 specifi-
nitric acid. The compositions in Table 1 are located by the letters on the plot. cation to A5.22 in 2010, the 8.2:1

14 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Stainless Q&A – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 11:06 AM Page 15

Table 1 — Boiling 65% Nitric Acid Exposure Tests for 316L Weldments

Three-Pass Butt Weld, 1⁄4-in. 316L Base Metal

Code Filler Type Composition, wt-% Ferrite % Cr/Mo Ratio Corrosion Rate,
Cr Ni Mo mils/month

A 317L 19.44 18.86 3.93 11.0 5.0 15.2

B 19-15 18.69 14.48 2.56 0.5 7.3 3.6
C 19-13 18.86 13.01 2.50 3.4 7.5 4.8
D 20-14 19.52 13.47 2.57 4.3 7.6 1.4
E 316L 17.41 12.28 2.26 1.4 7.7 6.7
F 21-13 20.64 12.76 2.53 6.6 8.2 1.0
G 21-15 20.64 14.50 2.49 4.2 8.3 1.2
H 316L 19.35 13.21 2.24 2.3 8.6 0.9
I 316L 18.66 13.50 2.11 1.2 8.8 0.7
J 23-16 23.34 15.72 2.30 6.8 10.0 0.7
K 309 24.16 13.70 — 6.8 >> 10 0.6
L 312 29.11 8.76 — 65.0 >> 10 0.6
M 18-18 17.88 18.26 2.45 0.0 7.3 0.7
N 310Mo 25.39 21.10 2.07 0.0 12.2 0.9

Table 2 — History of AWS A5.4 (Covered Electrodes) and A5.9 (Bare Solid Electrodes and Rods) Specifications Involving Espy, DeLong, and the
8.2 Cr:Mo Ratio for 316 Weld Metal

Edition of Specification Involvement of Espy and DeLong Presence of 8.2 Cr:Mo Ratio

AWS A5.4-62T
ASTM A298T Committee rosters not listed Preceded Espy’s publication

AWS A5.9-62T Committee rosters not listed Preceded Espy’s publication

AWS A5.4-69 Committee rosters not listed Not mentioned

AWS A5.9-69 Committee rosters not listed 8.2 Cr:Mo ratio for 316 first
appears in Appendix Clause
A1.14

AWS A5.9-77 A5 Committee roster included Espy and DeLong 8.2:1 Cr:Mo ratio for 316
A5D Subcommittee roster included Espy appears in Appendix Clause
A5.13

AWS A5.4-78 A5 Committee roster included DeLong Not mentioned

A5D Subcommittee roster included Espy

AWS A5.4-81 Espy and DeLong absent from A5 Committee 8.2 Cr:Mo ratio for 316 first
and A5D Subcommittee rosters appears in Appendix Clause
A5.18

Cr:Mo ratio entered the Annex of AWS
A5.22/A5.22M:2010 only in connec-
tion with EC316 metal-cored electrodes.
Oddly, the 8.2:1 Cr:Mo ratio in con-
nection with ER316 electrodes and
rods appeared in AWS A5.9-69, but
not for 316 covered electrodes in A5.4-
69 nor in A5.4-78. It was not until the
publication of A5.4-81, 12 years and
two editions of A5.4 after publication
of AWS A5.9-69, that the 8.2:1 Cr:Mo
ratio appeared in connection with 316
covered electrodes. The AWS A5 Com-
mittee and A5D Subcommittee rosters
are not listed in either 1969 specifica-
tion. Both Espy and DeLong are listed
in the AWS A5.9-78 A5 Committee
roster, and Espy is listed in the A5D
Subcommittee roster of that specifica-
tion. Therefore, it seems likely, but is
by no means certain, that one or both
of them were involved in the introduc-
tion of the 8.2:1 Cr:Mo ratio regarding
316 weld metal into the AWS filler
metal specifications. The AWS A5D
Subcommittee can now consider how
to address this information. WJ
References
1. DeLong, W. T. 1974. Ferrite in
austenitic stainless steel weld metal.
Welding Journal 53(7): 273-s to 286-s.
2. Espy, R. H. 1964. What weld metal
for type 316L stainless steel? Metal
Progress 86(3): 109–115.
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president of Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants Inc. He is a
past treasurer of the IIW and a member of
the AWS A5D Subcommittee on Stainless
Steel Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on
Stainless Steel, and WRC Subcommittee on
Welding Stainless Steels and Nickel-Base
Alloys. He is a past chair of the A5
Committee on Filler Metals and Allied
Materials and served as AWS president
(2005–2006). Questions may be sent to
Damian J. Kotecki c/o Welding Journal, 8669
NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672, or
via email at damian@damiankotecki.com.

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 15

rwma-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:45 PM Page 16
RWMA Q&A
This issue’s RWMA Q&A includes
questions and answers address-
ing common concerns in the
resistance welding industry.
Q: When I make a spot weld, the elec-
trode makes a dent into the metal that
is more than our visual requirements
allow. Because the metal is being
pushed inward by the electrode, I re-
duce the electrode force (lower the air
pressure), but the problem is still there
and maybe worse. What am I doing
wrong?
A: I get this question quite often. Logi-
cally, when you push with more force
on hot metal, it will deform. However,
the truth is counterintuitive. The rea-
son the electrode dents into the sur-
face of the metal is that the force is
too low. If the force between the tip of
the electrode and the outer surface of
the metal is too low, the electrical re-
sistance between these two parts will
be high. The formula for the heat cre-
ated at that junction is the following:
I2 × r × t
where I is current, r is resistance be-
tween the parts, and t is weld time.
Therefore, for low force, the r in the
equation will be high. This means the
work done at the surface under the
electrode will be very high, and the
metal at the surface will become plas-
tic or start to melt. This, with the force
of the electrode, will push the metal
deeper under the electrode. If you in-
crease the electrode force, the resist-
Fig. 1 — SCR contactor has two sepa-
rate elements.
16 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
ance at this interface will be much low-
er, and the heat created at the surface
will lessen to reduce the indentation.
Also, if the force is higher, you can use
more current without expulsion and,
therefore, reduce welding time to fur-
ther reduce indentation.
Q: I have a spot welding machine that
has stopped welding. It has a silicon-
controlled rectifier (SCR) contactor
and is operated by a solid-state
controller. The control display shows
that everything is going through the
sequence, but no heat is created.
When I replace the SCR contactor,
will I have to make any changes or
adjustments in my program?
A: First of all, the chances that the
problem is in the SCR contactor are al-
most nil. The SCR contactor is com-
posed of two separate elements, as
shown in Fig. 1. If one of them is bad,
it will typically be shorted (not open).
If this happens, you will see large
sparks (expulsion) when you try to
make a weld because the welding
transformer will be live all the time.
If one of the SCR elements has
failed in the open condition, which is
very rare, then the other element will
fire only one side of the line sine wave.
This will quickly saturate the welding
transformer, make loud metallic
grunting sounds, and probably trip the
fuse circuit breaker, protecting the
control.
The first thing is to check that the
electrodes are clean on the tips. If they
are, remove them and see if the area
around the portion of the electrode
that went into the electrode holders is
clean and shiny. Many times, these
electrodes have been installed for a
long time and start to build up a layer
of minerals or oxide that will stop the
flow of current. This can also be a
problem with the taper inside the elec-
trode holder. Use a rod wrapped with a
piece of Scotch-Brite® to clean up the
inside taper. You can also have one or
more bolted connections on the weld
secondary that are loose or oxidized.
Check all bolted connections from the
top transformer pad through the
whole copper loop and back to the bot-
tom transformer pad. Take connec-
tions apart and, if needed, clean with
Scotch-Brite. If the surfaces are badly
BY ROGER HIRSCH
pitted, machining and polishing are
called for. Any single joint that is a
bad conductor will cause current flow
to stop.
If the mechanical connections are
fine, there is probably a problem in the
welding control, or one of the inputs is
open to the control. These inputs
might be external no weld, pressure
switch, SCR over-temperature, trans-
former over-temperature, or low water
flow. Check these switch inputs. If
your control does not have indicator
lights to let you know if an input is
closed, put a meter across the two
screws clamping the wires going into
the terminal for each input device. If
the switch is open, you will see some
direct current or, for welding machines
with alternating current (AC) inputs,
AC voltage. If the input is closed, there
will be no voltage.
Q: My operator tells me she gets a “tin-
gling” feeling when touching one of
the electrodes on her spot welding ma-
chine. The voltage appears to be low
enough to not cause harm, but she is
afraid of the welding machine. What is
causing this?
A: This tells me that the welding ma-
chine’s secondary is not grounded
properly. There is always a slight
amount of leakage in welding trans-
formers, especially as they age. Be-
cause of this, the welding machine’s
secondary has to be grounded by one
of the following methods:
1) Single-point resistance weld-
ing machines. When the welding ma-
chine was manufactured, one side of
the welding transformer was bonded
(connected) to the frame of the ma-
chine. This frame, in turn, has to be
hard connected to the incoming
ground wire from the power source.
On most welding machines, this con-
nection is done at the bottom arm as-
sembly. Using an AC voltmeter, check
to see if this connection has been lost.
You should not have a voltage reading
from the upper or lower arm of the
welding machine frame.
2) Multipoint resistance welding
machines. These welding machines
have more than one set of electrodes
that close at the same time or inde-
rwma-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:46 PM Page 17
pendently. Under some conditions,
you need to consult your resistance
welding supplier to discuss methods of
grounding. The most common is use
of a grounding reactor.
Q: I am using a butt welding machine
(see Fig. 2) to join the ends of two ¼-
in.-diameter mild steel rods. I am get-
ting large variation results, and the
weld bead area is all over the place. Are
there any good starting mechanical
conditions you can recommend?
A: The following is a good rule-of-
thumb list:
1) Set the side gripper electrodes so
the rod sticks out about one half the
diameter of the rod (1⁄8 in. in your case).
Don’t forget the rod ends should be
touching before you start the weld.
2) Set the welding force for about
10,000 lb/in.2. In the case of your ¼-
in. rod, the area of the rod end = 0.049
in.2. The electrode force will be 10,000
lb × 0.049 in.2 = 490 lb.
3) The bead formed at the butt
joint should be reasonably smooth
(not sharp) and stick out about 1⁄16 of
the diameter on each side.
Q: We weld a lot of sheet metal parts
with projections and some sheet metal
parts with projection weld nuts. My
welding setup person retired, and now
we are have a lot of problems with
parts sticking together properly. I no-
ticed there are functions, such as pre-
heat and upslope, in my welding con-
trol that, I assume, are for projections.
Is there a rule of thumb about how to
set up these two functions?
A: The best rule of thumb is to never
use these two functions for projection
welding. The problem is if you heat the
projections at a low level, the projec-
tions will become plastic and start to
deform. This will increase the area
that makes contact with the sheet
metal piece. Then, when the full weld
heat is applied, the areas will already
be too big, and the parts might be in
full contact to not allow a good weld.
The project works beautifully because,
at the start of the welding sequence,
the area at the tip of the projection is
very small to produce a very hot spot
Fig. 2 — Typical butt (upset) welding
machine.
heat. This helps the penetration into
the sheet part. Additionally, for a suc-
cessful projection weld, you want to do
the process as fast as possible and with
proper electrode force. You can see a
good chart on projection welding
starting setups in the RWMA — Resist-
ance Welding Manual, Revised 4th Ed.
You can find the manual at the Ameri-
can Welding Society online bookstore
(pubs.aws.org/p/323/rwma-resistance-
welding-manual-revised-4th-ed).
Q: Our welding machines have flexible
belts that go around the lower arm —
Fig. 3. I know this is used for measur-
ing welding currents and assume it is a
current transformer. But can you ex-
plain how it works?
A: You are correct about the flexible
belt being used for a welding machine
secondary current pickup. But it is not
a classical current transformer. This
device is actually called a Rogowski
coil, named after Walter Rogowski in
1912. This coil has no iron core and is
considered a helical coil of wire. This
design allows welding currents of
100,000 A or higher while remaining
physically very small. The current go-
ing through the welding arm induces a
current on the Rogowski coil. The volt-
age output of the Rogowski coil is con-
nected to an input of the welding con-
trol that converts it to amps.
Q: We are hooking up a new resist-
ance welding machine, and it came
with a 250-A magnetic-only circuit
breaker built into the cabinet. The
welding machine manufacturer says
that the building slow-blow fused dis-
connect to protect this machine and
the wire size should be able to handle
145 A. If I use a 175 A and wiring for
this current, will the 250-A circuit
Fig. 3 — Flexible belt Rogowski coil
that measures secondary current.
breaker in the welding control be use-
less?
A: This circuit breaker, being magnetic
only, will trip very quickly if there is an
extremely high current. This will typi-
cally happen if there is a major short
in the transformer. It can also happen
if the welding control only fires one
side of the line voltage sine wave to
saturate the welding transformer.
Typically, the magnetic setting on this
type of circuit breaker is three times
higher than the calculated maximum
current the welding machine will gen-
erate on the power lines. So the break-
er inside the welding control is for ma-
jor high-current events, and the slow-
blow (time delay) fused disconnect or
outside thermal (time delay) circuit
breaker is for normal over-current
protection. WJ
ROGER HIRSCH is past chair of the Resist-
ance Welding Manufacturing Alliance
(RWMA), a standing committee of the
American Welding Society, an Elihu
Thompson Resistance Welding Award
winner, and president of Unitrol Electron-
ics Inc., Northbrook, Ill. Mail your com-
ments and questions to Roger Hirsch, c/o
Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166, or email roger@unitrol-
electronics.com.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 17
P&P – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:38 PM Page 18
PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
Line of Gloves Designed
for Welders
Made by welders for welders, the
Torch™ welding series features four
welding gloves that elevate protection
in the field. For enhanced durability,
protection, and performance, the
gloves showcase a patent-pending
fingertip design and Durahide™
18 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
Health and Safety Focus
leather technology. The pulse gas
tungsten arc welding glove features a
goat leather construction and glide-
resistant side seam reinforcement for
welders in the automotive, aerospace,
manufacturing, and construction in-
dustries. The Cascade gas metal arc
welding glove exhibits a cow leather
construction and glide-resistant side
seam reinforcement for welders in the
automotive, manufacturing, and con-
struction industries. The Flux Extend-
ed Gauntlet leather driver glove pos-
sesses a cow leather construction,
flame-resistant cotton liner, and torch
palm reinforcement for structural and
mechanical, shipbuilding, heavy-
equipment, and pipe welding applica-
tions. Lastly, the Regulator HD gas
metal arc and shielded metal arc weld-
ing glove boasts a Kevlar® lining for
ANSI A4 cut-level protection, a board
leather construction, and glide-
resistant side seam reinforcement for
structural and pipe welding.
Mechanix Wear LLC
mechanix.com
(800) 222-4296
IoT Solution Offers a Complete
View of the Factory
The Smart Factories™ Internet of
Things (IoT) solution provides a 360-
deg view of the factory, along with an-
alytics, to improve productivity and
safety. A component of the Smart-
Spaces™ IoT platform, the intelligent
solution allows manufacturers to see
what is happening across the entire
factory floor using a network of con-
nected devices and sensors. These sen-
sors send alerts and notifications re-
garding worker safety issues (e.g., re-
moval of hard hats, safety goggles, and
P&P – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/6/21 9:50 AM Page 19
other gear), authorization breaches,
machinery utilization, and asset moni-
toring to the dashboard. This data is
then translated to analytics to help
manufacturers understand factory
productivity and safety metrics as well
as gain insight into other metrics re-
lated to factory management, opera-
tions, and efficiency improvements.
The intelligent solution also allows
manufacturers of all sizes to easily
upgrade from a legacy hard-wired/
Wi-Fi system to a private 5G-enabled/
cellular network that supports multi-
ple IoT devices.
Zyter Inc.
zyter.com
(301) 355-7760
PAPR System Combines with
the User’s Equipment
The Swiss Air powered air-purifying
respiratory (PAPR) delivers fresh,
breathable air with maximum protec-
tion in an ultra-comfortable system
that welders can use alone or with
their favorite helmet or hood — with
no need to buy additional equipment.
The 1.2-lb, low-profile PAPR is com-
fortably worn as a backpack with er-
gonomic shoulder harnesses that max-
imize freedom of movement. The
PAPR also achieves an internally test-
ed assigned protection factor greater
than 1000 due to its lightweight,
ultra-flat, high-efficiency particulate
air filter unit that is 99.98% effective.
Its strong positive airflow, automatic
airflow calibration, and automatic
altitude and temperature adjustments
ensure comfort and prevent user fa-
tigue. Additionally, the variable air-
flow is adjustable to personalize fresh
air delivery. Controls, filter, and bat-
tery indicators are mounted on the
front for easy visibility and access.
The PAPR comes with a high-perfor-
mance battery that delivers 14 h of
power. It is suited for welding, grind-
ing, plasma cutting, metalworking,
woodworking, and other industrial
applications.
optrel AG
optrel.com
(401) 398-7240
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 19
P&P – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:39 PM Page 20
Work Boot Withstands
High Heat
The Forgefighter 10-in. work boot
resists heat with a design that has
been dip-tested in 1273°F molten alu-
minum at smelters. Meeting the re-
quirements of ASTM F2413, Standard
Specification for Performance Require-
ments for Protective (Safety) Toe Cap
Footwear, the boot protects wearers
against molten metal, oily and slick
surfaces, metal chips and shards, and
falling/rolling objects. To safeguard
wearers, it is equipped with a compos-
20 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
ite toe, Kevlar® stitching, burn-off
laces, a Vibram™ Alpha TC4 heat-resis-
tant outsole, a Poron® XRD® internal
met guard for impact protection, and a
Dri-Lex® zig-zag moisture wicking lin-
ing. The boot also enhances comfort
and fit with its form-fitting, full-grain
leather and memory foam footbed,
which forms to the shape of the foot
and helps relieve back and joint pain.
Iron Age Footwear
ironagefootwear.com
(877) 753-2426
Flame-Resistant Coveralls
Enhance Visibility
The Armorex FR® coveralls deliver
protection in both flame-risk and low-
light work environments. The flame-
resistant coveralls protect against
flash fire and arc flash with an arc
thermal performance value of 8.7.
They also provide 360-deg of visibility
with their 2-in. silver retroflective 3M
taping around the sleeves and legs,
which increase worker visibility on
low- and no-light worksites. Addition-
ally, the coveralls employ features for
comfort and convenience, including a
patented UltraSoft® fabric that offers
enhanced wear life and protective per-
formance; a deep “action back” that
helps increase range of motion; and
pass-throughs on each side, which en-
able easy access to inner clothing.
UniFirst Corp.
unifirst.com
(800) 455-7654
Welding Harness Safeguards
against Falls
The tracforce® welding harness uti-
lizes Kevlar® and Technora® fibers to
protect industrial and commercial
welders who work at heights. It offers
high-abrasion resistance under work-
ing conditions that would normally de-
stroy a polyester or nylon equivalent.
It also has a high heat-resistant prop-
erty that repels welding spatter and of-
fers die electric advantages when con-
fronted with an arc flash hazard. Its
P&P – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 11:10 AM Page 21

other features include the following: is intended for mobile robot manufac- Analysis 2021–2025 posits that this
10,000-lb tensile fire retardant web- turers, users, and integrators. market will increase by $13.24 million
bing, impact-reduction fold, quick- during the forecast period, accelerat-
connect legs, five-point adjustment, Association for Advancing Automation ing at a compound annual growth rate
adjustable dorsal D-ring and chest automate.org of 4.13%. It is expected to grow 3.45%
strap, side-positioning D-rings, and (734) 994-6088 in 2021. The 120-page report is seg-
sewn subpelvic strap. It accommodates mented by end user (i.e., construction,
tool belts up to 4 in. wide. energy and utilities, marine, and auto-
Report Predicts Growth for the motive) and geography (i.e., Asia-
Tractel® Welding Fire Blankets Market Pacific, Europe, North America,
tractel.com Middle East and Africa, and South
Welding Fire Blankets Market by End-
User and Geography — Forecast and — continued on page 71
Podcast Highlights
Combustible Dust
Episode 2 of the Filter That podcast
unveils the dangers of combustible
dust and the ways to stay safe. The
nearly 55-min episode spotlights ex-
perts Alysha Yinger, RoboVent direc-
tor of engineering, and Adam Haroz,
Conversion Technology Inc. engineer-
ing manager, who share how to pre-
vent the manufacturing accidents that
can lead to dust explosions. The duo
also discuss how to identify com-
bustible dust along with the regula-
tions surrounding it. Designed to pro-
vide in-depth advice for air filtration
and industrial ventilation challenges,
the free podcast can be accessed at
robovent.com/filter-that-podcast.

RoboVent
robovent.com
(888) 298-4214

New Standard Tackles

Industrial Mobile Robots
The ANSI/RIA R15.08-1-2020,
American National Standard for Indus-
trial Mobile Robots — Safety Require-
ments — Part 1: Requirements for the
Industrial Mobile Robot (IMR), provides
the technical requirements for the de-
sign and integration of IMRs. The
122-page standard covers three types
of IMRs: Type A — an autonomous
mobile robot (AMR) with only an au-
tonomous mobile platform; Type B —
a Type A IMR with a passive or active
attachment that is not a manipulator;
and Type C — a mobile manipulator
that is considered an industrial robot
as per ANSI/RIA R15.06-2012, Ameri-
can National Standard for Industrial Ro-
bots and Robot Systems — Safety Re-
quirements, if it were stationary and
mounted to a mobile platform that
could be either a Type A IMR or an au-
tomated guided vehicle. The standard

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 21

Norton Saint-Gobain Feature – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:02 PM Page 22

How to Use Your Grinder Safely

and Soundly

BY DEBRA J. WILLIAMS

When used correctly, grinding

wheels can help you achieve weld
preparation, cut-off, and surface
finishing safely and effectively.

T
he advantages of using grinding wheels are widely known for weld prepara-
Follow these tion, cut-off, and finishing applications. When used safely and properly,
guidelines to grinding wheels will serve you well. However, when grinding wheels that spin
at thousands of revolutions per minute (RPM) are damaged or misused, they can
protect yourself break into bullet-like fragments, leading to injury.
Grinding safety is a vast subject, with seemingly limitless tips, but the following
and others offers just a few key guidelines to keep top of mind.
during grinding
Use the Right Machine Guard
applications
Wheel guards help protect the user from sparks and debris during grinding as
well as from broken fragments if the grinding wheel fails. Protective guards are cru-
cial in keeping grinding wheel mishaps from leading to personal injury — Fig. 1. As
a result, guards are required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) and should always be used.
However, hazardous conditions can also be created by the ineffective use of guards.
Using a damaged wheel guard poses a risk to the safety of the operator and bystanders.
Guards that are cracked, deformed, bent, or severely worn must be replaced. Once a
guard has been damaged, it may become ineffective in catching broken fragments if

22 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Norton Saint-Gobain Feature – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:03 PM Page 23

chine and its operation. A guard made
of tin, cloth, wood, or other materials
not designed to contain wheel frag-
ments may fail when struck by a wheel
fragment. The operator should never
paint or otherwise disguise the wrong
material for a proper guard.
Altered or cut back guards are con-
sidered hazardous. For example, re-
ducing the size of Type 27 and 28
guards, which are designed to cover
the wheel and plane of rotation be-
tween the machine and operator for at
least 180 deg, to 90-deg coverage of
the wheel poses a risk to the operator
that is nearly as bad as having no
guard in place.
The illustration in Fig. 2 provides
more information on the proper use
of guards.
Guard Scenarios to Avoid
• Incorrect Scenario #1. The fol-
lowing scenario should be avoided: Us-
ing a Type 6 or 11 cup wheel on a
portable angle grinder with a Type 27
or 28 raised hub or depressed center
grinding wheel guard.
Explanation/Tips for Scenario #1.
While a properly adjusted Type 27 or
28 guard works with a Type 27 or 28
wheel, it offers little or no protection
with a Type 6 or 11 cup wheel. The cup
wheel hangs below the guard meant
for a Type 27 or 28 wheel and, in the
event of a wheel breakage, offers little
or no protection.
• Incorrect Scenario #2. The fol-
lowing scenario should be avoided: Us-
ing a Type 41 straight cut-off wheel on
a portable angle grinder with a Type
27 or 28 raised hub or depressed cen-
ter grinding wheel guard.
Explanation/Tips for Scenario #2.
Type 27 and 28 guards are open on the
bottom to allow for side grinding with
a raised hub or depressed center
wheels. When side grinding with a
Type 27 or 28 wheel, the workpiece
acts as protection for the guard, safe-
guarding the operator in the event of
wheel breakage. Cut-off wheels are not
designed for use on their side and

the grinding wheel breaks. If wheel

breakage occurs, the guard must be in-
spected, and if there is any sign of dam-
age, the guard must be replaced.
Machines with missing wheel guard
fasteners also pose a safety risk. Some-
times during routine machine mainte-
nance, the guard fasteners are damaged
and not replaced when the machine is
reassembled. During a wheel breakage,
the missing fasteners may allow the
guard to move, become unattached
from the machine, or open. This im-
properly attached guard may become a
new hazard, exposing the operator to
injury by the guard or not containing
the wheel fragments in the event of a
wheel break. Fig. 1 — An operator is shown using a grinding wheel guard that extends far enough
The operator should always use the to keep debris and sparks away from his fingers.
guard that is recommended for the ma-

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 23

Norton Saint-Gobain Feature – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:03 PM Page 24
Fig. 2 — These icons are designed to show the proper use of wheels and guards on
a grinder.
Fig. 3 — An operator wears flame-resistant clothing, eye and face protection, gloves,
and ear plugs during grinding.
must be used on their outer periphery
only. Guards for cut-off wheels must
cover a full 180-deg area on all sides of
the wheel. When using a cut-off wheel
with a Type 27 or 28 guard, there is no
guard on one side of the wheel to pro-
tect the operator in the event of a
24 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
wheel breakage. Do not use cut-off
wheels on angle grinders without the
proper guard.
Even worse, the operator may be
tempted to remove the guards entirely.
The most ineffective guard is the one
that has been removed from its ma-
chine and is sitting in storage. The re-
moval of a wheel guard on a machine
in operation is not only dangerous, it
is also illegal.
Utilize Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE)
In addition to following best prac-
tices for grinding tools, it is vital to
protect the body using the approved
PPE — Fig. 3.
To protect against airborne sparks
and metal chips, a face shield should
be worn along with safety glasses that
have a strap to prevent slippage. The
operator should ensure that both the
safety glasses and the face shield fit
well and won’t fall off or move around
during grinding applications.
Wearing flame-resistant clothing
and gloves to protect against burns
and cuts is equally important. Gloves
also absorb some of the vibration dur-
ing grinding, which helps minimize
operator fatigue.
Other PPE that should be worn in-
cludes ear and respiratory protection.
Wearing ear plugs or muffs is beneficial
in preventing hearing loss caused by
noisy grinding operations. To protect
lungs, at minimum, a dust mask should
be worn, and some jobs will require that
a respirator be used for even greater
protection. Safety data sheets for both
the material and abrasive wheel being
used should be reviewed to determine
the optimal respiratory PPE.
Choose the Correct
Wheel for the Job
The correct pairing of a grinding
wheel to the grinder is critical for safe-
ty as well as the success of the applica-
tion. Every time a wheel is mounted or
remounted onto a machine, the opera-
tor must check the wheel and machine’s
speed to make sure the wheel is not
operated in an over-speed condition.
The abrasive wheel’s safe operating
speed is marked on the wheel, and the
machine’s normal operating speed is
marked on the machine. The operator
should never exceed the wheel’s safe
operating speed as stated in RPM or in
surface ft/min. Failure to comply with
this requirement is not only danger-
ous, it is also a violation of American
National Standards Institute (ANSI)
safety requirements and OSHA law. It
is recommended to operate the ma-
Norton Saint-Gobain Feature – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:03 PM Page 25
chine at or below the wheel’s maxi-
mum rate speed.
Additionally, bigger is not better
when it comes to the wheel as compared
with the grinder. Follow the recommen-
dations on wheel size supplied with the
grinder, and be sure the wheel properly
fits within the wheel guard.
Follow Proper Storage
Procedures
Grinding wheels can become dam-
aged and unusable before they are ever
utilized. To avoid this, it is crucial to
follow proper grinding wheel storage
procedures. Appropriate abrasive
wheel storage racks should be de-
signed, constructed, and located to fit
the needs of the user. The following
factors should be considered:
• All abrasive wheels should be
stored in a dry area (away from water
and solvents) in rooms not subject to
extreme temperature changes because
some abrasive bonds may be affected
by humidity, dampness, and tempera-
ture differentials. Racks should be lo-
cated as near as practical to the grind-
ing location but never where there is
danger of damage from passing trucks,
crane handling, or excessive vibration.
• The racks, bins, and drawers should
be constructed so that each of the vari-
ous types of wheels can be stored in an
orderly and safe manner. Wheel selec-
tion should be possible with minimal
handling, and it is recommended to
store wheels so that the oldest wheels in
stock are used first. The selection of
racks, bins, boxes, or drawers for stor-
age depends on the size and type of
wheels. Note that blotters supplied
loose should be stored flat.
• Copies of all safety folders and no-
tices should be prominently displayed
in the storage area.
• After usage, proper storage of
abrasive wheels is also important.
Abrasive wheels must be removed
from the grinder during overnight
storage and while moving the machine
from one location to another.
• When needing to place the ma-
chine down to do other tasks, a wheel/
machine storage rack or other protec-
tive means should be used. The opera-
tor should never toss the machine or al-
low the wheel/machine to drop onto the
DEBRA J. WILLIAMS (debra.j.williams@saint-gobain.com) is the senior product safety engineer at Norton | Saint-Gobain Abrasives, Worcester, Mass.
All photos are courtesy of Norton | Saint-Gobain Abrasives.
Quick Tips for Playing It Safe
at the Wheel
Remember these four easy rules to make sure you and
others stay safe during grinding operations.
floor because these actions could dam-
age the wheel and lead to breakage. Ad-
ditionally, if the wheel is placed in a vul-
nerable spot, the operator may not be
aware of damage that could have result-
ed while he or she was away.
Establish an Inspection
and Maintenance
Program
Maintenance of grinding tools and
abrasives are paramount to productivi-
ty and safety. A good start and end to
the day should include inspection of
the tools being used. All wheels
should be inspected for breakage,
nicks, or cracks. Even wheels that have
been in storage might have been com-
promised if the proper conditions were
not in place. After inspecting the
wheel and determining its integrity,
the wheel should be run at operating
speed for at least 60 s in an enclosure
(e.g., metal barrel, etc.) prior to grind-
ing. It is also important to know that
the inspection and testing of a grind-
ing wheel is not a one-and-done task.
For each new grinding process, the
procedures should be repeated.
No matter the power type, cords
and hoses should be inspected to en-
sure no damage has taken place since
last use. The operator should also
check for correct power source connec-
tions and settings. Proper, undamaged
guards and flanges should always be
attached. Any questionable parts
should be repaired or replaced to en-
sure the safety of all personnel.
In addition to inspection, an effec-
tive maintenance program includes
proper storage after initial use. It is
common to see abrasives scattered
across workshop tables, welding truck
beds, and tool boxes. It’s a good habit
to remove abrasives from the tool after
use and dispose of anything damaged.
Leaving them attached allows someone
to pick up the tool and use it with the
possibility of something getting dam-
aged without it being known to the
next operator. Keeping unused abra-
sives in their proper storage box and
designated location offers quick abra-
sives identification and helps prevent
edges from being chipped or dinged.
Furthermore, it is recommended to
use the original box for storage be-
cause it provides information for prop-
er abrasives selection and safety proto-
cols. It also allows for inspection be-
fore mounting, an excellent preventive
maintenance measure.
Conclusion
There are many guidelines for
grinding safety, but following the sim-
ple recommendations listed in this ar-
ticle can help you avoid some of the
most common hazards associated with
grinding. For additional information
on grinding wheel safety, please refer
to ANSI B7.1, Safety Requirements for
the Use, Care and Protection of Abrasive
Wheels. WJ
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 25
Feature02-kettler-industrialscientific.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:17 PM Page 26

Solar Power Area Monitors

Help Keep Outdoor Welding
Locations Safe
BY JASON KETTLER
Discover how these units offer efficient
gas detection

S
hielding and process work can
put welders at risk for various
gas hazards, including helium,
nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, combustible gases, and
more. The type of welding process,
metals, coatings, location, ventilation,
and weather can all impact the pres-
ence or severity of these gas hazards,
so it’s crucial to use gas monitors
that alert workers when hazards are
present.
Area gas monitors are useful tools
for seeing whether on-site gas hazards
could threaten workers — without
putting them into harm’s way with a
personal gas monitor. Instead, using
area monitors allows for a safe buffer

If welding projects move around your site, it’s important to look for solar power supplies that are easy to move.

26 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Feature02-kettler-industrialscientific.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:18 PM Page 27
Fig. 1 — An example of a solar power
supply for an area monitor. This model,
from Industrial Scientific, uses
portable solar panels to provide
continuous power to two devices si-
multaneously.
zone to be created between workers
and potential gas hazards.
Within the last few years, area gas
monitors have grown in popularity.
That’s because they protect workers
and give a bird’s-eye view into gas haz-
ards across sites, making it easy to
spot and address danger zones. In
most cases, area monitors can be used
in combination with personal gas
monitors to create a complete, well-
rounded gas detection program.
Area gas monitors can offer even
more benefits with the help of solar
power. Continue reading this article to
learn about solar power supplies for
area monitors and much more.
The Benefits of
Solar Power
The battery life for area monitors
varies greatly, anywhere from a few
hours to a few weeks, depending on
the manufacturer. To address this lim-
ited runtime, manufacturers have in-
troduced new power supplies that can
extend runtime indefinitely by using
solar power.
Solar power supplies use energy
from the sun to continuously charge
the area monitor for uninterrupted
runtime. With a continuous runtime,
you can reduce the cost and risk of
charging or rotating gas monitors in
remote, dangerous, or otherwise chal-
lenging locations. At the same time,
you can ensure workers are aware of
potential gas hazards at all times while
working along pipelines and in perma-
nent or semipermanent outdoor
process areas.
Solar power supplies for area moni-
tors come in various levels of portabil-
ity — Fig. 1. Some are easy to disas-
semble and move around the site,
while others require heavy equipment
to relocate. If welding projects move
around your site, it’s important to look
for solar power supplies that are easy
to move.
Three Queries to Ask
If you think your site could benefit
from a solar-powered area monitor,
ask yourself these three questions
about your current area-monitoring
solution.
1. Can the area monitor run
without electrical power or
without swapping batteries?
Remote welding locations rarely of-
fer easy access to electrical power. And
if the location is far away, you won’t
want to send workers out every few
hours or days to charge batteries;
that’s a waste of valuable time. The
ideal area monitoring solution should
have an unlimited runtime and not re-
quire electricity.
2. Is the area monitor
certified to work in
hazardous locations?
When it comes to hazardous loca-
tions, not all area monitors are equal.
If you have flammable or ignitable gas-
es or liquids on site, you’ll need an
area monitor that’s certified to be safe
for these areas. It’s important to un-
derstand that area monitors and their
power supplies can have different haz-
ard certifications. This means, if you’ll
be using an alternative power source,
like solar panels, you need to confirm
hazard certifications for both the area
monitor and the power source. If the
two have different certifications, the
entire area-monitoring solution can
only be used in the lower of the certifi-
cation areas. Most companies can
safely rely on Canadian Standards
Association (CSA) Class 1, Division 2
certifications.
3. How easily can I move
the area monitor to different
locations?
Unlike fixed-point gas detection
systems, area monitors are often
moved to different locations during
short-term welding projects. However,
some power supplies and accessories
for area monitors can make them
harder to move. You won’t want to
move a solar-powered area monitor
that requires a forklift or a whole team
to relocate it. If you can’t move it easi-
ly, you probably won’t use it. Look for
an area-monitoring solution that one
worker can move.
Choosing the Solar
Power Supply That’s
Right for You
The challenges previously present-
ed can be resolved with a solar-
powered area monitor.
Although there are a handful of
solar-powered area monitors or con-
version accessories on the market
today, Industrial Scientific is a gas
detection provider that offers a solar-
powered area monitor that resolves
all three critical area-monitoring chal-
lenges: runtime, hazard certifications,
and portability. The company’s solar
power supply for Radius® BZ1 area
monitors and RGX® Gateways provide
power and flexibility in any outdoor
location.
Additionally, solar panels provide
unlimited runtime, while a CSA Class
1, Division 2 certification ensures
safety in hazardous locations. A
portable, modular design allows a sin-
gle worker to transport and assemble
the solar power supply.
Conclusion
By addressing common challenges,
the solar power supply makes it easy
and efficient to monitor gas hazards in
any outdoor location. This allows you
to minimize the cost of labor and the
risk of charging and rotating equip-
ment in different locations. WJ
JASON KETTLER (jkettler@indsci.com) is a
product manager for instrumentation at
Industrial Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 27
Mechanix Feature.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 1:43 PM Page 28
Welding Glove Upgrades Fight the Burn
Innovations in PPE lead to a safer, more
durable glove
Mechanix Wear’s Regulator gloves in action.
28 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
BY PAUL HARRIS
AND PAUL LE SAGE
P
rofessional and amateur welders
alike demand high-quality per-
sonal protective equipment
(PPE) and gloves — and for good rea-
son. According to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, more than a third of weld-
ing- and heating-tool-related injuries
requiring days away from work in
2018 were thermal or heat burns (Ref.
1). While it’s an unfortunate statistic,
it’s not all that surprising considering
welders — depending on the job and
method — are managing heat any-
where between 5000°–36,000°F and
sometimes even higher.
Welders work in some of the most
demanding conditions, yet for years,
they’ve battled the same deficiencies
when it comes to hand and glove pro-
tection, including a short lifespan, an
uncomfortable fit, and dated material
technology. There are hundreds of dif-
ferent welding gloves available that
meet the guidelines of the American
National Standard Institute (ANSI) for
welding glove PPE, but many of the
gloves do not address the concerns the
welding community continues to
struggle with when it comes to dura-
bility and dexterity.
Innovations Heat Up the
Industry
As with all fields, innovations have
opened new approaches for product
development and design. And this is
true for glove and PPE manufacturers.
Thanks to developments in textile
technology and innovations in leather,
welding gloves are finally being updat-
ed to increase glove safety in a number
of ways, including increased dexterity
to material strength and design.
When Mechanix Wear launched the
Torch™ Welding Series gloves (Fig. 1)
earlier this year, it came after years of
Mechanix Feature.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 5:35 PM Page 29
research and design as well as field
testing with fabricators across differ-
ent disciplines. The company found
there were several aspects of glove
technology and safety that hadn’t
been addressed in years.
What follows are three of the key
innovations and safety features the
company built upon based on the re-
search it gathered from welders.
Seam Strength
Not all, but a large number of weld-
ing gloves in the market lack the stitch
strength in the fingertips to withstand
high-temperature environments. This
weakness causes the gloves to wear
and eventually blow out in the fingers,
especially in the left pinky finger,
which is often exposed to an enor-
mous amount of radiant and direct
heat. Without other viable options,
welders have turned to internet hacks
to reinforce popped stitches and put
temporary Band-Aids over the prob-
lem area. In an industry that involves
extreme heat conditions and requires
incredible precision, temporary fixes
open wearers up to other potentially
dangerous situations.
Over the past few years, welted
seams and, in some cases, reinforced
stitching have been incorporated into
gloves to help address this problem by
providing a stronger seam that can
stand up for hours. However, given
glove construction, even reinforced
seams are still vulnerable to wear due
to their location across the top of a
glove’s fingertip.
Through testing, the company dis-
covered a better way to address
popped seams while increasing the
structural and safety design by chang-
ing the fingertip seam design com-
pletely. It did this by developing a
rollover fingertip design that reposi-
tions the seams away from direct heat
areas while reinforcing it with
DuPont™ Kevlar® to improve seam
durability and overall dexterity.
Dexterity
The first major component of any
glove is the cut. Existing welding prod-
ucts tend to be cut so large that it’s
tough for welders to get the appropri-
ate level of dexterity in their finger-
tips. Manufacturers are faced with the
challenge of building a glove that al-
lows welders to move their hands,
Fig. 1 — The Torch Series welding gloves and accessories were developed with Paul
“Torch” Le Sage.
wrists, and fingers freely. Oftentimes,
that translates into a bulky glove that
does not provide the wearer with a
good grip, and it certainly doesn’t ac-
commodate the necessary finger work,
such as adjusting screws on a vise grip.
The search for a glove that fits like
a glove can feel like a needle in a
haystack for welders. There are two
key elements to this: sizing and
leather quality (more on the latter be-
low). For size, welders should look for
a glove that fits their hand, one that
truly allows for full range of motion.
Look for gloves that offer a full range
of sizes — from small to extra-large to
ensure a proper fit — as well as an in-
sulated liner, which can provide extra
heat protection.
Leather Quality
Most manufacturers use split or top
leather in their gloves, which is de-
rived from the hide of various live-
stock. Each leather type offers a differ-
ent degree of comfort and, generally,
the most comfortable gloves sacrifice
durability. While cow, goat, and pig
leather have become standards, new
innovations in leather tanning and de-
velopment are changing the game in
what’s possible.
The introduction of bonded and
synthetic leathers is redefining the
durability of welding gloves by offer-
ing a stronger and, in some cases, a
more heat-resistant material. Howev-
er, manufacturers are also revolution-
izing the fit and comfort of welding
gloves by offering a desired broken-in
feel, which usually takes weeks to
achieve with other gloves and provides
users with maximum performance off
the rack.
The company has developed
DuraHide™ leathers, which blend natu-
ral leather with technology infused
during the tanning process. This pro-
vides a super soft feel and fire resist-
ance while also being machine wash-
able, which is why the leather is used in
the new glove line. This helps keep
gloves up to ANSI standards by keep-
ing them clean of cutting fluids, chemi-
cals, and perspiration “hard spots” that
break down gloves and leave hands vul-
nerable to heat-related injury.
What’s Next for Glove
Safety
The challenge in manufacturing the
welding gloves series was to solve
many of the same issues that have
plagued the welding community for
years. As textile innovation continues
to progress, manufacturers should be
striving to push glove and welding PPE
forward, too. Gloves should be longer
lasting — staying intact with high per-
formance for multiple sessions of in-
tense work — and they should not
only meet but exceed safety standards
to protect welders everywhere. WJ
Reference
1. safetyandhealthmagazine.com/
articles/print/19334-the-many-hazards-
of-welding-work#:~:text=According%20to-
%20the%20Bureau%20of,key%20step%20to
%20preventing%20burns.
PAUL HARRIS is vice president of research
and development and PAUL “TORCH”
LE SAGE is a commercial sales resident
welder and product developer at Mechanix
Wear (CS@mechanix.com), Valencia, Calif.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 29
Sperko-layout.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 7:41 AM Page 30
Changes to the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code Section IX
Updates in the new edition will become
mandatory for new qualifications on
January 1, 2022
S
ignificant changes that appear in
The American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX,
2021 edition, are discussed below. All
the changes in this edition are listed in
the “Summary of Changes” found in
the front matter of the code. These
changes will become mandatory for
new qualifications on January 1, 2022.
Part QG, General
Requirements
In 2019, QG-106 introduced a re-
quirement that anyone who super-
vised the welding1 of either procedure
or personnel qualification test
coupons had to be qualified. It also re-
quired that persons with such qualifi-
cations be designated by the organiza-
tion with responsibility for certifying
qualification documents. Many organi-
zations assign responsibility for certi-
fying documents to the quality control
manager, not to the foreman who
gives the welders tests. This revision
deleted mention of who signs qualifi-
cation records and just requires the or-
ganization to designate who will be re-
sponsible for supervision of the weld-
ing of qualification test coupons.
For decades, Section IX has required
that the welder who welds a procedure
qualification test coupon be an em-
ployee of the organization or be an in-
dependent contractor. Because organi-
1
While “welding” is used here, these paragraphs also apply to brazing and fusing.
30 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
zations are now required to have quali-
fied supervision over the welder who
welds any test coupon, that require-
ment was removed in this edition.
A new paragraph, QG-106.4, was
added allowing more than one organi-
zation to simultaneously qualify the
welding of procedure qualification test
coupons when expressly permitted by
the construction code (i.e., Section
VIII, B31.3, etc.). These rules are like
those in QG-106.5 for simultaneous
qualification of welders.
QG-108 addresses qualifications
made to previous editions of Section
IX. That paragraph says you can con-
tinue to use welding procedure specifi-
cations (WPSs) qualified as far back as
1962, and that they do not need to be
updated to the latest edition of Section
IX. While that is generally understood,
some miss that they must also meet
the qualification requirements of the
construction code. For example,
Section VIII, Division 1, paragraph
UW-13(f) has special procedure and
welder qualification rules when weld-
ing corner joints. This revision clarifies
that even though an old WPS may be
acceptable to Section IX without revi-
sion, one still must satisfy all construc-
tion code qualification requirements.
The phrase “Quality Control System
or Quality Assurance System” has
been used in many places throughout
the code. Since many organizations
that follow Section IX do not have
such programs, the phrase was re-
BY WALTER J. SPERKO
placed by a more generic term, “quality
program,” and a definition for “quality
program” was added.
In QG-109, the definition of “inter-
pass temperature” was revised to per-
mit measuring it on the base metal
within an inch of the weld bevel. Also,
the definition of “backing” was revised
to remove the phrase “so as to facili-
tate complete joint penetration.”
“Backing” is now defined only as “a
material placed at the root of a weld
joint for the purpose of supporting the
molten weld metal.”
Welding Procedure
(QW-200)
The biggest change in this edition is
the following: When using gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) in the short-cir-
cuiting transfer mode, the qualifica-
tion limit of 1.1 times the base metal
and weld deposit thickness was re-
moved. These limits were imposed
decades ago because GMAW in the
short-circuiting transfer mode is noto-
rious for having lack-of-fusion flaws,
and the likelihood of getting such
flaws increases as thickness increases.
The committee belatedly recognized
that its criteria for designating a vari-
able as essential is that changing it has
to affect the mechanical properties of
the weld, and the 1.1 times the thick-
ness limitation is about soundness,
not mechanical properties.
Sperko-layout.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 7:42 AM Page 31
On the other hand, qualifying
welders is about depositing sound
weld metal, so welders will remain lim-
ited to 1.1 times the thickness of weld
metal they deposit in their test
coupons when using GMAW in the
short-circuiting transfer mode.
The toughness of P-No. 8, P-No. 21
through 26, and P-No. 41 through 49
materials is not affected by the cooling
rate like carbon and alloy steels are.
This edition exempts those materials
from the variables that affect cooling
rate: interpass temperature, minimum
thickness, and heat input.
QW-200.4(b) gives an exception to
QW-451 that allows you to write a
WPS using a process to make a root
pass on a groove weld and complete
the weld with a second process even
though the process used for the root
weld is not qualified for the base metal
thickness for which the second process
is qualified. The paragraph was refor-
matted to make it easier to under-
stand.
QW-217(a) on joining of clad met-
als was reformatted to make the re-
quirements easier to understand;
there were no technical changes except
for addressing unassigned materials.
In the 2019 edition, many notes in
many tables were moved into the body
of the code. A note clarifying that sup-
plementary essential variables also ap-
ply to fillet welds when supplementary
essential variables are invoked was
deleted but not added to the body of
the code. This revision adds that re-
quirement to QW-251.2. A note was
also added to Table QW-451.1 specify-
ing that supplementary essential vari-
ables may limit thickness ranges in
that table.
QW-215.4 was added to expand the
range of qualification of laser beam
welding (LBW) and electron beam
welding (EBW) partial penetration
groove welds using workmanship
coupons. Unlike other processes, the
welding parameters and thickness
limits qualified when using LBW and
EBW are very restrictive. The new op-
tion requires the user to have a WPS
qualified by groove welding with all
the required mechanical tests and also
a workmanship coupon weld repre-
senting production parts. The organi-
zation may then revise the WPS and
use the welding parameters of the
workmanship coupon to make produc-
tion parts represented by the work-
manship coupon.
When qualifying LBW, the commit-
tee decided that allowing welding of all
materials within a P-number was too
open. Because a higher carbon equiva-
lent increases the risk of cracking, a
further restriction was added to limit
the carbon equivalent of materials to
be welded to the carbon equivalent of
the test coupon material.
The committee also reviewed Amer-
ican Welding Society (AWS) C7.4,
Process Specification and Operator Qual-
ification for Laser Beam Welding. This
resulted in several changes to the LBW
and low-power density laser beam
welding variables to better reflect cur-
rent laser welding technology and con-
trols.
QW-404.7 addressing shielded met-
al arc welding electrodes over 1⁄4 in. and
QW-410.12 addressing plasma arc
welding operating modes are supple-
mentary essential variables. These
variables predate the heat input con-
trols in the code today and no longer
serve a purpose, so they were deleted.
While it has been standard practice
for welding consumable manufactur-
ers to use the test assemblies in the
filler metal specifications when ana-
lyzing the composition of weld metal
to determine the A-number, the meth-
ods used when a filler metal does not
meet a filler metal specification were
not specified. QW-404.5 now indicates
that the filler metal specification
(SFA) test assemblies be used for that
purpose.
The introductory paragraphs to the
P-number table, QW-420, have ex-
panded over the years to cover many
subjects related to P-number assign-
ments. This edition grouped the sub-
jects and gave them headers to make
them easier to find and to follow.
There were no technical changes.
AWS Standard Welding Procedure
Specifications (SWPSs) were added to
Section IX in the 2000 addenda. While
new SWPSs are added to Appendix E
regularly, old ones have been periodical-
ly updated. QW-500 was revised to
make it clear that previous editions of
SWPSs adopted by an organization may
continue to be used even though a later
edition is shown in Appendix E. Intro-
ductory paragraphs were added to Ap-
pendix E to provide guidance on adopt-
ing SWPSs, and the table listing the
SWPSs was reformatted to make it easi-
er to find the desired SWPS. SWPSs are
good procedures, inexpensive, and not
likely to be questioned when submitted
to a customer for approval. More organ-
izations should use them.
Welder Qualification
(QW-300)
Section IX has always allowed
welders and welding operators using
gas tungsten arc welding to qualify by
volumetric examination when welding
titanium. This edition extends that to
zirconium.
When QG-106 was revised in 2019
to add requirements that those who su-
pervise welding of test coupons needed
to be qualified, the words “supervision
and control” in QW-322 led some users
to think that those who updated conti-
nuity records also had to be qualified.
That was never intended, so “supervi-
sion and control” was removed from
QW-322. However, the paragraph now
requires that welding operators who are
qualified to do both machine welding
and automatic welding using the same
welding process be tracked separately
for continuity purposes.
Base Metals and
Filler Metals
The following base metals and filler
metals were assigned to P-No. 1:
AS 1548, CSA-G40.21, GB 713, IS
2062, JIS G3118, JIS G4303, NF A 36-
215, and EN10025-2 Grades S275J2,
S355JR, and S355J2.
UNS S31655 was assigned to P-No.
8.
The following were assigned to P-
No. 10H in several product form
specifications:
UNS S32506, S82011, J93345,
J93404, J93371, J93372, and J93379.
SB-674, UNS N08354 was assigned
to P-No. 45.
The following AWS welding con-
sumable specifications were updated
as SFA specifications:
A5.01M/A5.01:2019, Welding Con-
sumables Procurement of Filler Metals
and Fluxes;
A5.17/A5.17M:2019, Specification
for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
for Submerged Arc Welding; and
A5.34/A5.34M:2018, Specification
for Nickel-Alloy Electrodes for Flux Cored
Arc Welding.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 31
Sperko-layout.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 7:42 AM Page 32
“SWPSs are good procedures, are inexpensive,
and are not likely to be questioned when
submitted to a customer for approval. More
organizations should use them.”
A5.39/A5.39M:2020, Specification
for Flux and Electrodes Combinations for
Submerged Arc and Electroslag Joining
and Surfacing of Stainless Steel and
Nickel Alloys, was added and is new to
our industry. Anyone who welds stain-
less steel or nickel alloys using sub-
merged arc welding should consider
updating their procedure qualification
records and WPSs.
SFA 5.36, a specification for carbon
and low-alloy flux cored and metal
cored electrodes, was adopted in 2017.
It presented a new system for identifi-
cation of these electrodes that code
users found unnecessarily complicat-
ed. The specification was withdrawn.
Appendix D, a listing of base metals
by P-number, was deleted as electronic
searching of Section IX and other re-
sources such as pnumbers.com made it
superfluous.
Testing (QW-400)
The bend test fixture dimensions in
Table QW-466.1 look different.
Columns “C” and “D” were revised to
specify those dimensions as a function
of the thickness of the specimen and
the values in columns “A” and “B”
rather than as exact values. This
makes the table easier to understand.
There were no technical changes to the
dimensions, only in the way the di-
mensions are expressed.
A paragraph was added to QW-
162.1 stating that the bend radius-to-
specimen-thickness ratios given in
QW-466.1 are maximums. That means
that you can make face and root bends
on 6-in. Schedule 80 (0.432-in. wall)
pipe using a standard ¾-in.- radius
fixture without reducing the specimen
thickness to 3⁄8 in., which will save some
grinding time.
Since the 2013 edition of Section
IX, tension specimens meeting the di-
mensional requirements of various
AWS and international standards have
been acceptable. This edition makes
bend test specimens prepared accord-
ing to ISO 5173 acceptable provided
the ratio of bend radius-to-specimen
32 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
thickness complies with the require-
ments of QW-466.1. This brings Sec-
tion IX and EN ISO 9606 for welders
and EN ISO 14732 for welding opera-
tors into closer alignment.
When qualifying welders using fil-
let weld tests, QW-184(a) permitted
linear indications such as cracks and
incomplete fusion that were less than
1
⁄32 in. long at the root of the macro ex-
amination specimen to be accepted.
This was removed because QW-183 for
fillet weld procedure qualification did
not permit any indications at the root.
Brazing (QB)
Brazing operators (QB-360) were
required to be qualified using proce-
dure qualification test coupons “or a
workmanship coupon,” but there were
no qualification limits. This edition
imposes the essential variables of QB-
350 on brazing operators. A reference
to the workmanship coupon in QB-
182 was added to QB-305(a) and a ref-
erence to QB-452 was also added so
that the type and number of test spec-
imens was specified. Finally, QB-
305(b) was added, requiring section
specimens to be visually evaluated to
the acceptance criteria in QB-182.
Coming Attractions
A code case for using GMAW for
additive manufacturing is being
developed.
Readers are advised that ASME
Code Committee meetings are open
to the public. The schedule is available
at asme.org; search for “committee
meetings.” WJ
WALTER J. SPERKO, P.E. (sperko@asme.org),
is president of Sperko Engineering
Services Inc. (sperkoengineering.com),
Greensboro, N.C.
Readers are advised that the opinions
expressed in this article are those of
Mr. Sperko, not the official opinion of
ASME BPV Standards Committee IX.
Page 33 Liburdi and WMP.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:26 AM Page 33
Feature05-sinfield-naval.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:33 PM Page 34

Robotic Welding of
U.S. Naval Ships
BY MATT SINFIELD
A modern look at how construction efforts,
including investments and technologies,
have made waves

“International shipbuilding is in the midst of a process toward computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) in

of dramatic change . . . ‘High-tech’ developments are being
implemented and the introduction of robotics is now gath-
ering momentum. Applications of CAD (computer-aided
design)/CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) production
lines with welding robots have been a successful step
shipbuilding. The concept has resulted essentially in short-
er lead times, more efficient design and manufacturing,
and improved quality and accuracy of products (Ref. 1).”
— Prof. Dr.-Ing Paul Drews (1996), chair of the Interna-
tional Institute of Welding, Commission XII

In recent years, the U.S. Navy and its shipbuilders have intensified their efforts to develop and transition robotic welding technolo-
gies. In this screenshot are (from left) James Hayden, welding engineering technician, and Greg Nehl, welding engineer. (Credit:
Screenshot of a video by Nicholas Brezzell, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division, dvidshub.net/video/712740/
carderock-features-welding-automation-lab.)

34 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Feature05-sinfield-naval.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:34 PM Page 35
Professor Drews wrote these words
to highlight the achievements of weld-
ing robots used in commercial ship-
building during the previous decade
(1980s). Throughout that period, es-
tablished Japanese and European
shipbuilders searched for ways to stay
competitive as lower labor rate coun-
tries entered the market (e.g., South
Korea). To reduce construction costs,
specialized robotic welding systems
tailored specifically for ship construc-
tion were developed. Since then, coun-
tries like South Korea have imple-
mented shipyard robotic welding tech-
nologies of their own to improve pro-
duction efficiencies and compete
against emerging competition from
China, India, and Brazil (Refs. 1–5).
Turning to the West 30 years later,
the U.S. naval shipbuilding industry
has been comparatively slow in its
adoption of robotic welding technolo-
gies. In part, this can be attributed to
the following: 1) high initial capital
equipment costs; 2) few domestic
equipment suppliers; and 3) a lack of
commonality in components and hull
designs. In a way, these constraints
have perpetuated one another. For U.S.
naval combatants, the number of ship
orders per class has dropped compared
to previous decades. This reduction has
been partially caused by rising fabrica-
tion costs and increased design com-
plexities (e.g., DDG-1000 and littoral
combat ship hull designs). Together,
these factors and others have reduced
the robot industry’s motivation to in-
Fig. 1 — Twenty-plus-year ONR Navy ManTech and NSRP investment profile in robotic
welding technologies. Indexing from 2014 to 2015, a clear rise in annual spending is
noticeable through 2020 as compared to the previous decade. Note: NSRP funding
contributions are Navy only and do not include industry cost share.
novate for U.S. naval shipbuilding
needs due to low payoffs created by
small volumes. Subsequently, this has
inhibited domestic shipbuilders from
performing the long-term planning re-
quired to justify large investments in
robotic equipment and the personnel
needed to operate and support it.
In recent years, however, the U.S.
Navy and its shipbuilders have devel-
oped an intense interest in automated
and robotic welding (see lead photo).
This new concentration is motivated
by internal and external pressures to
improve quality and reduce cost,
shorten construction schedules, im-
prove welder/operator safety, and ad-
dress the ongoing attrition and na-
tionwide shortage of welders (Refs.
6–12).
Recent Perspective and
Investments in U.S. Naval
Shipbuilding Welding
Robotics
To frame the recent accelerated de-
velopment and implementation of ro-
botic welding by U.S. naval ship-
builders, and to set the stage for where
the technology is heading, the follow-
ing points of reference are provided.
Perspective from 2015
As part of the 2015 National Ship-
building Research Program’s (NSRP’s)
Computer Aided Robotic – Welding
(CAR-W) project (Ref. 7), a survey of
seven NSRP member shipyards was per-
formed to assess current levels of weld-
ing robotics and automation (Ref. 8).
Table 1 was constructed to catego-
rize the percentage of manual (includ-
ing wire-fed semiautomatic), mecha-
nized, and automated (including robot-
ic) welding processes per common part
family. Single-value percentages indi-
cate the difference is made up of manu-
al welding operations. Industry defini-
tions regarding robotic, automatic,
mechanized, semiautomatic, and man-
ual welding are per American Welding
Society A3.0M/A3.0:2020, Standard
Welding Terms and Definitions.
Review of Table 1 and observations
made in the survey report revealed
several important points with respect
to the state of welding automation in
U.S. shipbuilding at the time. First,
three of the shipbuilders (Yards B, E,
and F) were using considerable
amounts of hard automation for stiff-
ened panel welding. However, only
Yard E was using robots to weld the
third stage of the panel line (i.e., the
transverse stiffeners), a common
process overseas (Ref. 5). Second,
shipbuilders who were not employing
automation for panel lines were find-
ing opportunities to use robots and
hard automation for other part fami-
lies. Yard A, for example, only used ro-
bots for welding high-value, complex
joints, such as those found in small
and large assemblies. Lastly, no two
shipyards shared a common approach
(i.e., best practice) to automate or use
robotics for welding common part
families (Ref. 8).
Investments in Robotic
Welding
Indexing ourselves from the 2015
perspective, Fig. 1 reveals a dramatic
increase in U.S. Navy investment in ro-
botic welding technologies over the fol-
lowing five years (chart is based on ag-
gregated data from the Office of Naval
Research [ONR] Navy ManTech Pro-
gram and NSRP annual funding pro-
files) (Refs. 13–22). This upward trend
is a stark indication of how the U.S.
Navy and its shipbuilders are viewing
welding robotics in modern naval ship
construction.
In addition, U.S. shipbuilders are
making their own investments in
modern, commercially available robot-
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 35
Feature05-sinfield-naval.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 11:26 AM Page 36

Table 1 — Breakdown of Seven NSRP Member Shipyard’s Manual, Mechanized, and Automated (including Robotic) Welding Percentages
per Common Part Family (circa 2015) (Ref. 8)

YARD A YARD B YARD C YARD D YARD E YARD F YARD G

Micro Panels 5 70 100 2 90 20/10 100

Large Panels 5 60/10 100 2 60/20 50 100 Manual

3D Panels and Deep Webs 5 60 30 100 60/10 100 100

Mechanized
Small Subassemblies 2 50 5 100 100 1 100
Automated
Large Subassemblies 2 50 10 100 100 100 100
DNP = Did not provide
Tube/Pipe 100 DNP DNP 100 DNP DNP 100

Block Erection 25 25 50 100 50 DNP 100

and will continue to expand robotic

A B welding in shipbuilding need to be
open and flexible to accommodate the
low-volume, high-mix, and high-value
products associated with naval com-
batants. Such technologies and princi-
ples include the following:

• Automated Programming —
Rapid automated path planning and
adaptive welding techniques;
C • Accessibility (Usability and
Configuration) — Mechanized, tele-
operated, portable, and mobile robotic
operation; and

• Design for Robotics — Integrat-

ed upstream CAD/CAM processes (i.e.,
Fig. 2 — These photographs show several robotic welding panel line systems re- digital manufacturing planning) as
cently installed at three U.S. shipyards: A — Bollinger Shipyard, Wolf Robotics CAR-W well as sensor-derived weld quality
(Ref. 7); B — General Dynamics NASSCO, Kranendonk RinasWeld (Ref. 23) (photo checks/metrics that include leveraging
courtesy of General Dynamics NASSCO); and C — Ingalls Shipbuilding, PEMA Weld-
Control (Ref. 24) (photo courtesy of Ingalls Shipbuilding).
advances in machine vision, modeling
and simulation, machine learning
(ML), and artificial intelligence (AI).
ic welding systems. These systems are facturing (e.g., automotive, agricultur- A detailed illustrative framework of
being supplied by a growing domestic al, and construction equipment) where these enabling technologies and prin-
and international supply base. Figure parts are brought to the robot and ciples is shown in Fig. 3.
2 details examples of fully automated manually programmed on- or offline
robotic welding panel lines imple- by a highly skilled operator, the sheer
mented at Bollinger Shipyard, General size and variety of ship components Outlook
Dynamics NASSCO, and Ingalls Ship- create challenges when trying to em-
building since 2015 by three different ploy these traditional integration To echo the quote by Professor
robotic welding integrators. strategies. Part fixturing, preheating, Drews, U.S. naval shipbuilding has em-
out-of-position welding, program- barked on its own “process of dramatic
Enabling Technologies ming, and even general operation all change” driven by a flood of invest-
and Principles require unique thought when applying ments in welding robotics.
robotic welding to shipbuilding. For the U.S. Navy and its industrial
Unlike the conventional use of in- Technologies and integration partners to keep this long-awaited
dustrial robots in high-volume manu- strategies that have (Refs. 7, 23–27) momentum going, continued and sta-

36 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Feature05-sinfield-naval.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 6:35 PM Page 37
ble funding of robotic research applied
to the unique nature of ship construc-
tion (and sustainment) will be impera-
tive. Significant effort should be put
forth for studies that apply the field of
data science (e.g., application of
AI/ML) to adaptive robotic welding
techniques and the assessment of weld
quality in real time. Almost equally im-
portant will be the need for a deliber-
ate campaign to educate the shipyard
and Navy workforces at all levels how
best to integrate robotic welding prac-
tices into shipyard infrastructure plan-
ning and modernization, ship design,
operations, and maintenance. Devel-
opers of new facilities, build strategies,
and ship design tools must begin to
consider the integration of automated
and robotic fabrication concurrently,
rather than as an afterthought. More-
over, the advent and emphasis on un-
manned systems and their unique de-
sign requirements may usher in oppor-
tunities for traditional mass produc-
tion manufacturing, where robotic
welding has excelled for decades.
Armed with a holistic approach, in-
creased development and utilization of
robotic welding presents itself as a vi-
able means of accelerating production,
growing capacity, and sustaining that
capacity now and well into the future
to meet the U.S. Navy’s long-range
shipbuilding goals (Ref. 9). WJ
References
1. Boekholt, R. 1996. Welding Mecha-
nization and Automation in Shipbuilding
Worldwide. Cambridge, England: Abington
Publishing.
2. Hyundai Heavy Industries Co. Ltd.
Engine & Machinery Division. April 2009.
HA006C, welding robot system in mass
production. HHI-EMD News 21: p. 9.
3. Shinohara, T., and Saitoh, Y. July/
August 2012. A weld of difference. The
Naval Architect, p. 42–48.
4. Lee, J. H., Kim, C. S, and Hong, K. S.
March 2005. Off-line programming in the
shipbuilding industry: Open architecture
and semi-automatic approach. Internation-
al Journal of Control, Automation, and Sys-
tems 3(1): 32–42.
5. Sinfield, M. F., et al. 2012. A review
of Asian shipyard robotic and automated
welding technology. National Shipbuilding
Research Program. SP-7 Welding Technolo-
gy Panel Meeting, Fort Collins, Colo.
6. Blasko, G. J., Moniak, D. J., and
Howser, B. C. March 1992. Evaluation of
the Hitachi Zosen portable welding robot-
ics. National Shipbuilding Research Pro-
gram. SP-7 Welding Panel Report.
7. Castner, H., and Penoyer, J. 2017.
Fig. 3 — Framework of robotic welding technologies and principles to enable further
implementation in shipbuilding.
Computer-aided programming for robotic
welding. Welding Journal 96(6): 78–83.
8. Sinfield, M. F., and Penoyer, J. July
22, 2016. Non-Participating Shipyards CAR-
W Applications Assessment Summary Report.
NSRP Computer Aided Robotic Welding
TIA# 2015-473.
9. Office of the Chief of Naval Opera-
tions, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations
(OPNAV N9). December 2020. Report to
Congress on the Annual Long-Range Plan for
Construction of Naval Vessels, p. 3, 4.
10. Philips, M. 2014. Welders, America
needs you. Bloomberg. bloomberg.com/
news/articles/2014-03-20/skilled-welder-
shortage-looms-in-u-dot-s-dot-with-many-
near-retirement.
11. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. De-
partment of Labor. Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2016–17 Ed., Welders, Cutters,
Solderers, and Brazers, at bls.gov/
ooh/production/welders-cutters-solderers-
and-brazers.htm.
12. American Welding Society. National
Welding Month. Accessed August 9, 2019,
from aws.org/about/page/national-welding-
month.
13. NSRP. Portfolio. Accessed April 26,
2021, from nsrp.org/portfolio.
14. 2004 Navy ManTech Project Book.
15. 2008 Navy ManTech Project Book.
16. 2012 Navy ManTech Project Book.
17. 2016 Navy ManTech Project Book.
18. 2017 Navy ManTech Project Book.
19. 2018 Navy ManTech Project Book.
20. 2019 Navy ManTech Project Book.
21. 2020 Navy ManTech Project Book.
22. Unpublished data. Courtesy ONR
Navy ManTech Program Office.
23. Sarnecki, S. 2019. NASSCO’s new
panel line. National Shipbuilding Research
Program All-Panel Meeting Presentation,
March 12–14, Charleston, S.C.
24. Roberts, J. 2017. Ingalls Shipbuild-
ing focuses on innovation and improve-
ment. Welding Journal 96(6): 64–67.
25. Kaminski, N., Pothier, K., and
Porter, N. 2016. Navy ManTech Project
S2459 — Robotic Welding of VIRGINIA
Class Submarine Assemblies. Office of
Naval Research SHIPTECH Conference
Presentation, March 1, 2, Charleston, S.C.
26. General Dynamics Electric Boat.
2019. Continuous improvement: Robotic
welding cell. The Quonset Point Weekly In-
formation Bulletin 4(27): 1.
27. Taylor, R., and Meeker, J. 2019. Ro-
botic process for installing hull inserts. Na-
tional Shipbuilding Research Program All-
Panel Meeting Presentation, March 12–14,
Charleston, S.C.
MATT SINFIELD (matthew.sinfield@navy.mil)
is the ferrous welding technology lead at
Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock
Division, West Bethesda, Md.
This paper is an updated adaptation of the
author’s 2019 American Welding Society
Shipbuilding & Aluminum Conference
(awo.aws.org/conferences/past-
conferences/shipbuilding-aluminum-
conference-2019) keynote address,
“Enabling Technologies and Application
of Robotic Welding for Naval Ship
Construction.”
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 37
avila-hypertherm-layout.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 12:19 PM Page 38

Plasma’s Role in Shipbuilding

Operational Excellence

BY MICHELLE AVILA

L
ike many industries, the shipbuilding trade is navigating rough wa-
Making small changes ters. An increasingly difficult business environment from consolida-
in how work is done tion, slowing growth rates, and uncertain political waters, combined
with a critical shortage of workers as well as the global COVID-19 pan-
can modernize and demic, has left many shipbuilders struggling to survive. The outlook for
shipbuilders isn’t entirely hopeless, however. Shipbuilders are buoyed by
streamline production the fact that consolidation is complete, and demand is expected to stabi-
methods lize thanks to the projected growth of world trade and the need for lighter,
more fuel-efficient ships to comply with new environmental regulations.

Industry Trends
The current climate is forcing shipbuilders to address operational inef-
ficiency impacting everything from worker safety, build quality, delivery
schedules, and costs while also considering the following industry trends
— Fig. 1.

38 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

avila-hypertherm-layout.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 7:50 PM Page 39
Post COVID-19, the total
value of world trade is
expected to grow.
Incremental technology
advancements and the
need for lighter, more
fuel-efficient ships to
comply with new
environmental
regulations will also
spur new demand.
Automation. Shipbuilders want to
reduce labor costs and increase
throughput and quality by adding
more automation to their workflows.
Labor. Finding, training, and re-
taining skilled labor is a continuous
and expensive challenge as is keeping
current workers safe.
Lighter ships. The military, cargo
shipping companies, and cruise line
owners are all asking for lighter vessels
that cost less to operate and are faster
in the water. Shipbuilders are meeting
this request by using thinner gauge
steel and switching to aluminum
whenever possible.
Larger ships. Though seemingly at
odds with the trend toward lighter
ships, shipping lines want mega-ships,
similar to the Ever Given container
ship recently lodged in Egypt’s Suez
canal. By doubling and even tripling
the size of ships, shipping companies
reason they can transport more cargo
without adding crew.
3D printing and additive manu-
facturing. There is a stated desire and
active research projects underway at
shipbuilding companies to introduce
3D printing and additive manufactur-
ing to yards. The thinking is these ad-
ditions would enable more rapid ship
construction rates at reduced per-unit
costs.
Internet of Things (IoT). Ship-
builders see a connected factory as an-
other tool to reduce manufacturing
cost and improve production. Such
systems would monitor all activities,
including systems utilization, down-
time, status of equipment, and em-
ployee effectiveness.
With the above trends in mind,
shipbuilders are working to eliminate
activities that do not add value, such
as excessive material handling. At the
same time, they are adopting newer
technology better suited to the reality
of modern shipbuilding. By making
small changes to how work is done,
shipbuilders can improve worker safe-
ty, build quality, delivery schedules,
and costs while lessening, and in some
cases eliminating, nonvalue-added
activity and pain points. The following
are five examples.
Fig. 1 — Almost unanimously, shipyards identified three critical areas for improve-
ment: safety, productivity, and cost containment.
Skeleton Removal
The job of cutting up the plate that
remains after cutting up parts is slow,
labor intensive, and dangerous. Opera-
tors often use an oxyfuel torch, first
standing on top of a table and then
bending down to reach the plate. Op-
erators who choose to remain standing
on the floor also face ergonomic chal-
lenges as they stretch awkwardly
across the plate. A solution that would
improve worker ergonomics and safe-
ty, while eliminating the dangerous
gases needed for oxyfuel cutting, is to
move from oxyfuel to plasma. By using
a portable air plasma system equipped
with a 4-ft-long torch, operators can
easily and quickly cut and remove
skeletons without forcing their body
into awkward positions. Further, they
can do this while standing on the
ground, next to the table. In addition
to improved worker ergonomics, this
method has a time-and money-saving
advantage as plasma does not require
preheating and will cut a ½-in.-thick
mild steel faster than oxyfuel.
Beveling
Many shipyards start their cutting
process on mechanized plasma tables
that cut parts. Once the initial cutting
is complete, bevels are cut using an
oxyfuel torch on a carriage that fol-
lows alongside the edge of the plate.
From here, parts are moved to a team
of grinding employees who round
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 39
avila-hypertherm-layout.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 7:51 PM Page 40
Fig. 2 — Plasma cutting technology can address many of the shipbuilding industry’s
most pressing problems.
edges, smooth out transitions, and
ensure welding requirements are
achieved with bevel angles. From an
efficiency perspective, this process
isn’t ideal. Plasma technology with an
optimized track/carriage solution de-
livers faster cutting speeds, reduced
setup, better-cut quality, less grinding,
and the opportunity to redeploy
approximately half of the operators
currently required for beveling.
Welders, in turn, would get parts
with smoother edges, leading to
better welds.
Marking
Shipyards use markings to add bar-
codes, identify which parts are associ-
ated with which jobs, point out critical
features, add cut or trim lines, and cre-
ate guidelines for welding and form-
ing. Right now, operators might use
chalk, soapstone, or ink to add a tem-
porary mark, dot peen marking, and
punching. While these methods work,
they frequently cause delays and bot-
tlenecks. Shipyard operators can
lessen the number of injuries and in-
crease marking speed more than ten
times through automated marking
with a portable air plasma system.
Shipbuilders wanting more efficiency
can add a plasma marking torch to an
existing cutting table, allowing them
to cut and mark parts in a single pass.
MICHELLE AVILA (michelle.avila@hypertherm.com) is communications manager, Hypertherm Inc., Hanover, N.H.
40 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
Temporary Attachment
Removal
The use of temporary attachments,
which are removed downstream, is
common. These attachments create
lifting points and help hold subassem-
blies in position during welding. To
lessen waste, shipyards want to reuse
these attachments as often as possible,
but to do so, workers need to carefully
remove each attachment without caus-
ing damage. Base metal damage is a
major concern because even a small
nick can result in a piece failing inspec-
tion. Right now, the predominant
methods used are oxyfuel and carbon
arc gouging. By using air plasma
equipped with flush cutting consum-
ables, workers can quickly slice
Achieving operation
excellence is critical for
shipbuilders. Single-digit
profit margins, customers’
demands to deliver ships
within increasingly shorter
timeframes, and general
industry pressures mean
shipbuilders need to do
more in less time.
through the attachment at its attach-
ment point. The attachment is re-
moved almost completely intact, al-
lowing for reuse and much less grind-
ing of the base material. Another
bonus is that plasma can remove the
attachment in one pass vs. a minimum
of two passes with other methods.
General Cutting
General cutting with an oxyfuel
torch is used to fabricate blocks, fit up
subsegments, and trim during final
structure assembly. When having to
join subsegments weighing up to 200
tons to the main ship body and again
during final structural assembly, crews
must often remove excess metal to en-
sure an accurate fitup. Rework, goug-
ing, and the removal of temporary at-
tachments are also needed during this
stage. Currently, crews use a combina-
tion of oxyfuel, carbon arc gouging,
and grinding to do this work. Using
plasma to cut and gouge instead of
oxyfuel and carbon arc gouging would
eliminate the need for combustible
gases, reducing the risk of a fire or ex-
plosion. In addition, the change would
lead to cost improvements as ship-
yards wouldn’t need to buy gas or pay
workers to monitor for gas leaks. Fi-
nally, plasma’s faster cutting speeds
would help workers complete jobs
quicker — Fig. 2.
Conclusion
In closing, achieving operation ex-
cellence is critical for shipbuilders.
Single-digit profit margins, customers’
demands to deliver ships within in-
creasingly shorter timeframes, and
general industry pressures mean ship-
builders need to do more in less time.
At the same time, they need to make
their yards safer to both attract new
workers and keep the workers they al-
ready have on the job. Modernizing
and streamlining production methods
through the elimination of waste can
help shipyards eliminate pain points
and instead focus on operational excel-
lence. In doing so, shipbuilders can
increase bottom line profits while
submitting more competitive bids
and winning more jobs. WJ
Page 41 AWS Membership.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/7/21 11:41 AM Page 41
feature07-blythe-gts.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 7:25 AM Page 42
A View from the Gulf Coast
The Gulf States Shipbuilders Consortium
addresses the state of the maritime
industry
The USS Fort Lauderdale was built in Pascagoula, Miss. It’s the 12th San Antonio-
class amphibious transport dock ship for the U.S. Navy. (Image courtesy of Hunting-
ton Ingalls Industries.)
T
he Gulf States Shipbuilders Con-
sortium (GSSC, gsship.org) turns
15 years old this December, and,
with more than 50 member companies
representing five states, the GSSC
finds itself at a crossroads.
Originally established to address
workforce shortages in a post-
Hurricane Katrina environment, the
GSSC has evolved to become a unique
regional cooperative where companies
that compete in the shipbuilding and
repair industry can come together to
share best practices in training, im-
prove the image of craft professionals,
and highlight the lifestyle along the
Gulf of Mexico. These efforts have im-
42 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
proved the workforce talent pipeline
and have resulted in partnerships with
training providers, welding schools,
and apprenticeship programs.
While not every member of the
GSSC is in the defense industry, some
build ships for the U.S. Navy, Coast
Guard, and Marines. Continue reading
this article to learn about the Shipyard
Act and view an engaging Q&A series.
Bipartisan Bill Facilitates
Shipyards Needs
As the U.S. government and de-
fense industry analysts discuss bipar-
tisan infrastructure bills, there is
BY RYAN BLYTHE
WITH MIKE LELEUX
AND MARK SCOTT
growing support for billions of dollars
to be allocated to renovate both public
and private shipyards. Introduced in
April, the Shipyard Act has sponsors
from multiple shipbuilding states, in-
cluding Mississippi.
Mississippi Senator Roger Wicker
has expressed concerns that shipyards
are having trouble servicing today’s
fleet and are insufficient to maintain
the larger fleet necessary to counter
China and Russia. The U.S. Navy cur-
rently has 296 ships, and many ex-
perts advocate for an additional 50 to
60 ships.
The Shipyard Act supporters be-
lieve the legislation will address mod-
ernization, maintenance, and expan-
sion projects at public yards, while the
commercial side will benefit from capi-
tal improvements needed to increase
fleet size. These could include new dry
docks and updated tools, equipment,
and facilities.
An editorial in The Wall Street Jour-
nal, written by retired U.S. Navy Captain
Jerry Hendrix, also sounded the alarms.
Hendrix argued that without shipyard
investments, it would be impossible to
expand fleet size. He pointed out how
China has more than 1000 yards, while
the United States has four industrial
yards and less than 20 commercial sites.
Assuming the government follows
through with a significant package for
shipbuilders, workforce development
is going to continue to be a major chal-
lenge and an opportunity for compa-
nies to differentiate themselves. With
that in mind, I spoke with two GSSC
board members to get their take on
the state of the industry as we move
out of the global pandemic.
feature07-blythe-gts.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 7:26 AM Page 43
Mike Leleux Mark Scott
Sail through This Q&A
Following 21 years of U.S. Naval
service, Mike Leleux is the training
and recruiting manager for VT Halter
Marine in Pascagoula, Miss. Mark
Scott is the business operations man-
ager for talent management at Ingalls
Shipbuilding, a division of Huntington
Ingalls Industries, in Pascagoula, Miss.
Below are their thoughts.
Q: Why is the GSCC important
to workforce development in the
maritime industry?
Mike Leleux: The Gulf States
Shipbuilders Consortium has led the
way in developing industry standards
when it comes to craft professionals
and bringing awareness to high
schools about opportunities in the
maritime industry. It shows teachers
and counselors how what they teach
relates to the maritime industry,
teaches the youth — from pre-
kindergarten to 12th graders — the
importance of a career in the maritime
industry, and builds relations in the
maritime industry to get great people
together to make all of this happen.
Mark Scott: We are stronger to-
gether. In the area of the country we
live, shipbuilding is a big deal and it’s
common for workers to move between
companies based on successful con-
tracts and workforce demand. Our con-
sortium offers us an organized way to
influence the growth of this vital work-
force. We can jointly recruit new work-
ers and communicate training stan-
dards, which in return, help all of us.
Q: How did COVID-19 affect your
company’s recruiting efforts? What
innovations or best practices can
you share with us?
Leleux: COVID-19 has changed a
lot in recruiting when it comes to
thinking outside the box, such as cre-
ating drive-through recruiting events
and using virtual recruiting.
Scott: Simply put, COVID-19 made
recruiting and training new ship-
builders much more difficult. Initially,
fear of the virus impacted our target
audience. Things have slowly gotten
better with the advent of social dis-
tancing, face coverings, and vaccina-
tions. Innovative ideas such as virtual
orientation for new hires and drive-
through recruiting and hiring events
have greatly helped; although, we are
still playing catch-up.
Q: Former American Welding
Society President and GSSC Chair
Ronald C. Pierce recently passed
away. Can you comment on his
legacy in the GSSC and welding
industry?
Leleux: Ron Pierce was not only a
great leader in the maritime industry,
he was like family to everyone he met.
He was a person who acted and not
just gave suggestions. I cannot tell you
the countless times he would just call
to catch up to make sure you were do-
ing okay, especially if he had not heard
from you in a while. I knew Ron both
personally and professionally, and he
was always the same. I could always
call on him for advice. He will be great-
ly missed.
Scott: Mr. Pierce was instrumental
in bringing shipbuilding companies to-
gether and was one of the founding fa-
thers of GSSC. He strongly believed
that making workforce development a
priority and working together to solve
our common problems would make our
region and industry stronger. He was a
visionary. He will be greatly missed.
Q: What is your outlook for 2021?
Do you anticipate a busy year as
the economy recovers from the
pandemic?
Leleux: The outlook for 2021 in the
maritime industry is growth. I know
we must hire lots of personnel.
Scott: Yes. The shipbuilding along
the Gulf Coast is booming. It is a great
opportunity for anyone who desires a
stable career with personal and profes-
sional growth potential.
Q: Are there any concerns about
current government policies as it
relates to the maritime workforce?
Leleux: The disincentive to work in
the form of extended unemployment
is not only affecting the maritime in-
dustry but the country. When you give
people more money to stay at home
than work, it does not help. We are
currently seeing the effects.
Q: Hurricane Katrina is now 16
years in the rear view. What does
that mean for the current and
future efforts of the GSSC?
Scott: In the time just after Hurri-
cane Katrina, we faced a workforce cri-
sis. We put our collective heads to-
gether to solve that crisis. We face a
similar workforce crisis now (re:
COVID-19). Labor markets are tight
and will continue to be so. Our collec-
tive workforce development efforts are
as critical now as they were in 2005.
Conclusion
Whether the U.S. Navy has 300 or
350 ships, finding skilled labor to
maintain and build ships remains a
daunting challenge. It is estimated
that two-thirds of U.S. high school stu-
dents pursue a college education, leav-
ing shipbuilders with a reduced talent
pool. And with the average welder’s
age in the mid-50s, finding younger
craftworkers is essential. In the com-
ing decades, tens of thousands of new
shipbuilders will need to be identified
and trained. Innovative best practices
that the GSSC has championed may be
the difference at some of the most im-
portant acres in America. WJ
RYAN BLYTHE
(rblythe@georgiatradeschool.com) is
founder of Georgia Trade School, Acworth,
Ga. MIKE LELEUX is the training and
recruiting manager for VT Halter Marine,
Pascagoula, Miss. MARK SCOTT is the
business operations manager for talent
management at Ingalls Shipbuilding,
Pascagoula, Miss.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 43
Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 44
FABTECH
Welding Show 2021
FABTECH Preview
This alphabetical listing of exhibitors in the 2021 AWS Welding Show offers a preview of what they will display in each booth.
AWS Sustaining Member Companies are highlighted in color. Note: This list was assembled in May 2021, during the time of
production for the July 2021 Welding Journal. Continue to visit fabtechexpo.com for details about attending; to view the exhibitor
directory with booth assignments; to be aware of health and safety information, including the show management safety first
commitment; and much more.
3M sion to advance the science, technolo-
3m.com gy, and application of welding and al-
lied joining and cutting processes, in-
ABB Robotics & Discrete cluding brazing, soldering, and ther-
Automation mal spraying. In support of its mis-
new.abb.com sion, AWS creates and distributes in-
dustry-trusted technical standards
Absolent Inc. and other publications, including the
absolent.com Welding Journal, Welding Journal en
Español, Inspection Trends, and Weld-
Ace Industrial Products ing Marketplace.
aceindustrialproducts.com
AWS Bookstore
ACT Dust Collectors pubs.aws.org
actdustcollectors.com
Make sure you’re up to date with the
AGT Robotics latest publications by visiting AWS
agtrobotics.com Bookstore. AWS is offering huge sav-
ings off the list price of any bookstore
Aimtek Inc. item purchased from the inventory on
aimtek.com the show floor. Purchase yours while
supplies last.
Air Purification Inc.
airpurificationinc.com AWS Certification
aws.org/certification
Airflow Systems Inc.
airflowsystems.com AWS develops and administers a vari-
ety of certification programs. The
AKH Inc. AWS Certified Welding Inspector
akhfas-ner.com (CWI) program currently lists more
than 48,000 inspectors, and has be-
Allied Powers LLC come the gold standard for welding
(314) 569-2888 inspector credentials. In 1989, the
AWS Certified Welder program was
ALM Positioners Inc. launched to provide transferable cre-
almmh.com dentials to welders. The testing facili-
ties that conduct the performance
Ambrell Induction Heating Solutions qualification test for the welders are
ambrell.com accredited by AWS and published in a
list of Accredited Test Facilities
American Technical Publishers (ATFs). Other AWS certification pro-
atplearning.com grams include the Certified Welding
Educator (CWE), Certified Welding
American Torch Tip Co. Inc. Supervisor (CWS), Certified Radi-
americantorchtip.com ographic Interpreter (CRI), Certified
Welding Fabricator (CWF), Certified
American Welding Society Robotic Arc Welding Operator and
aws.org Technician (CRAW-O and CRAW-T),
Certified Welding Engineer (CWEng),
AWS was founded in 1919 as a non- Certified Welding Sales Representa-
profit organization with a global mis- tive (CWSR), and Certified Resistance
44 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
Welding Technician (CRWT). The So-
ciety also offers several endorsements
designed to enhance an individual’s
credentials and/or satisfy the nine-
year recertification for CWIs and Sen-
ior Certified Welding Inspectors
(SCWIs), including the new Welder
Performance Qualifier and the ISO
Standards endorsements. All of these
programs are offered domestically,
and many are offered worldwide. Ad-
ditionally, in 2019, AWS collaborated
with Prometric to launch Part A (fun-
damentals) and Part C (codebook)
CWI exams via computer-based test-
ing and modernized the application
process by going paperless and digi-
tal. By the end of 2021, AWS will have
launched the following new and up-
dated certifications and exams:
• A CWI Part C (codebook) exam now
based on AWS D1.1:2020, Structural
Welding Code — Steel — January 1
• CWI by International Institute of
Welding (IIW) waiver — April 1
• ISO Standards endorsement — April 1
• CWEng exam will be available at Pro-
metric exam centers — September 1.
Visit the booth to learn how obtaining
AWS certifications can benefit you and
your company.
AWS Education and Training
aws.org/education
AWS Education and Training offers
seminars, online courses, webinars,
publications, and other educational re-
sources designed to support welding
industry professionals at every step of
their careers. Visit the booth to learn
how AWS can help you achieve more
and prepare you for whatever comes
next.
AWS Foundation
aws.org/foundation
According to Emsi (2021), it is project-
ed the United States will need more
than 300,000 welding professionals by
Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 45
2024 to fill job openings. The AWS
Foundation is focused on supporting
education and promoting careers in
welding to ensure the growth and de-
velopment of the welding industry. Its
programs include the following:
• Scholarships — More than $1.5 mil-
lion annually for students pursuing
education and training in welding and
related fields;
• Grants — Up to $25,000 for schools
to improve and expand welder training
institutions;
• Graduate Research Fellowships —
Four $30,000-per-year fellowships to
support graduate-level research in join-
ing and other allied technologies;
• Workforce Development — Engaging
content and creative initiatives to in-
spire the next generation of welding
professionals, including videos, social
media posts, articles, and the
CareersinWelding.com website.
Careers in Welding Mobile Exhibit
The AWS Foundation’s Careers in
Welding Mobile Exhibit, sponsored by
Lincoln Electric, is a 53-ft expandable
trailer that visits major events across
the country, providing individuals
with a unique, hands-on virtual reality
welding experience and a host of infor-
mation about career opportunities in
the welding field. Visitors can check
out Metal Maiden, a metal-art sculp-
ture in the likeness of the Statue of
Liberty, created by Stephanie Hoffman
and Barbie the Welder. Events are be-
ing planned throughout the week with
some of the biggest names in the weld-
ing industry.
AWS Membership
aws.org/membership
AWS invites you to step into the exhi-
bition hall and visit the AWS booth.
This year, we’re highlighting you —
the members. Every welder has a story
to tell, and we want to hear yours. Sub-
mit your welding journey to aws.org/
memberstory or simply send us your
photo along with your years of mem-
bership to be featured at our booth.
Also, new members can take advan-
tage of special offers, including a
chance to win a customized AWS hel-
met. If you know someone who is 18
years of age, lives in the United States,
and is ready to make their mark on the
industry, encourage them to join AWS
at the show and enter for a chance to
win.
Welding Journal/Welding
Journal en Español/
Inspection Trends/SPRAYTIME
aws.org/publications
Welding Journal is the official publica-
tion of AWS. This award-winning
monthly periodical features articles
on practical and applied welding tech-
nology; information about the Soci-
ety’s activities and programs; month-
ly columns, and answers from indus-
try experts to readers’ questions
about stainless steel, aluminum, braz-
ing, soldering, and resistance weld-
ing. The Research Supplement section
presents timely and innovative peer-
reviewed research. Welding Journal en
Español has the best in features, de-
partments, and news from the Weld-
ing Journal, along with articles writ-
ten by and for Mexican and Latin-
American professionals. Inspection
Trends, published quarterly, features
timely articles about all phases of
nondestructive examination, profiles
of inspection personnel, the latest in-
spection-related technologies, and
news and expert-written columns
providing practical information of in-
terest to CWIs and quality-assurance
personnel. SPRAYTIME, the official
publication of the International Ther-
mal Spray Association, provides com-
pany, event, people, product, re-
search, and membership news of in-
terest to industrial leaders, engineers,
researchers, scholars, policymakers,
and the public thermal spray commu-
nity. Welding Digest is the premier
news source brought to you by AWS.
Weldingdigest.com is a digital resource
for readers who want to stay up to
date with trending topics and techni-
cal advances, master their trade
through career insights, gain in-shop
tips and videos, and stay connected to
industry peers through special inter-
est articles and artwork. Additionally,
advertisers who want to get their
message in front of this growing AWS
audience have a variety of advertising
options available in Welding Digest,
from sponsored content to banners.
AMET Inc.
ametinc.com
FABTECH
Andersen Industries Inc.
andersenmp.com
Anthony Welded
Products Inc.
anthonycarts.com
Anxin Abrasives
011 86 371-6375-1616
Aquasol Corp.
aquasolwelding.com
Aquasol, a privately held entity located
in North Tonawanda, N.Y., will show
its water soluble and advanced purging
technologies for the welding industry.
With several patents issued and pend-
ing in the United States and interna-
tionally, the company is committed to
advancing purging technology.
Arc Solutions Inc.
arcsolinc.com
ARC Specialties Inc.
arcspecialties.com
ARC Specialties, founded in 1983 by
Dan Allford to provide welding servic-
es and weld automation to industry,
has grown to a 60-plus person compa-
ny occupying a campus with more
than 75,000 sq ft. These buildings
house the components for a vertically
integrated manufacturing solution
provider, including research, design,
manufacturing, assembly, and testing
at a single location. The company will
highlight these capabilities.
ArcBoss
arcboss.com
Arkansas Elite Welding Academy
arkansasewa.com
ATA Tools Inc.
atagroup.co
ATI Industrial Automation
ati-ia.com
ATI Industrial Automation, an
engineering-based developer of robotic
accessories and robot arm tooling, will
display its automatic tool changers,
multiaxis force/torque sensing systems,
utility couplers, robotic deburring
tools, robotic collision sensors, manual
tool changers, and compliance devices.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 45
Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 46

FABTECH

Auburn Mfg. Inc. Cambridge Vacuum Engineering COR-MET will offer its flux cored
auburnmfg.com camvaceng.com wires, electrodes, gas tungsten arc
rods, and flood welding equipment. Its
AVS Industries LLC Capital Weld Cleaners standard alloys include nickel; cobalt;
avsind.com capitalweldcleaners.com stainless, tool, and alloy steels; cast
irons; and hard surfacing products.
AXXAIR USA Carr Lane Mfg. Co. The company will also provide special
axxairusa.com carrlane.com reference guides, including CORTM
FACE Alloys, The Flux Core Welding
Bear Knuckles Cavitar Ltd. Wire Hardface Guide; COR-FORGE Die
bearknuckles.biz cavitar.com Repair Alloys handbook; and the com-
pany’s General Products Catalog.
Bend-Tech LLC CEIA USA Induction Heating
bend-tech.com Systems Cougartron Inc.
ceia-usa.com cougartron.com
Beveler USA Inc.
bevelerusa.com CENIT North America Inc. Coxreels
fastsuite.com coxreels.com
Black Stallion (Revco)
blackstallion.com Cerbaco Ltd. CS Unitec Inc.
cerbaco.com csunitec.com
Bluco Corp.
bluco.com CGW Abrasives CS Unitec will highlight its electric, hy-
cgwabrasives.com draulic, and pneumatic metalworking
Blue Demon Welding Products tools, which meet the demands of
weldingmaterialsales.com Champion Cutting Tool users in construction and industry.
championcuttingtool.com The company will present its line of
Bollhoff USA surface preparation, finishing, and
bollhoff-attexor.com Chart Inc. fabrication tools for stainless steel,
chartindustries.com steel, aluminum, and other nonferrous
Bosch Rexroth Corp. metals.
boschrexroth-us.com Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co. LLC
cp.com/en-us/tools CWB Group
Bosch Rexroth will exhibit its cwbgroup.org
PRC7000 controller family, which im- CK Worldwide
proves adaptive weld control for auto- ckworldwide.com D/F Machine Specialties Inc.
motive manufacturing. With its soft- dfmachinespecialties.com
ware tools and modular design, this CM Industries Inc.
welding control technology enables cmindustries.com Dedeco International Inc.
faster commissioning. The adaptive dedeco.com
controller is available in two models: CO2Meter
the PRC7300, which operates at 600-A co2meter.com Diablo Tools
peak current, and the PRC7400, which freudtools.com
operates at 1600-A peak current. In COB Industries Inc.
addition, the company will spotlight cob-industries.com Diagraph Marking and Coding —
its Weld Spot Analytics software. This An ITW Co.
technology collects and analyzes data Coherent Inc. diagraphmsp.com
to help identify whether a spot was coherent.com
welded to quality specifications. The Direct Wire
technology’s smart-edge module pro- Computers Unlimited directwireusa.com
vides a secure connection to all the cu.net
welding controllers on the shop floor. Dongguan Kingdom Abrasives
Continental Abrasives Co. Ltd.
Bradford Derustit Corp. continentalabrasives.com dgkingdom.ltd
derustit.com
CORAL Antipollution Systems DualDraw LLC
Buffalo Shrink Wrap coral.eu dualdraw.com
buffaloshrinkwrap.com
COR-MET Inc. Dynabrade Inc.
Bug-O Systems cor-met.com dynabrade.com
bugo.com

46 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 47

FABTECH

EASYkleen Pty. Ltd. FOCUS GmbH Hundal Group

easykleen.com.au focus-e-welding.de +92 925 235 62093

eldec LLC Forney Welding & Metalworking Hypertherm Inc.

inductionheatingexperts.com forneyind.com hypertherm.com

Electron Beam Technologies Inc. FumeVac Hypertherm will offer its cutting
electronbeam.com fumevac.com equipment, computer numerical con-
trol systems, and software, which are
Encompass Machines Inc. Fusion Inc. trusted worldwide for their perform-
goencompass.com fusion-inc.com ance and reliability.

ESCO Tool Co. Fusion Inc. will spotlight its soldering IDEAL
escotool.com pastes as well as its automated brazing idealweld.com
and soldering equipment. Experts will
ESCO Tool will display its Millhog®, be on hand for live demonstrations Igneous Gear
Hog Tie®, and Flange Hog® tools for and application suggestions. igneousgear.com
the fabrication and maintenance of
tube and pipe systems. The company’s Genstar Technologies Co. Inc. II-VI Infrared
Millhog tools bevel the hardest tube (GENTEC) ii-vi.com
and pipe alloys at any angle without gentec.com
cutting fluids. Its Hog Tie boiler tube IMPACT
alignment clamp accurately aligns GH Induction Atmospheres LLC impact-net.org
boiler tube ends in preparation for gh-ia.com
welding. Additionally, its Flange Hog InterTest Inc.
tool reconditions raised-face and flat- Goss Inc. intertest.com
face flange gasket seat surfaces with a gossonline.com
phonographic finish. IPG Photonics
Gretchen International ipgphotonics.com
Eurovac Inc. everlastwelders.com
eurovac.com IPG Photonics will unveil its fiber
Gudel Inc. lasers and systems for automated
EWI gudel.com laser welding, cutting, and drilling.
ewi.org The company will also showcase its
Gullco International Inc. vertically integrated development and
FANUC America Corp. gullco.com manufacturing capabilities, which en-
fanucamerica.com able it to meet customer requirements,
Harbert’s Products Inc./Allied Flux accelerate development, manage costs,
FeoClean harbertsproducts.com and improve yields.
feoclean.com
HBS Stud Welding Partners IVEC Systems
Filter-1 sunbeltstudwelding.com ivecsystems.com
filter-1.com
HGG Profiling Equipment Inc. IVEC Systems will introduce its
Fireball Tool hgg-group.com control systems, dust collection equip-
fireballtool.com ment, gates, sensors, and ancillary
Hobart Institute of Welding components. These are engineered to
Fischer Engineering Co. Technology optimize air filtration performance
fischerengr.com welding.org with up to 85% lower energy costs and
up to 400% longer filter life. The sys-
Flame Tech Holemaker Technology LLC tems also provide quiet operation and
flametechnologies.com us.holemaker-technology.com easy self-cleaning filters.

Flex Arc Holemaker Technology will showcase IVOSTUD GmbH

its patented VersaDrive® system, a ivostud.com
Flexovit USA Inc. modular cutting system that allows
flexovitabrasives.com cutting tools to be used across impact IWT Stud Welding
wrenches/drivers as well as rotary iwtmarketplace.com
FLIR Systems drills like magnet, handheld, and pillar
(800) 464-6372 drills.

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 47

Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 48
FABTECH
Izumi Friction Welding/All World
allworldmachinery.com
JASIC Technologies America Inc.
razorweld.com
JLC Electromet Pvt. Ltd.
jlcelectromet.com
John Tillman Co.
jtillman.com
JR Automation
jrautomation.com
Kalas
kalaswire.com
Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Inc.
kawasakirobotics.com
Kawasaki Robotics will debut its
automation solutions for robotic arc
welding, material removal, machine
load/unload, and assembly. It will offer
examples of offline programming and
seam tracking in an arc welding booth
that will include robotic grinding and
machine load/unload. Additionally, the
company will feature two pre-
engineered cells: one performing live arc
welding and the other deburring parts
using the RS007N small payload robots.
Kennametal Inc.
kennametal.com
Kennametal will highlight its wear so-
lutions. Its primary portfolio of mate-
rials includes tungsten carbide, cobalt,
nickel, and other specialty additives.
The company combines these materi-
als to create unique formulas and
grades to solve specific challenges.
Kistler Welding and Cutting
Automation
kistler-machine.com
Koike Aronson Inc.
koike.com
Koike Aronson will exhibit its advanced
cutting machines, welding positioning
equipment, portable cutting/welding
machines, and gas apparatuses. Its
cutting machines can be customized to
fit most requirements, and its welding
and positioning equipment can be
made to accept workpieces of nearly
any size.
48 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
K-TIG
k-tig.com
KUKA Robotics Corp.
kuka.com
KUKA Robotics will spotlight its
industrial robots and intelligent
automation solutions. Its robots range
from 3- to 1300-kg payloads and 540-
to 3900-mm reach, all of which are
controlled from a common PC-based
controller platform. The company’s
robots are suited for a range of indus-
tries, including appliance, automotive,
aerospace, consumer goods, logistics,
food, pharmaceutical, medical,
foundry, and plastics.
Laser Marking Technologies/Laser
Manufacturing Technologies LLC
lasermarktech.com
Laser Mechanisms Inc.
lasermech.com
Laser Mechanisms will feature its laser
beam delivery components and articu-
lated arm systems for high power CO2,
YAG, and fiber lasers, as well as other
lasers with wavelengths that suit dif-
ferent facets of industrial, medical,
and military applications. It will also
highlight the PRiMES line of laser
beam analysis equipment.
Laserline Inc.
laserline.com
Levitate Technologies Inc.
levitatetech.com
Liburdi Automation Inc./
Liburdi Dimetrics Corp.
liburdi.com
LightSAFE – LightWELD
serralaser.com
Linde plc
linde.com
Linde will showcase its industrial
gases, applications, products, and
services that support welding, cutting,
and other processes. It will also pres-
ent the ProStar® product line, which
includes welding supplies, cutting ma-
chines, and automation tools from a
large variety of manufacturers.
Luvata Ohio Inc.
luvata.com
Manufacturing Solutions
Industries Inc.
msi-tx.com
Markal
markal.com
LA-CO Industries, a family-owned
global manufacturing company, will
showcase its lines of industrial hand-
held markers, plumbing chemicals,
and livestock identification products.
Its Markal® brand offers high-perfor-
mance, hand-held industrial marking
products for use in most industries,
including metal production, shipbuild-
ing, automotive assembly, welding and
metal fabrication, and construction.
Mathey, B&B Pipe, PPM, Fit-Up Pro,
TAG Pipe
sfe-brands.com
McDantim Inc.
mcdantim.com
McDantim will feature its Trumix® gas
blending systems. Taking advantage of
laminar gas flow properties, the compa-
ny’s blenders maintain industry stan-
dard blend accuracies over a wide range
of flow rates without the need for buffer
tanks, electrical connections, or user
calibration. Its products include stan-
dard models that range from 150 to
4000 ft3/h per blend. The company also
offers custom models available for laser
cutting applications, which can require
10,000 ft3/h.
MCR Safety
mcrsafety.com
Melton Machine & Control Co.
meltonmachine.com
MELTRIC Corp.
meltric.com
Metabo Power Tools
metabo.com
Michigan Pneumatic Tool Inc.
michiganpneumatic.com
Micro Air
microaironline.com
Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 49

FABTECH

Midalloy NUBURU Inc. Preco Inc.

midalloy.com nuburu.net precoinc.com

Midalloy and Midalloy Specialty Alloys Olympus America Inc. Primo Automation Systems
(MSM) will exhibit high-performance olympus-ims.com primoautomation.com
welding and bar products for the fabri-
cation and manufacture of stainless Optrel Inc. Pro Spot International
steel, nickel alloys, low alloy, alu- optrel.us prospot.com
minum, and specialty super alloys. In-
dustrial sectors the brands service in- OTC DAIHEN Inc. Pro Spot International will highlight
clude oil and gas, energy generation, daihen-usa.com its equipment line of resistance spot
and cryogenics for liquefied natural welding units, aluminum and steel
gas. Midalloy brands include Ni-Max Outlaw Leather dent repair systems, pulse gas metal
nickel coated electrodes; Chromax outlawleatherllc.com arc welding machines, rivet guns and
stainless steel coated electrodes; Mas- tools, dust-free sanding systems, fume
tercor stainless, nickel, and low-alloy Oxylance Inc. extractors, and more. The company
flux cored wires; and bare welding oxylance.com specializes in welding, joining, and re-
wires. pair products. Its facility includes de-
Pador Group - Rotoweld sign, engineering, and powder coating
MITUSA Inc. pador.com services; machine and sheet metal
mitusaproducts.com shops; assembly; training; and
Pandjiris Inc. customer support.
MITUSA will display its line of seam pandjiris.com
welding systems and welding se- Proceq USA Inc.
quencer controls, including weld seam- Pearl Abrasive Co. proceq.com
ers, roll planishers, welding sidebeams, pearlabrasive.com
robot transfer units, and welding ma- Protective Industrial Products Inc.
nipulators. The company provides Pemamek LLC us.pipglobal.com/en
services such as welding fabrication, pemamek.com
machining, and special engineering of PTR-Precision Technologies Inc.
custom arc welding systems. It builds Pioneer IWS ptreb.com
standard and custom hard or fixed au- pioneeriws.com
tomated welding systems for automat- Pulsa
ed pipe welding, seam welding, girth Pipe Pro Guides pulsasensors.com
welding, and many other nonarticulat- pipeproguides.com
ing arm applications. The company PureFlo
also specializes in custom gantry plan- plasmo USA LLC gentexcorp.com
isher systems. plasmo-us.com
Pyramex Safety Products
MSC Software Plasmo USA, located in Plymouth, pyramexsafety.com
simufact.com Mich., with headquarters in Austria,
will showcase quality assurance Quantum Machinery Group
MTA-USA LLC solutions for automated metalworking quantummachinery.com
mta-usa.com production processes. It specializes in
the integration of cameras/sensors Radyne Corp.
Nelson Stud Welding Inc. and develops analysis algorithms for radyne.com
nelsonstudwelding.com evaluating process emissions for laser
and gas metal arc welding, additive Rapol Inc.
Norton Abrasives manufacturing, and directed energy rapol.com
nortonabrasives.com deposition. All three of the company’s
core technologies can be correlated to Rex-Cut Abrasives
Norton Abrasives, a 130-year-old one another for complete process rexcut.com
company and brand of Saint-Gobain, traceability in one dashboard. Any
will feature abrasive solutions that joining process that produces a process Rex-Cut Abrasives will unveil its line
improve part quality and finish and light is the company’s area of focus. of grinding wheels, including the
enhance production capabilities. It Sigma Z, Aluminator, and Max Flex.
offers grinding, cutting, blending, Pleatco Filtration The Sigma Z has a high material
finishing, and polishing services pleatco.com removal rate. It also features cool
for many markets, materials, and grinding, extended wheel life, and a
applications. Precitec Inc. chatter-free operation. The updated
precitec.us Aluminator grinds and blends

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 49

Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 50

FABTECH

aluminum without clogging or Sigma DT Robotics machines, rotary milling machines,

loading. This cotton fiber wheel natu-
rally breaks down as heat is generated,
resulting in constant sharp grit being
exposed to the aluminum workpiece,
eliminating loading and the need for
wax or grinding aids. The Type 27 Max
Flex wheels are designed to grind and
blend stainless steel, carbon steel, alu-
minum, and more in just one step.
They can be used at a 45-deg angle for
an increased metal removal rate or a
30-deg angle for a smoother finish.
RIDGID
ridgid.com
Robotic Technologies LLC
of Tennessee
robotictechtn.com
Robotmaster, a Hypertherm Co.
robotmaster.com/en
sigmadt.com
Southern Stud Weld Inc.
studweld.com
SSC Controls Co.
ssccontrols.com
Staubli Corp.
staubli.com
Steelmax Tools
steelmax.com
Steelmax Tools will offer its range of
fabrication solutions, including metal
cutting saws and blades, mag drills
and annular cutters, hydraulic punch-
es, weld prep for both plate and pipe,
as well as the company’s RUNNER©
family of trackless and track-mounted
welding mechanization systems.
inline turning lathes, and linear
milling machines.
Surface Flow Technologies Inc./
LSN Diffusion Ltd.
surfaceflowtech.com
T. J. Snow Co.
tjsnow.com
T. J. Snow Co. will highlight its inven-
tory of new and used resistance weld-
ing machinery, resistance welding
parts and supplies, industrial water
chillers, and industrial spring bal-
ancers. The company will also feature
standard and custom welding ma-
chines and custom turnkey robotics
systems.
Taylor-Winfield Technologies
taylor-winfield.com

Robotmaster will feature its Steiner Industries Taylor-Winfield Technologies will

Robotmaster® V7.4 robotic offline steinerindustries.com showcase its automated assembly sys-
programming software, which tems; resistance, capacitive discharge,
includes several enhancements Strong Hand Tools and linear friction welding machines;
designed to further simplify robotic stronghandtools.com induction heating power supplies; ma-
programming like remote tool center terial handling/packaging systems; ro-
point (RTCP) that allows users to ex- Strong Hand Tools will introduce its botic integration systems; and parts
ploit the full capabilities of any welding and magnetic clamps; pliers processing solutions.
robotic cell. and vises; as well as the BuildPro®,
Rhino Cart®, and Siegmund® welding TEC Welding Products
Sanpo Publications Inc. tables. The PRO28 heavy duty metric tectorch.com
sanpo-pub.co.jp modular welding table — with indi-
vidual, positionable, and reversible Techniweld USA
SanRex Corp. table plates — will be highlighted. techniweldusa.com
sanrexwelding.com
Suhner Industrial Products Inc. Tenryu
Sawblade.Com suhner-machining.com/en tenryu.com
sawblade.com
Sumig USA Corp. THE ROUCHE CO. LLC
SciAps Inc. sumigusa.com trcwelding.com
sciaps.com
Sumner, A Southwire Co. ThermoBionics
SERVO-ROBOt sumner.com thermobionics.com
servo-robot.com
Sunstone Welders Threaded Fasteners Inc.
sia Abrasives sunstonewelders.com threadedfasteners.com
siaabrasives.com
Superflash Compressed Thred Taper
sia Abrasives will present its sanding Gas Equipment Inc. thredtaper.com
systems tailored to specific require- oxyfuelsafety.com
ments and applications of all kinds, Tip Tig USA LLC
transforming sanding into surface Superior Portable Machine Tools tiptigusa.com
technology. sprtool.com
Trafimet Group S.p.a.
Sideros Engineering Superior Portable Machine Tools will trafimetgroup.com
siderosengineering.com/index/en display its portable line boring
machines, automated bore welding

50 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 4:20 PM Page 51
Translas
translas.com
Trendex Inc.
trendexsys.com
Tru-Weld
truweldstudwelding.com
TWI North America
twi-global.com
U-Mark Inc.
umarkers.com
UNIBOR
unibor.com
United Abrasives Inc./SAIT
unitedabrasives.com
Universal Robots
universal-robots.com
Universal Robots will showcase its
lightweight collaborative robots that
can be moved around, automating
high-mix/low-volume production
runs. Force-sensing technology
makes the robot stop operating when
encountering an employee, eliminat-
ing the need for safety guarding in
most scenarios. Programming is intu-
itive; users simply grab the robot arm
to teach the desired movement, or
use the touch screen. The company’s
product portfolio also includes the
UR3e, UR5e, and UR10e robot arms.
The new e-Series features 0.03-mm
repeatability and span in reach from
19.7 to 51.2 in.
Uniweld Products Inc.
uniweld.com
Up In Smoke Welding Apparel Inc.
upinsmokewelding.com
Urrea Professional Tools
urreaprofessionaltools.com
Vanterm Isi Ve Makina San Tic AS
vanterm.com
Vectis Automation
vectisautomation.com
Vectis Automation will display its
cobot fabrication solutions to help
manufacturers boost productivity
amid the skilled labor shortage by re-
ducing the risk, learning curve, and
cost of implementing automation in
fabrication processes.
Vessel Tools/SP Air
spairusa.com
Vicon Machinery LLC
viconmachinery.com
Victory CNC Plasma Systems
victoryplasma.com
ViewTech Borescopes
viewtech.com
ViewTech will feature its articulating
video borescopes for remote
inspection of machinery, equipment,
and components. The VJ-3 family of
video borescopes, including the Dual
Camera, VJ Infrared (IR), Ultraviolet
(UV), and 2.2 mm, will be on display.
The new VJ-3 Dual Camera has inser-
tion tube lengths of 1.5, 3.0, 5.0, or
8.0 m. The product assists in viewing
straight ahead and 90 deg. Users can
switch between the two cameras
while keeping the borescope inside
the current inspection area. The VJ-3
IR mechanical articulating video
borescope can illuminate a dark area
or room with IR light, which is unde-
tectable to the human eye. It is avail-
able with an insertion tube diameter
of 6.0 mm and lengths of 1.0 or 2.0
m. Featuring full four-way
articulation, a rugged, liquid-proof
design, along with a full one-year
warranty, the IR video borescope is
rated to see a distance up to 20 m in
total darkness. The VJ-3 UV video
borescope facilitates endoscopic dye
penetrant testing by detecting inter-
nal and external surface defects. It is
available with an insertion tube diam-
eter of 6.0 mm and lengths ranging
from 1.0 to 3.0 m. It features full
four-way articulation, image, and
video capture capability, along with a
rugged, liquid-proof design.
Vitronic Machine Vision
vitronic.com
Vividia Technologies
oasisscientific.com
VSM Abrasives Corp
us.vsmabrasives.com
FABTECH
Walter Surface Technologies
walter.com
Washington Alloy Co.
weldingwire.com
Watts Mueller
watts-specialties.com
Weiler Abrasives
weilerabrsasives.com
Weiler Abrasives will display its
solutions for cleaning, grinding,
cutting, deburring, and finishing.
Weld Metals Online
weldmetalsonline.com
Weld Pride USA LLC
weldpride.com
Weldas Co. LLC
weldasusa.com
WeldComputer
weldcomputer.com
WeldComputer will offer its line of
high-performance controls and moni-
tors for automotive, commercial, mili-
tary, and aerospace resistance welding
applications. The company will also
highlight its consulting services for
analyzing welding operations, provid-
ing practical solutions to improve
welding performance, and reducing
losses from machine inconsistencies
and weld variability.
Weldcote Metals
weldcotemetals.com
WeldObot
weldobot.com
WeldObot will showcase its
SuperMIG® patented hybrid plasma
gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
system, which combines a powerful
plasma arc with GMAW in one torch,
providing users a full welding solution
for a number of joint configurations
and applications. A magnetic field
transverse to the plasma arc provides
arc stability allowing the two processes
to work together for maximum
efficiency.
Weldsale LLC
weldsale.com
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 51
Fabtech company preview.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:14 PM Page 52
FABTECH
Weldsale will display its system of ta-
bles and clamps for welding, clamping,
heating, bending, straightening,
gluing, screwing, layout, setup, and
general shop work.
Welker Engineered Products
welkerproducts.com
Wendt USA LLC
wendtusa.com
Wisconsin Wire Works Inc.
wisconsinwireworks.com
52 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
WITT Gas Controls
wittgas.com
Wurth Industry North America
wurthindustry.com
Xiris Automation Inc.
xiris.com
Yaskawa Motoman Robotics
motoman.com
Yaskawa will highlight its automation
products and solutions for virtually
every industry and robotic application.
The company’s comprehensive line of
welding robots, integrated power
sources, torches and peripherals, and
extensive family of fully-integrated
ArcWorld welding cells, provide
reliable, low-risk solutions that deliver
enhanced quality, productivity, and re-
turn on investment.
Zipp Air Tool
zippair.com
ce-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/6/21 9:31 AM Page 53
Note: Due to COVID-19, these events/opportunities
are subject to change.
AWS-SPONSORED EVENTS
COVID-19 and Its Impact on the Welding Industry Virtual
Conference. Aug. 3. Four panelists will give their perspec-
tive on what has transpired in the welding community dur-
ing 2020 and what is in store for the welding industry mov-
ing forward. Participants will have the opportunity to ask
questions and come away with essential information to con-
front the adversities brought on by this global issue. Visit
aws.org.
FABTECH. Sept. 13–16. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. A
one-stop shop venue where attendees can meet with world-
class suppliers, see the latest industry products and develop-
ments, find the tools to improve productivity, and increase
profits. Visit fabtechexpo.com.
2021 AWS Professional Program. Sept. 20–23. The virtual
event will feature novel developments and research related to
materials joining technology and processes, including additive
COMING EVENTS
manufacturing. Special events include the Comfort A. Adams
lecture, plenary presentations, a poster competition, and
more. Visit fabtechexpo.com.
2021 International Brazing and Soldering Conference.
Oct. 3–6. The Curtis Denver, Denver, Colo. The triennial
event will bring together the world’s experts in brazing and
soldering, allowing them to share ideas, view the latest tech-
nology, and see friends. Visit aws.org.
2nd Shipbuilding & Aluminum Conference. Oct. 5–7. Holi-
day Inn San Diego Bayside, San Diego, Calif. Industry ex-
perts will deliver the latest research and innovations in both
the shipbuilding and aluminum industries. The critical im-
portance of welding in the shipbuilding industry will also be
addressed with current information on the emerging tech-
nologies being developed for shipbuilding applications.
Visit aws.org.
RWMA Resistance Welding Fall School. Oct. 13, 14.
Cleveland, Ohio. AWS and RWMA team up to offer a two-
day school, taught by resistance welding industry experts,
that explores concepts and materials outside the scope of
the Certified Resistance Welding Technician exam. This in-
tensive overview of resistance welding will include presenta-
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 53
ce-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/6/21 9:32 AM Page 54

tions, panel discussions, Q&A sessions, and live demonstra-

tions on fully functioning equipment. It is designed for
beginner-to-experienced technicians, supervisors, produc-
tion managers, operators, trainers, and educators. Contact
Sarai Claveria, sclaveria@aws.org; (305) 443-9353, ext. 227;
or visit aws.org.

2021 Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIX — Welding

Solutions for Lightweight and Electric Vehicle Produc-
tion. Nov. 2–4. Laurel Manor, Livonia, Mich. This event pro-
vides engineers and researchers from manufacturers, suppli-
ers, universities, and research institutes the opportunity to
network and meet experts in the field of welding. The con-
ference will be preceded by a one-day workshop on Nov. 1.
Visit awsdetroit.org.

U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS

74th IIW Annual Assembly and International Conference.
July 7–21. Hosted by IIW, the assembly will be held online
and include the International Conference, opening and
award ceremonies, and a closing event. The event will also
feature the 2021 Welded Art Exhibition, including a selec-
tion of welded art pieces from different categories from all
continents. Visit iiw2021.com.

Digital Imaging and Ultrasonics for NDT 2021. July 27–

29. Silver Legacy Resort Casino, Reno, Nev. This three-day
nondestructive examination conference focuses on two of
the most popular testing methods: digital radiography and
ultrasonic. Topics to be covered include additive
manufacturing, computed tomography, composites, phased
array, and more. Visit asnt.org.

NACE International Central Area Conference. Aug. 4–6.

Loews Kansas City Hotel, Kansas City, Mo. This event
features more than 70 companies displaying cutting-edge
corrosion control products, technologies, and services; 200
industry professionals; and 16 hours of technical education
and professional development focused on the study,
prevention, and control of corrosion within the central U.S.
region. Visit cac.nace.org.

16th International Symposium on Nondestructive

Characterization of Materials. Aug. 10–12. Royal Sonesta
Harbor Court Baltimore, Baltimore, Md. This symposium
offers presentations addressing issues of current and future
interest for both theoretical and experimental work.
Featured will be presentations about developments and
applications where the complex nature of materials is
recognized as well as discussions on the applications and
possibilities for multi-technique measurements of
interdependent parameters and the evaluation of the data
through sophisticated computer analyses. Visit asnt.org.

54 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

ce-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/6/21 9:32 AM Page 55
MPI Commercial Coatings Summit. Aug. 18, 19. American
Institute of Architects Headquarters, Washington, D.C.
Offered in both in-person and hybrid formats, the event will
provide presentations on current issues facing the coatings
industry today, including the state of the industry, strategic
industry shifts, the role of standards in coatings, and a
variety of other topics. Visit mpisummit.nace.org.
ASNT 2021: The Annual Conference. Nov. 15–18. Phoenix,
Ariz. Attendees will have the opportunity to receive top con-
tent from global nondestructive examination leaders, earn
recertification contact hours, network with peers, explore
the exhibit hall, and more. Visit asnt.org.
Goel UT Challenge. Dec. 3, 4. Atlas Evaluation & Inspection
Services (AEIS) Headquarters, South Plainfield, N.J. AEIS will
hold its first-ever ultrasonic testing (UT) competition. There
will be two rounds. Round one will host up to 56 partici-
pants, after which six skilled candidates will advance to
round two. Participants must be UT Level II with at least two
years of structural UT experience. The first-place winner will
take home a trophy and $5000. Visit aeis.com/GOELUT.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
ASNT Learn Webinars. Learn about emerging industry
trends, management skills, and nondestructive examination
applications. Those pursuing recertification can earn con-
tact hours. Go to asnt.org and click on “Learn” then “Webi-
nars” to view upcoming live events.
The Atlas of Welding Procedure Specifications. This
seminar, scheduled for Aug. 16–23, will address the needs of
welders, inspectors, and engineers who are advancing their
careers to include the development of welding procedure
specifications (WPSs). Attendees will learn how to write a
WPS, qualify a WPS, and understand the relationship of the
procedure qualification record and WPS for the part B CWI
examination. Join via Zoom for the online presentation. At-
tendees will need to have a computer with a camera and mi-
crophone to participate. For more information, contact
Albert Moore at amoore999@comcast.net.
AWS Certified Resistance Welding Technician (CRWT)
Online Exam Preparation Sessions. To help prepare
CRWT candidates prior to taking the exam, AWS is offering
an online, instructor-led seminar on July 19–28. Registra-
tion is open. For more information, go to aws.org/crwt.
AWS CWI Webinar. The 30-min webinar, “What to Expect
during the CWI Application and Certification Process,” is de-
signed to help individuals navigate the CWI application. The
webinar will be held at 2:00 p.m., EST, on the following
dates: July 7, Aug. 4, Sept. 1, and Oct. 6. Register at
aws.org/cwi-application-webinar.
AWS Professional Development Webinars. These live,
instructor-led webinars cover a variety of topics, including
WPS, PQR, and WQTR; aluminum welding for fabricators,
inspectors and engineers; introductions to ASME Section IX;
and a new welding standard for additive manufacturing.
Participants can also earn professional development hours
and continuing education units. Go to aws.org to view the
schedule for upcoming webinars.
Business Electronics Soldering Technology (BEST). On-
line and in-person certification and training classes held in
Rolling Meadows, Ill., and Auburn Hills, Mich. Training
schedule is available at solder.net. Contact BEST at (847)
797-9250.
Canadian Welding Bureau Online/Classroom Courses.
Courses in nondestructive examination disciplines to meet
certifications to the Canadian General Standards Board or
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Weld-
ing Bureau; (800) 844-6790; cwbgroup.org;
info@cwbgroup.org.
CWI/CWE Prep Courses; CWI Endorsement Seminars.
All courses are held at the Welder Training & Testing Insti-
tute. For a complete list of seminars, workshops, and train-
ing schedules, go to ndtinstitute.com/upcoming-classes. To
register, contact Mary@wtti.com.
CWI Exam Prep Course. The American Institute of Nonde-
structive Testing (AINDT) offers a hybrid CWI exam prep
course. Part A (online) covers the fundamentals of welding
technology; part B consists of extensive practical hands-on
techniques and will be held at AINDT in Baxter, Minn.; and
part C (online) provides in-depth training to the welding
code portion of the exam. Housing at Lakes Area Lodge is
included. instructor@trainingndt.com; trainingndt.com;
(855) 313-0325.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Aerospace Course. Provided
by the Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, this 70-h
course will help attendees develop the skills necessary for
entrance into the aerospace industry, including working
with typical materials, weld joint configurations, and tools
involved in production and testing within aerospace manu-
facturing and repair. For information, contact (937) 332-
9500 or visit welding.org.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tuto-
rials, interactive e-Learning courses, discussion forums, we-
binars, and blogs. Visit hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com,
hypertherm.com.
Industrial Laser Training. Technical training and support
offered for users of industrial lasers in manufacturing, edu-
— continued on page 74
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 55
JULY Cert Schedule Galley.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:36 AM Page 56

CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS

Note: The 2021 schedule for all certifications is posted online at Location Seminar Dates
awo.aws.org/instructor-led-seminars/seminar-exam-schedule. Houston, TX Aug. 8–13
Orlando, FL Aug. 29–Sept. 3
Sacramento, CA Sept. 26–Oct. 1
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) Dallas, TX Oct. 10–15
Seminar covers Parts A, B, and C of the CWI exam. Only Part B
Denver, CO Oct. 24–29
of the exam is taken following the conclusion of the seminar.
New Orleans, LA Nov. 14–19
Parts A and C are given at Prometric testing centers.
Miami, FL Dec. 5–10
Location Seminar Dates Part B
Exam Date Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Charlotte, NC Aug. 1–6 Aug. 7 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Los Angeles, CA Aug. 1–6 Aug. 7 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Denver, CO Aug. 8–13 Aug. 14 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 8–13 Aug. 14
San Diego, CA Aug. 15–20 Aug. 21
Chicago, IL Aug. 15–20 Aug. 21
Kansas City, MO Aug. 15–20 Aug. 21 Certified Welding Sales Representative
Seattle, WA Aug. 22–27 Aug. 28 (CWSR)
Houston, TX Aug. 22–27 Aug. 28 CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More in-
Benicia, CA Sept. 12–17 Sept. 18 formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-sales-
Minneapolis, MN Sept. 12–17 Sept. 18 representative.
Nashville, TN Sept. 19–24 Sept. 25
San Antonio, TX Sept. 19–24 Sept. 25
Indianapolis, IN Sept. 26–Oct. 1 Oct. 2
Cleveland, OH Sept. 26–Oct. 1 Oct. 2 Certified Resistance Welding Technician
New Orleans, LA Sept. 26–Oct.1 Oct. 2 (CRWT)
Miami, FL Oct. 3–8 Oct. 9 A comprehensive two-day seminar to arm attendees with
Norfolk, VA Oct. 3–8 Oct. 9 the knowledge needed to take the exam with confidence.
Long Beach, CA Oct. 10–15 Oct. 16 More information at aws.org/certification/page/certified-
Tulsa, OK Oct. 10–15 Oct. 16 resistance-welding-technician.
Detroit, MI Oct. 17–22 Oct. 23
Houston, TX Oct. 17–22 Oct. 23
Savannah, GA Oct. 24–29 Oct. 30
Boston, MA Oct. 24–29 Oct. 30 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Pittsburgh, PA Nov. 7–12 Nov. 13 CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More infor-
Kansas City, MO Nov. 7–12 Nov. 13 mation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-supervisor.
Dallas, TX Nov. 14–19 Nov. 20
Cleveland, OH Nov. 14–19 Nov. 20
Reno, NV Nov. 14–19 Nov. 20 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Sacramento, CA Dec. 5–10 Dec. 11 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Louisville, KY Dec. 5–10 Dec. 11
Miami, FL Dec. 12–17 Dec. 18 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification. More in-
formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-radiographic-
interpreter.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) Part B
Course covers only Part B of the CWI exam. The Part B exam
follows the conclusion of the three-day course. Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
OTC Daihen Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
Location Seminar Dates Part B The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-4723
Exam Date Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7667
Cleveland, OH Sept. 29–Oct. 1 Oct. 2 Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee, WI;
Miami, FL Dec. 15–17 Dec. 18 (414) 456-5454
College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, CA; (661) 259-7800,
ext. 3062
9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI Ogden-Weber Applied Technology College, Ogden, UT;
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education (801) 627-8448
requirements without taking the exam. Genesis Systems IPG Photonics Co., Davenport, IA;
(563) 445-5688

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status before
making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a
$395 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website at aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars
and certification programs, or to register online, visit aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273 for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.

56 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

FINAL S.N. – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 9:00 PM Page 57
BY KATIE PACHECO — kpacheco@aws.org
National and District Officers Nominated for 2022
The 2019–2020 Nominating Com-
mittee has announced its slate of
candidates who will stand for election
to American Welding Society (AWS)
national offices for the 2022 term,
which begins January 1, 2022.
Nominated are the following candi-
dates: W. Richard Polanin for presi-
dent; Dennis K. Eck, Michael A. Krup-
nicki, and Richard L. Holdren for vice
presidents; and Michael M. Skiles and
Nicholas Peterson for directors-at-
large. One president, three vice presi-
dents, and two directors-at-large are to
be elected.
The National Nominating Commit-
tee was chaired by Past President Dale
A. Flood. Serving on the committee
with Flood were D. Joshua Burgess,
David J. Landon, Duane K. Miller,
Howard W. Record, J. Jones, John R.
Bray, Kenneth Temme, Phillip I. Tem-
ple, Robert G. Pali, Shawn McDaniel,
Tony H. Brosio, and William A. Rice.
Chelsea L. Steel served as secretary.
The Nominating Committees for
Districts 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 21
have selected the following candidates
for election/re-election as District di-
rectors for the three-year term Jan. 1,
2022–Dec. 31, 2024. The nominees
W. Richard Polanin Dennis K. Eck
president vice president
Nicholas Peterson Sean P. Moran
director-at-large Dist. 3 director
are Sean P. Moran, Dist. 3; Ronald H.
Stahura, Dist. 6; Calvin E. Pepper,
Dist. 9; Dale H. Lange, Dist. 12;
Michael R. Hanson, Dist. 15; Thomas
S. Holt, Dist. 18; and Jeff Davis,
Dist. 21.
W. Richard Polanin, nominated to
serve as president, is a retired profes-
sor and program chair of the manufac-
turing engineering technology and
welding technology programs at Illi-
nois Central College. He is currently
co-principal investigator for Weld-Ed,
chair of the AWS Peoria Section, and
vice-chair elect of the International
Institute of Welding Commission XIV.
He is also an active member of several
AWS committees.
Dennis K. Eck, nominated to serve
as vice president, is retired from
Praxair, where he worked for almost a
decade. He has been involved with the
AWS Houston Section for almost 30
years, serving as chair, first and sec-
ond vice chair, treasurer, and secre-
tary. He was also a part of the AWS
Membership Committee for seven
years and has been recognized with
multiple AWS awards.
Michael A. Krupnicki, nominated to
serve as vice president, is vice president
Michael A. Krupnicki
vice president
Ronald H. Stahura
Dist. 6 director
SOCIETY NEWS
of metal fabrication — Northeast
region at Airgas USA. He is also owner
and executive director of the Rochester
Arc + Flame Center. His 33-year
involvement with AWS has included
serving as Dist. 6 director as well as
chair and treasurer of the Rochester
Section.
Richard L. Holdren, nominated to
serve as vice president, is president
and principal welding engineer of
Welding Consultants LLC as well as
senior welding engineer for ARC Spe-
cialties. With more than 40 years’ ex-
perience in welding engineering, he
has served as member, advisor, and
chair to numerous AWS certification,
education, and technical committees.
He is also an AWS Life Member.
Michael M. Skiles, nominated to
serve as director-at-large, is retired
from Airgas LLC. He has been active in
AWS for almost 40 years, achieving
both Silver and Life Member status.
He has chaired the New Orleans and
Acadiana Sections multiple times as
well as served two terms as Dist. 9 di-
rector. He currently sits on numerous
AWS committees and the advisory
board of several Louisiana community
colleges.
Richard L. Holdren Michael M. Skiles
vice president director-at-large
Calvin E. Pepper Dale H. Lange
Dist. 9 director Dist. 12 director
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 57
FINAL S.N. – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 9:00 PM Page 58

SOCIETY NEWS
Michael R. Hanson Thomas S. Holt Jeff Davis
Dist. 15 director Dist. 18 director Dist. 21 director
Nicholas Peterson, nominated to ber of AWS, he has served the Niagara
serve as director-at-large, is a welding Frontier Section in various capacities,
engineer/curriculum developer for including chair from 1987 to 1988 and
Miller Electric Mfg. LLC, faculty advis- treasurer from 2015 to 2019. He is
er at Arizona State University, and also an AWS CWI and Certified Weld-
director/corporate secretary for NOCTI ing Educator (CWE).
Business Solutions. Having joined Calvin E. Pepper, nominated to serve
AWS in 1990, he currently serves as as Dist. 9 director, is with C. E. Pepper
vice chair of the Skills Competition & Associates. An AWS Life Member, he
Committee and member of the Educa- served as director-at-large from 1996
tion Committee. He is also an AWS to 1999 and has received various
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) and awards during his more than 40 years
Certified Welding Supervisor. of service. He is presently a member of
Sean P. Moran, nominated to serve the AWS Qualification & Certification
as Dist. 3 director, is a welding engineer Committee and the Handbook Com-
with Philly Shipyard Inc. His 35-year mittee, both of which he previously
involvement with AWS has included served as chair. Additionally, he has
serving as Dist. 3 director from 2018 produced more than 20 publications
to 2021, Dist. 12 director from 2006 on quality, inspection, nondestructive
to 2010, and two terms as director-at- examination, and project management.
large from 2011 to 2015. He has Dale H. Lange, nominated to serve
served as chair, vice chair, and mem- as Dist. 12 director, is an AWS CWI
ber of numerous AWS committees, and CWE, a Wisconsin State Weld Test
subcommittees, and task groups. He is Conductor, and an industrial consult-
also a Senior CWI. ant. He has taught welding, metallur-
Ronald H. Stahura, nominated to gy, and metal fabrication at Northeast
serve as Dist. 6 director, is a strategic Wisconsin Technical College for more
account manager for ESAB Welding & than 40 years. He has also received the
Cutting Products. A 37-year Life Mem- AWS Dist. 12 Educators Award, the
Howard Adkins National Educator of
the Year Award, and the Dist. 12 Dal-
ton E. Hamilton CWI Award.
Michael R. Hanson, nominated to
serve as Dist. 15 director, is a plant
maintenance supervisor with Compass
Electronics Solutions and an AWS
CWI. An AWS member for more than
20 years, he has served the Northwest
Section in multiple capacities, includ-
ing chair in 2000 and 2004–2006. He
is also the recipient of the AWS Sec-
tion and District Meritorious, Section
and District CWI of the Year, and Dis-
trict Director Certificate Awards.
Thomas S. Holt, nominated to
serve as Dist. 18 director, has been re-
gional manager of TechCorr USA Man-
agement LLC for 15 years. He is also
active in his local Port Neches and Port
Arthur Chamber of Commerce. He has
been an AWS member since 1997 and
has held many positions within the
Sabine Section, including chair and
vice chair. Additionally, he has been
assisting the AWS CWI seminar and
proctoring the part A and C exams for
more than a decade. He has also
chaired several AWS committees.
Jeff Davis, nominated to serve as
Dist. 21 director, has been retired
from a large public agency since 2017.
He has held the position of deputy dis-
trict director for Dist. 21 since 2016.
He has been active in the AWS San
Diego Section for several years, hold-
ing the offices of chair, first vice chair,
and second vice chair. He has also
served as a member of various AWS
technical committees. In addition to
AWS activities, he sits on several weld-
ing programs’ high school and commu-
nity college advisory committees. WJ

Notice of Annual Meeting of the American Welding Society

The Annual Meeting of the members of the American The regular business of the Society will be conducted,
Welding Society will be held on Monday, September 13, including election of officers and members of the board of
2021, beginning at 8:30 a.m. at the McCormick Place Con- directors. Any business properly brought before the mem-
vention Center, Chicago, Ill. bership will be considered.

58 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

FINAL S.N. – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 9:00 PM Page 59
AWS Bylaws Article IX, Section 3
Section 3. Nominations.
Nominations, except for Executive
Director and Secretary, shall proceed
as follows:
(a) Nominations for District Direc-
tors shall be made by the District
Nominating Committees [see Article
III, Section 2(c)]. The National Nomi-
nating Committee shall select nomi-
nees for the other offices falling va-
cant. The names of the nominees for
each office, with a brief biographical
sketch of each, shall be published in
the July issue of the Welding Journal.
The names of the members of the Na-
TECH TOPICS
Opportunities to Contribute to AWS Committees
The following committees and their
subcommittees welcome new mem-
bers. Some committees are recruiting
members with specific interests in
regard to the committee’s scope, as
marked below: Producers (P), General
Interest (G), Educators (E), Consult-
ants (C), and Users (U). For more in-
formation, contact the staff member
listed at aws.org/standards/
committeesandstandardsprogram. Also
visit this website for the complete list
of AWS subcommittees.
A — Fundamentals
• A1 Metric Practice (C, E)
• A2 Definitions and Symbols (E)
• A5 Filler Metals and Allied Materials (E)
• A9 Computerization of Welding
Information
B — Inspection and Qualification
• B1 Methods of Inspection (C, E)
• B2 Procedure and Performance
SOCIETY NEWS
tional Nominating Committee shall
also be published in this issue of the
Welding Journal, along with a copy of
this Article IX, Section 3.
(b) Any person with the required
qualifications may be nominated for
any national office by written petitions
signed by not less than 200 members
other than Student Members, with
signatures of at least 20 members
from each of five Districts, provided
such petitions are delivered to the Ex-
ecutive Director and Secretary before
August 26 for the elections to be held
that year. A biographical sketch of the
nominee (and acceptance letter) shall
Qualification (E, G)
• B4 Mechanical Testing of Welds
(E, G, P)
C — Processes
• C1 Resistance Welding (C, E, G, U)
• C2 Thermal Spraying (C, E, G, U)
• C3 Brazing and Soldering (C, E, G)
• C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas
Welding & Cutting (C, E, G)
• C6 Friction Welding (C, E)
• C7 High Energy Beam Welding and
Cutting (C, E, G)
D — Industrial Applications
• D1 Structural Welding (C, E, G, P, U)
• D3 Welding in Marine Construction
(C, E, G, U)
• D8 Automotive Welding (C, E, G, U)
• D9 Sheet Metal Welding (C, G, P)
• D10 Piping and Tubing (C, E, U)
• D11 Welding Iron Castings (C, E, G,
P, U)
• D14 Machinery and Equipment (C, E,
be provided with the petition. Any
such nominee shall be included in the
election for such office. A District Di-
rector may be nominated by written
petitions signed by at least ten mem-
bers each from a majority of the Sec-
tions in the District, provided such pe-
titions are delivered to the Executive
Director and Secretary before August
26 for the elections to be held that year.
A biographical sketch and acceptance
letter of the nominee shall be provided
with the petition. Any such nominee
shall be included in the election.
G, U)
• D15 Railroad Welding (C, E, G, U)
• D16 Robotic and Automatic Welding
(C, E)
• D17 Welding in the Aircraft and
Aerospace Industry (C, E, G)
• D18 Welding in Sanitary
Applications
• D20 Additive Manufacturing
(C, E, G)
F — Safety and Health (SHC)
• SHC Safety and Health (E, G)
G — Materials
• G1 Joining of Plastics and Composites
(C, E, G)
• G2 Joining Metals and Alloys
(E, G, U)
J — Welding Equipment
• J1 Resistance Welding Equipment
(C, E, G, U)
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 59
FINAL S.N. – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 9:01 PM Page 60
SOCIETY NEWS
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun on
the following new or revised stan-
dards. Affected individuals are invited
to contribute to their development.
Participation in AWS technical com-
mittees is open to all persons.
B2.1-22-015:20XX, Standard Weld-
ing Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Aluminum
(M/P-22 to M/P-22), 18 through 10
Gauge, ER4043 or R4043, in the As-
Welded Condition, with or without Back-
ing. This standard contains the essen-
tial welding variables for aluminum in
the thickness range of 10–18 gauge
using manual gas tungsten arc weld-
ing. It cites the base metals and oper-
ating conditions necessary to make
the weldment, the filler metal specifi-
cations, and the allowable joint de-
signs for fillet welds and groove welds.
Stakeholders: manufacturers, welders,
engineers, and AWS certified welding
inspectors. New Standard. Contact: J.
Rosario, jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
C1.1M/C1.1:20XX, Recommended
Practices for Resistance Welding. This
document is a collection of data and
procedures intended to assist the user
in setting up resistance welding equip-
ment to produce resistance-welded
production parts. While the recom-
mendations included are not expected
to be final procedures for every pro-
duction part or welding machine, they
serve as starting points from which a
user can establish acceptable welding
machine settings for specific produc-
tion welding applications. In some cas-
es, the recommended machine data is
not available. In these instances, some
description of the process is given to
assist the reader in determining if the
process is suitable for the application.
Stakeholders: the welding industry.
Revised Standard. Contact: M. Diaz,
ext. 310, mdiaz@aws.org.
C1.5:20XX, Specification for the
Qualification of Resistance Welding
Technicians. This specification is in-
tended to supplement the minimum
requirements of employers, codes,
other standards, and documents. It
shall not be construed as a preemption
of the employer’s responsibility for the
work or performance of the work.
Stakeholders: resistance welding com-
munity. Revised Standard. Contact: M.
Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org, ext. 310.
60 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
C6.2/C6.2M:20XX, Specification for
Rotary Friction Welding of Metals. This
specification is for the qualification of
rotary friction welding machines and
procedures as well as for the training
of welding operators. The qualification
of the welding procedure specification
(WPS) includes the material specifica-
tions involved, weld joint design, de-
structive and nondestructive examina-
tion requirements, and guidelines for
different categories of quality assur-
ance. The qualification of welding
equipment includes weld parameter
control and weld reproducibility. Addi-
tionally, welding operators require
training in the proper operation of ro-
tary friction welding equipment. The
requirements for requalification of the
WPS and equipment are also given.
Stakeholders: friction welding profes-
sionals. Revised Standard.Contact: M.
Diaz, ext. 310, mdiaz@aws.org.
D8.8M:20XX, Specification for Auto-
motive Weld Quality — Arc Welding of
Steel. This specification describes the
weld geometry and workmanship cri-
teria essential to ensure the quality of
automotive and light truck weld-
ments. It also covers the arc and hy-
brid arc welding of coated and uncoated
steels. Stakeholders: automotive and
arc welding communities. Revised
Standard. Contact: M. Diaz, ext. 310,
mdiaz@aws.org.
D8.10M:20XX, Specification for Au-
tomotive Weld Quality — Laser Beam
Welding of Steel. This specification de-
fines the quality characteristics and
metrics pertinent to laser beam weld-
ing on steels used in automotive body
applications. These evaluation meth-
ods and inspection criteria can be used
to evaluate the effectiveness of partic-
ular welding equipment and proce-
dures for welding a particular base ma-
terial combination. The criteria and
metrics are the same for all welds re-
gardless of the service load. Welds that
do not meet the weld quality criteria
of this specification may be satisfacto-
ry for certain applications. The accept-
ance criteria of this standard are not
intended for applications outside this
scope. Stakeholders: major automotive
manufacturers, other original equip-
ment manufacturers, and tier suppli-
ers of automotive body components.
Revised Standard. Contact: M. Diaz,
mdiaz@aws.org, ext. 310.
D17.3/D17.3M:20XX, Specification
for Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum
Alloys for Aerospace Applications. This
specification covers the general re-
quirements for the friction stir weld-
ing of aluminum alloys for aerospace
applications. It includes the require-
ments for weldment design, qualifica-
tion of personnel and procedures, fab-
rication, and inspection. Stakeholders:
aerospace fabrication and manufactur-
ing companies. Revised Standard.
Contact: M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org,
ext. 310.
Standards for Public Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by
the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as
approved by ANSI, require that all
standards be open to public review for
comment during the approval process.
Standards open for public review can
be found at aws.org/standards/page/
standards-notices. This column also ad-
vises of ANSI approval of documents.
B2.5/B2.5M, Specification for Meas-
urement of Welding Power Source Output
for Calculation of Welding Procedure Heat
Input. New Standard. $25.00. ANSI pub-
lic review expires 6/14/2021. Contact:
J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
Revised Standard Approved
by ANSI
G2.4/G2.4M:2021, Guide for the Fu-
sion Welding of Titanium and Titanium
Alloys. Approval date: 5/20/2021.
AWS Member Counts
June 1, 2020
Sustaining...........................................578
Supporting ........................................336
Educational ......................................829
Affiliate.................................................659
Welding Distributor..........................60
Total Corporate ..........................2462
Individual ....................................56,038
Student + Transitional .................8,903
Early Career..........................................29
Total Members ......................64,970
FINAL S.N. – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 9:01 PM Page 61

SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES

2021 Membership Kayln Siebert

1505 W. Main St. #1024
Vander-Bend Mfg.
2701 Orchard Pkwy.
Challenge Gatesville, TX 76528 San Jose, CA 95134
Listed here are the members partic- KPW Structural Engineers Inc.
ipating in the 2021 Membership Chal- 55 Harrison St., Ste. 550
lenge — point standings as of May 19. Oakland, CA 94607 Sustaining Members
The campaign runs from Jan. 1 to Dec.
31, 2021. Members receive 5 points Mechanical Specialty Cox Brothers Machining Inc.
for each Individual Member and 1 1901 E. Wendover Ave. 2300 E. Ganson St.
point for every Student Member they Greensboro, NC 27405 Jackson, MI 49202
recruit.
For more information, visit aws.org/ P & A Welding and Machine Inc. Galvanizadora de Estructuras de
membership/page/sparking-connections 2811 State Rte. 60 W. Frontera S.A. de C.V.
or call the AWS Membership Dept. at Mulberry, FL 33860 Reforma No. 301-A
(800) 443-9353, ext. 480. 86750 Frontera
J. W. Morris, Mobile — 25 Spragg Industries Inc. Tabasco, Mexico
G. L. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 20 20049 Crestview Dr.
C. A. Donnell, NW Ohio — 16 Canyon Country, CA 91351 Modern Mfg.
1202 Cardinal Dr.
T. W. Zablocki, Pittsburgh — 15
Top End Weld Management Pty. Ltd. Eudora, KS 66025
B. M. Williams, West Michigan — 15
C. A. Galbavy, Idaho/Montana — 15 6/4A Bishop St.
Woolner, Northern Territory 0820 Robinson Inc.
Australia 1740 Eisenhower Rd.
De Pere, WI 54115
New AWS Supporters Unitec Marine Ltd.
Whitlow Electric
1241 Stirling Rd., Ste. 108
P.O. Box 140
Affiliate Corporate Dania Beach, FL 33004
340 W. Railroad St.
Members Elberton, GA 30635
Wenzlau Engineering Inc.
Allied Industrial Group 2950 E. Harcourt St.
3061 W. Thompson Rd. Rancho Dominguez, CA 90221
Fenton, MI 48430 Educational Institution
Members
Aluminum Fabricators LLC Supporting Company
175 Whitehall Ave. Members L3 Inspection Services LLC
Mystic, CT 06355 17587 W. Wind Song Ave.
Ferrill Fisher LLC Goodyear, AZ 85338
D&D Mfg. Co. Inc. 8768 N. Wayport Rd.
P.O. Box 799 Bloomington, IN 47404 Missouri State University — West
Holly Springs, GA 30142 Plains
Finch Mfg. & Technology LLC 128 Garfield Ave.
Green Contracting Co. Inc. 540 Montgomery Ave. West Plains, MO 65775
8837 Yellow Brick Rd. West Pittston, PA 18643
Baltimore, MD 21237 Scranton Mfg.
JMR Iron Works 101 State St.
Heidts Industrial 2225 Princeton St. P.O. Box 336
800 Oakwood Rd. Philadelphia, PA 19149 Scranton, IA 51462
Lake Zurich, IL 60047
Rowan-Cabarrus Community College The Welding Expert II
Industrial Maintenance Co. 1333 Jake Alexander Blvd. 101 Rome St.
436 Calvert Dr. Salisbury, NC 28146 Farmingdale, NY 11735
Gallatin, TN 37066
Snamprogetti S.A. Ltd. (Saipem) Upper Dauphin Area School
JK Welding LLC Gate 10, STAR Fabrication Yard District
18433 Farm to Market Rd. 529 P.O. Box 32388 5668 State Rte. 209
Cypress, TX 77433 Khobar 31952 Saudi Arabia Lykens, PA 17048

JULY 2O21 / WELDING JOURNAL 61

FINAL S.N. – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/3/21 9:01 PM Page 62
SOCIETY NEWS
AWS Member Profile
Ian Caliedo
Ian Caliedo’s father, Willie, is an ex-
ample that the American dream is
achievable. A pipeline welder in the
Philippines, Willie left his native coun-
try for Hawaii in the 1970s in pursuit
of a better life. He quickly climbed the
ranks at various shipyards and landed
jobs as an apprentice journeyman, a
foreman, and a master craftsman.
As a child, Caliedo was primarily
raised by his maternal grandparents
because of his parents’ strong work
ethic and hectic schedules. This desire
to see more of them made him inter-
ested in pursing a career in his father’s
trade.
“I remember telling my mother as
she tucked me into bed one night that,
when I grew up, I wanted to do what
they did for a living. At the time, my
father was a shipyard welder and my
mother a food service worker,” he re-
called. “I told her that I just wanted to
be in their presence every day.”
In 1990, Caliedo got his wish when
his father started his own business,
Caliedo & Sons. At the time, the two-
person company focused on commer-
cial ship repair. Twelve-year-old
Caliedo lent a hand whenever he could
by working as an apprentice during
school breaks and summer vacations.
Eventually, Caliedo joined the team
on a full-time basis, working his way
up from journeyman to executive du-
ties. He also supplemented his hands-
on experience with business savviness
62 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
by getting a bachelor’s degree in busi-
ness administration from the Univer-
sity of Hawaii at Manoa.
Working in the family business full-
time allowed Caliedo to spend more
time with his family — something he
had always wanted. However, the ex-
perience wasn’t what he had imagined.
“It was a dream to finally have that
time with my parents, but eventually
we all had our fill. The working rela-
tionship more closely resembled the
reality show American Choppers, with
the overbearing father and hotshot
son who spend more time arguing
than working,” he admitted. “Business
and family are two things that are
rarely complementary, but I am grate-
ful for every adversity because it has
shaped us into what we are today.”
Caliedo is currently the president of
Caliedo & Sons, now a thriving 40-
person shipbuilding and repair compa-
ny located in Ewa Beach, Hawaii. As
president, he is responsible for many
aspects of running and growing the
business.
“We are still a small shop, so I take
on the duties of visionary and opera-
tor. On the executive level, I create the
big ideas that solve the big problems. I
develop and maintain the big relation-
ships that help us in achieving our
mission,” he explained. “On the opera-
tions level, I develop, analyze, and exe-
cute our corporate business plan. I
oversee overall compliance, budgeting,
and planning. I remove obstacles and
barriers. I lead, manage, and create ac-
countability organization wide.”
When asked what he enjoys most
about his job, Caliedo cited being able
to motivate teams through challenging
projects as well as seeing those teams
succeed. He also takes pleasure in giv-
ing back. The company is often in-
volved in prize giveaways and volun-
teer work, such as the cleaning of Ewa
Beach. He identities “valiant sacrifice
and vulnerable kindness” as core val-
ues within his company. Additionally,
Caliedo volunteers his time with the
American Welding Society as the
Hawaii Section’s acting treasurer.
“We believe you get what you give
and that karma pays with a very high
interest rate. Selflessly giving of our-
selves to each other, our families, and
the community is the heart of Caliedo
& Sons. Our leadership style is rooted
in responsibility, not reward,” he said.
“Community outreach actually gives us
more energy and motivation. It helps a
lot with team building and reinforces
our unique company culture.”
Despite the many joys of his job,
Caliedo admits his role as president is
also difficult at times. Most notably,
he feels the weight of his decisions and
the impact they have on his employ-
ees’ lives.
“Not only does my performance
and decision-making affect whether
my family has a roof over their heads
and food on the table, but add each
and every employee of Caliedo & Sons,
most of whom have families under
their care,” he affirmed. “The responsi-
bility and pressure to succeed can be
overwhelming. It is a heavy burden
that I wholeheartedly accept knowing
the blessings are always greater than
the sacrifice.”
Looking to the future, Caliedo
hopes to further grow the company
and help Hawaii become the world
leader in shipbuilding, thus improving
the quality of life for Hawaii’s citizens.
“My goal is for Caliedo & Sons to be
the industry best in Hawaii, the Unit-
ed States, and eventually the world. I
want Caliedo & Sons to help grow our
industry and diversify Hawaii’s econo-
my,” he said. “That way we could pro-
vide more opportunities for local peo-
ple to gain high-demand, marketable
skills and high-compensation careers,
allowing families to not only make
ends meet but to thrive in Hawaii’s
high cost of living.”
Caliedo & Sons performs repair to
waterborne and dry-docked (pictured)
ships in the Hawaiian Islands.
Section News- July - FNL.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:55 PM Page 63

BY CINDY WEIHL — cweihl@aws.org

SECTION NEWS
membership benefits and the various
District 1 District 4 AWS scholarships available. A welding
Douglas A. Desrochers, director Mr. Lynn Showalter, director helmet, a grinder, and five student
(508) 763-8011 (757) 848-8029 memberships were raffled.
dadaws@comcast.net lynneshowalter@gmail.com
April 20
Location: Savannah Technical College,
Savannah, Ga.
District 2 District 5 Summary: Robert Trudelle, Section
Harland Thompson, director Howard Record, director membership chair, and Section Chair
(631) 546-2903 (352) 816-0835 René Engeron stopped by the Savan-
htlirr@aol.com howard@rtdtools.com nah Technical College Student Chapter
to commemorate its 11th anniversary.
Trudelle and Engeron discussed mem-
ATLANTA bership benefits and scholarships with
April 19
District 3 Location: Southeastern Technical
students as well as helped the Student
Chapter board members plan activities
Sean Moran, director College, Vidalia, Ga.
and complete their annual reports. A
(717) 885-5039 Summary: Section Membership Chair
welding helmet and grinder were raf-
sean.moran@phillyshipyard.com Robert Trudelle and Section Chair
fled off during the visit.
René Engeron visited Southeastern
Technical College to discuss student

ATLANTA — Dual-enrollment students at Southeastern Technical College are seen with Section Chair René Engeron (far left) and Mem-
bership Chair Robert Trudelle (second from left).

ATLANTA — Section Chair René Engeron and Membership Chair Robert Trudelle are seen with a second class of students at South-
eastern Technical College.

ATLANTA — Savannah Technical College students and Southern Welders Student Chapter members gathered for a photo.

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 63

Section News- July - FNL.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:55 PM Page 64

SECTION NEWS
April 22
Location: Applied Technical Services,
Marietta, Ga.
Presenters: Eric Kuhn and Dennis
Johnson
Summary: The Section hosted a tech-
nical meeting where Kuhn and John-
son discussed the importance of vari-
ous types of bend test methods, in-
cluding x-ray, macroetching, and pene-
trant testing. Live demonstrations
were also performed. This meeting
was set up for AWS Certified Welding
Inspectors in need of professional de-
velopment hours. In addition, six For-
tis Technical College students attended
to gain additional knowledge.
CENTRAL FLORIDA-ORLANDO
April 24
Location: Valencia College Advanced
Manufacturing Training Center,
Kissimmee, Fla.
Summary: The Section had a great
turnout for its annual welding compe-
tition hosted by Valencia College.
Open-class winners included Ryder
Purcell, first place; Austin Tuxbury,
second place; and Emma-Lynn Ponds,
third place. In the student division, the
winners were Adam Stashak, first
place; Colton Day, second place; and
Cristean Quiñones, third place. Sec-
tion members are appreciative to all CENTRAL FLORIDA-ORLANDO —
event attendees and sponsors who District 5 Director Howard Record (left)
presented a $1000 AWS Scholarship
made it possible to award amazing
check to first-place Student Winner
prizes. Adam Stashak.

ATLANTA — Attendees of the Applied Technical Services meeting gathered for a group photo.

CENTRAL FLORIDA-ORLANDO — Winners of the Section’s annual welding competition were (from left) Ryder Purcell, Austin Tuxbury,
Emma-Lynn Ponds, Adam Stashak, Colton Day, and Cristean Quiñones.

64 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Section News- July - FNL.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:56 PM Page 65
SECTION NEWS
tion. Members from the Nashville,
District 6 Greater Huntsville, and Holston Valley
Ronald Stahura, director Sections were in attendance and
(716) 207-7869 shared their experiences.
rstahura@esab.com
April 22
Location: World Testing Inc.,
Mt. Juliet, Tenn.
District 7 Summary: The Section hosted its year-
Roger E. Hilty, director end meeting with both in-person
(740) 317-9073 attendees and virtual participants via
rhilty@comcast.net the AWS District 8 Zoom platform.
Members recapped activities from the
current year and determined paths
forward for ongoing and new activi-
District 8 ties. The first topic for discussion was
how to best grow interest in involve-
James Thompson, director ment and membership, while raising
(256) 347-6481 awareness on the advantages and ben-
jim.thompson@wallacestate.edu efits of membership. Other Section
news was also discussed, including
NASHVILLE scholarship finalists. Section board
March 18 members have been commissioned to
Presenter: Robert W. O’Neal Sr., co- reach out to area manufacturers to
owner, ASNT NDT Level II, AWS CWI, host a monthly meeting during the
Word Testing Inc. next calendar year, with invitations
Summary: During March’s virtual Sec- going out to local welding students
tion meeting, O’Neal spoke to mem- and educators. The intent is for the
bers about welder qualification re- meetings to consist of a plant tour
quirements. A general discussion and/or technical discussion, with raf-
about the topic followed the presenta- fles for door prizes.
NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA — Pictured are the participants of the Section’s 2nd annual welding competition.
NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA — Judges and staff of the Section’s 2nd annual welding competition gathered for a group photo.
District 9
Michael Skiles, director
(337) 501-0304
michaelskiles@cox.net
District 10
Tom Kostreba, director
(814) 881-0632
kostreba@hotmail.com
NORTHWESTERN
PENNSYLVANIA
May 8
Location: Erie Institute of Technology,
Erie, Pa.
Summary: The Section helds its 2nd an-
nual welding competition. This year’s
event hosted 40 competitors in three
different categories: high school, post-
secondary, and industry. More than a
dozen local businesses donated their
time and money to make this competi-
tion possible. Additionally, three
scholarships totaling $5000 were
awarded.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 65
Section News- July - FNL.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:56 PM Page 66

SECTION NEWS
CHICAGO
District 11 May 7 District 15
Phillip Temple, director Location: Ruffled Feathers Golf Club, Michael Hanson, director
(734) 546-4298 Lemont, Ill. (763) 221-5951
nwcllc_ptemple@att.net Summary: The Section’s 2021 golf out- mikhan318@comcast.com
ing was a resounding success. The ex-
ecutive board is thankful to Dave Viar
District 12 and Amanda Young for all of their
hard work to make it successful. District 16
Dale Lange, director The Section is also appreciative to Karl Fogleman, director
(715) 732-3645 Board Members John and Cathy Hes- (402) 677-2490
dale.lange@nwtc.edu seltine, Jim Greer, Craig Tichelar, Cliff fogleman3@cox.net
Iftimie, and all of the event volunteers
and sponsors.

District 13 District 17
Ronald Ashelford, director
(815) 218-8766 District 14 J Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
r.ashelford@rockvalleycollege.edu Tony Brosio, director drtourch@yahoo.com
(765) 215-7506
tbrosio@yahoo.com

CHICAGO — Participants of the Section’s golf outing included (from left) Dave Budzius, John Hesseltine, Brian Grismek, Doug McCoy, Tim
Caballero, Steven Beemsterbaer, and Robert Weaver.

NORTH TEXAS — AWS CWI nine-year renewal participants seen in front of the “Eye” are (front row, from left) Murry Thurman, Tim
McHugh, John Kunch, and Eydie Montero; as well as (middle row, from left) Paul Veillon, Dennis Skinner, Chris Hilbricl, Jimmy Rhea, Terry
Frutos, Tony Tasset (artist), Instructor Ron Theiss, James Lancaster, and Jeffrey Elliott. In the back row are (from left) Raymond M. Mar-
tin, Ryan Winkler, Brian Strain, Brett Jones, Chad Volner, David Wigginton, Michael White, Ray Rascoe, James Webb, Robert Johnston,
Nathan E. Backer, Josh Roberts, Jonathan Mickelson, Michael Alexander, Richard Morris, and Michael Yarbrough.

66 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Section News- July - FNL.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:57 PM Page 67
NORTH TEXAS
April 21
Location: Dallas, Tex.
Summary: During an AWS Certified
Welding Inspector (CWI) nine-year
recertification class, attention was giv-
en to visual inspection. Fortunately for
the class, Dallas has a 30-ft eye sculp-
ture called “Eye.” Participants were
able to meet its creator, Artist Tony
Tasset. Tasset explained his sculpture
is modeled after his own baby blue
eyes. The sculpture is made of fiber-
glass, but it has a welded steel struc-
ture inside to keep the fiberglass in
place. It was a great complement to
the material that was covered in class
on visual inspection and understand-
ing the importance of the eyeball.
District 18
Thomas Holt, director
(409) 721-5777
tholt@techcorr.com
HOUSTON
April 21
Presenter: Stuart Kleven, Alloyweld
Inspection
Summary: The Section held a virtual
meeting where Kleven delivered a tech-
nical talk on the nondestructive exami-
nation and friction stir welding of alu-
minum alloys. The presentation was
well received. Several questions were
asked, discussed, and answered. Sec-
tion Chair Sri Chimbli thanked Kleven
for an informative session. The Section
is grateful to AWS Senior Manager of
Section and Student Chapters Darrill
Gaschler, who hosted the meeting.
CENTRAL VALLEY — Attendees of the Section’s underwater welding presentation posed for a group photo.
SECTION NEWS
at the equipment and tools of this
District 19 trade. Their presentation included a
Shawn McDaniel, director live Zoom call with a current dive in-
(509) 793-5182 structor as well as a lengthy question
shawnm@bigbend.edu and answer forum. Their presentation
was well received by the 20 students
and faculty members in attendance.
District 20
Denis Clark, director
(208) 357-6626
denis.clark.51@gmail.com
District 21
Sam Lindsey, director
(858) 740-1917
slindsey@sandiego.gov
District 22
Robert Purvis, director
(916) 599-5561
purviswelds@gmail.com
CENTRAL VALLEY CENTRAL VALLEY — Dylan Harrell (left)
April 13 adjusts Blake Riddle’s underwater
Location: College of the Sequoias, Tu- welding helmet during a presentation
lare College Center, Tulare, Calif. to College of the Sequoias welding
Presenters: Blake Riddle and Dylan students.
Harrell
Summary: College of the Sequoias
Alumni Dylan Harrell and Blake Rid-
dle, both freelance commercial divers
and co-hosts of the Break Down the Correction: In the Section News write-
Dive podcast, dove deep into the topic up honoring Thong Laoboonmee in the
of underwater welding while visiting May 2021 Welding Journal, the head-
their alma mater. They shared their line incorrectly listed the “Taiwan” Sec-
experiences in the field with current tion. Laoboonmee is a founding member
students and offered an up-close look of the Thailand Section.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 67
Section News- July - FNL.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:57 PM Page 68

GUIDE TO AWS SERVICES

American Welding Society® CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS Program Managers
8669 NW 36 St., #130 Director, Expositions Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . .(305)
Miami, FL 33166-6672 Matthew Rubin.. mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . .(239) Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining
(800/305) 443-9353 of Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facil-
Phone extensions are in parentheses. Senior Sales Executive, Expositions ities Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds,
Sarah Dickson.. sdickson@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(297) Welding in Sanitary Applications
AWS PRESIDENT
Robert W. Roth..rroth@romanmfg.com EDUCATION & TRAINING Stephen Borrero.. sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . .(334)
President and CEO, RoMan Manufacturing Inc. Director Definitions and Symbols, Structural Sub-
Alicia Garcia.. agarcia@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(229) committees on Bridge Welding, Reinforcing
Steel and Stainless Steel, Joining of Metals and
SENIOR LEADERSHIP TEAM Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Executive Director/Chief Executive Officer INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Gary Konarska II.. gkonarska@aws.org . . . . .(207) Managing Director Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
John Perry.. jperry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(247) Filler Metals and Allied Materials, Interna-
Chief Financial Officer/ tional Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment,
Chief Administrative Officer Computational Weld Mechanics
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . .(252) RWMA — RESISTANCE WELDING
MANUFACTURING ALLIANCE; WEMCO — Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Senior Vice Presidents ASSOCIATION OF WELDING MANUFACTURERS; Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(253) and ITSA — INTERNATIONAL THERMAL
Research, Strategy, and Membership SPRAY ASSOCIATION Mario Diaz.. mdiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(310)
Program Manager Automotive, Resistance Welding, Resistance
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472) Adrian Bustillo.. abustillo@aws.org . . . . . . . .(295) Welding Equipment, Welding and Brazing in
Welding & Technology Aerospace, Friction Welding

EXECUTIVE OFFICE MEMBER SERVICES Kevin Bulger.. kbulger@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(306)

Associate Director Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480) Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld In-
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(294) spection, High-Energy Beam Welding, Welding
Director, Membership in Marine Construction, Welding of Machinery
Program Administrator, National Awards Nici Banks.. nbanks@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(270) and Equipment
Malisa Mercado.. mmercado@aws.org . . . . . .(293) Serves as a liaison between members and
AWS headquarters. Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . .(308)
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
HUMAN RESOURCES Senior Manager, Sections and Student Welding, Robotics Welding, Thermal Spraying,
Director Chapters Welding Iron Castings, Welding Qualification
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(209) Darrill Gaschler.. dgaschler@aws.org . . . . . . .(260)
Welding Handbook Editor
Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(255)
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh Webster.. hwebster@wc-b.com PUBLISHING & EDITORIAL
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275) AWS FOUNDATION INC.
D.C. (202) 785-9500; Fax: (202) 835-0243 aws.org/w/a/foundation
Monitors federal issues of importance to the Welding Journal General Information
industry. Publisher/Editor (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, jdouglass@aws.org
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . .(299)
Chair, Board of Trustees
CERTIFICATION SERVICES Managing Editor William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273) Kristin Campbell.. kcampbell@aws.org . . . . .(257)
Executive Director, Foundation
Managing Director Society News Editor Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(461)
Denny Smith.. dsmith@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(263) Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(275)
Associate Director, Foundation Services
ACCREDITATION Section News Editor John Douglass.. jdouglass@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(212)
Senior Manager Cindy Weihl.. cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(256)
Emil Pagoaga.. epagoaga@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(448) The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
Inspection Trends Editor charitable organization established to provide sup-
Carlos Guzman.. cguzman@aws.org . . . . . . .(348) port for the educational and scientific endeavors of
CONFERENCES & EVENTS the American Welding Society. Promote the Founda-
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(213) tion’s work with your financial support.
STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
CUSTOMER SERVICE & SUPPORT
Customer Service..customerservice@aws.org (280) Director — Standards Development
Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(311)
Technical Committee Activities, Additive
SALES Manufacturing, Structural Subcommittee on
Titanium
Director, Global Sales
Michael Rovins.. mrovins@aws.org . . . . . . . .(350) Director — International Activities
Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
Senior Sales Executive, Corporate International Standards Activities, American
Sandra Jorgensen.. sjorgensen@aws.org . . . .(254) Council of the International Institute of Welding

68 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Workbook – July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:21 AM Page 69
DATASHEET 404
Fundamentals of Electrogas Welding
Fig. 1 — Electrogas welding of a ship hull using two machines
controlled by one operator.
Electrogas welding is an arc welding process that uses an
arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld
pool. It employs an approximately vertical welding progres-
sion with a metallic or nonmetallic backing to confine the
molten weld metal. The backing is a dam-like device that is
placed against the back side of the weld joint or on both
sides of the weld joint to support and retain the molten weld
metal. Depending on the type of backing used, it may be
fused to the weld joint and become part of the weld or re-
main unfused and removed after welding. The process is
used with or without an externally supplied shielding gas
and without the application of pressure. The electrode for
electrogas welding is usually in the form of a solid or cored
wire and is often used with a consumable guide tube.
Typically, in electrogas welding, a square-groove or
single-V-groove joint is specified and positioned with the
axis or length of the weld vertical. No repositioning of the
joint occurs once welding has started; welding continues to
completion so that the weld is made in one pass.
The consumable electrode (either solid or flux cored) is
fed downward into the joint root opening, which is a cavity
formed by the base metals to be welded and the backing
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Ninth Edition, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Part 1.
WELDING WORKBOOK
shoes. A starting weld tab (sump) is required to seal the
bottom of the weld joint to allow the process to stabilize and
to support the molten weld metal until it reaches the work-
piece. An arc is initiated between the electrode, consumable
guide tube (when one is used), and starting weld tab. The
heat generated by the arc melts the continuously fed elec-
trode and groove faces. Melted filler metal and base metal
collect in a pool beneath the arc and solidify to form the
weld. As the weld metal fills the joint, the weld pool rises,
progressing in the uphill direction.
Thicknesses of 13 mm (1⁄2 in.) to 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) are typi-
cally welded with electrogas welding. When thicker sections
are welded, the electrode may be oscillated horizontally
through the joint for uniform distribution of the heat and
weld metal. If moving shoes are used, one or both shoes may
move upward as the cavity fills. Although the weld travel is
vertical, the weld metal is actually deposited in the flat posi-
tion at the bottom of the cavity.
Electrogas welding is a mechanized welding process. The
nature of the melting and solidification during welding re-
sults in a high-quality weld deposit. Little or no angular dis-
tortion of the base metal occurs with single-pass welds. For
these reasons, major applications of electrogas welding have
historically been in tank fabrication and shipbuilding — Fig. 1.
Advantages and Limitations
Several of the advantages associated with electrogas
welding, such as high deposition rates and operating factors,
have resulted in considerable cost savings, particularly when
welding thicker metals. Savings have been achieved for ap-
plications in which components can be joined in the vertical
position with a continuous vertical weld. For thicker materi-
als, electrogas welding is often less expensive than the more
conventional joining methods, such as submerged arc and
flux cored arc welding. Even in some applications involving
thinner base materials, electrogas welding may result in cost
savings because of its efficiency and simple requirements for
joint preparation.
However, the electrogas welding process has several limi-
tations, including the following:
1. The training of operators is time consuming and criti-
cal to the successful use of the process;
2. The initial cost of equipment is high and set up time
can be lengthy;
3. The high heat input may cause lower toughness in the
weld and heat-affected zone, as measured by Charpy tests; and
4. If the weld is not completed in one continuous pass,
the resulting restarts usually require that a repair be made.
Additionally, the reworking of problem welds is difficult.
5. Electrogas welding is not generally used for applica-
tions involving aluminum alloys and stainless steel, al-
though a few successful examples have been reported. WJ
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 69
Personnel July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:24 AM Page 70

PERSONNEL

Harris Products Group company’s Fisher Body Stamping company, Galeana

Announces Executive Vice
President and President
The Harris
Products Group
(HPG), Mason,
Ohio, a Lincoln
Electric company,
has appointed
Gregory Doria as
executive vice
president and
president upon
the retirement of
David J. Nangle,
G. Doria
effective Oct. 1. As
part of the transi-
tion, Doria has
been promoted to senior vice presi-
dent and chief operating officer of
HPG. He joined The Lincoln Electric
Co. in 2000. During his 20-year career
with the company, he has held several
leadership positions in sales and mar-
keting, including director of global in-
dustry segments, director of global
sales and application engineering for
Indalco®, and West regional sales man-
ager (USA). Since 2019, he has served
as vice president of marketing with
oversight of the company’s global in-
dustry segment strategy and market-
ing program.
BEYA Conference Recognizes
GM’s Executive Vice
President of Global
Manufacturing
General Motors
(GM) Executive
Vice President of
Global Manufac-
turing Gerald
Johnson has been
honored by the
BEYA STEM 2021
Conference as the
Black Engineer of
the Year. Johnson
began his career at
G. Johnson GM four decades
ago as a co-op stu-
dent at what is
now known as Kettering University. At
the age of 24, he became the youngest
superintendent in the history of the
plant. He was also the first African was with The Lin-
American to hold the plant manager coln Electric Co.
position at Mansfield Plant Stamping for 17 years. He
Operations in 2002 and GM Europe’s joined Lincoln
first African American executive direc- Electric as a dis-
tor of manufacturing in 2006. As exec- trict sales manag-
utive vice president of global manufac- er in Mexico City.
turing, he is responsible for quality During his time in
and safety performance for 103,000 Mexico, he held
employees, representing more than many roles as he
129 manufacturing facilities in 16 advanced to the
N. Galeana
countries on five continents. He position of au-
was also integral to the company’s tomation division
COVID-19 response. When production and international
was temporarily suspended at the be- accounts director. He was then pro-
ginning of the pandemic, Johnson and moted to commercial and marketing
his team worked to quickly shift man- director/technical manager, Columbia,
ufacturing and engineering resources and then general manager of the au-
to ventilators and mask production for tomation division, Brazil.
frontline health workers, and he spear-
headed the company’s safety and re-
turn-to-work strategies. He also serves
as an inaugural member of GM’s Inclu-
sion Advisory Board. Obituaries
Lenore “Lin” Emery
Lenore “Lin”
ARC Specialties Selects Emery, an artist
Technical Sales Engineer and sculptor pri-
marily known for
ARC Special- her metal art-
ties, Houston, works inspired by
Tex., a designer of the forces of na-
automated manu- ture, passed away
facturing systems March 11. She
and custom equip- was 94. Emery’s
ment for joining, works are on dis-
cladding, and oth- play throughout
er applications, L. Emery New Orleans and
has chosen Jacob much of the coun-
Belleau as its tech- try. Her career as
nical sales engi- a sculptor began in 1949 at the studio
J. Belleau neer. Prior to his
of Ossip Zadkine in Paris. When she
new position, Bel- returned to New Orleans, she worked
leau worked as a in clay and plaster before heading to
field service engineer for Eaton Corp., the Sculpture Center in New York City,
where he gained a comprehensive set where she learned welding. In the mid-
of skills and experiences within field 1950s, she settled permanently in
engineering and services. New Orleans, where she did life-sized
sculptures of religious figures for
churches and built sets for WDSU-TV.
Along the way, she learned black-
Bug-O Hires Leader for Latin smithing. She also set up welding
America Strategic Initiative equipment in her bedroom. As her ca-
reer evolved, Emery began to experi-
Bug-O Systems, Pittsburgh, Pa., a ment with motion. First, she used wa-
manufacturer of arc welding and cut- ter, then magnets, before settling on
ting solutions, has welcomed Norman wind as a more reliable source. Her
Galeana to lead its strategic initiatives wind-driven sculptures were commis-
in Latin America. Prior to joining the sioned throughout the United States

70 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Personnel July 2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:24 AM Page 71

and the Far East. She received numer-
ous accolades and honors, including
the Louisiana Women of Achievement
Award, Governor’s Arts Award, Hon-
orary Doctorate from Loyola Universi-
ty of the South, S. Simon Sculpture
Award, Opus Award, and many more.
Additionally, Emery was an American
Welding Society (AWS) member, join-
ing in 1962. She became an AWS Life
Member in 1997 and then a Gold
Member in 2012. She is survived by
her son, Brooks Braselman. (The pho-
to of Lenore “Lin” Emery is courtesy of
Owen Murphy, Owen Murphy Photog-
raphy [owenmurphyphotography.com].)
sion of U.S. Steel in 1982 with 34 years
of service. After retirement, he formed
McGowan Technical Services, where
he served as a consultant to the steel
fabrication industry. He traveled ex-
tensively to Canada, South America,
New Zealand, Australia, Ireland, Eng-
land, and much of Europe. He was also
an American Welding Society (AWS)
member since 1968 and an AWS C4
Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding
and Cutting member since 1974.
McGowan is survived by his wife of
65 years, Mary Ann; five children;
12 grandchildren; and nine great
grandchildren.
Laboratory, where he developed a vari-
ety of patents and authored numerous
research papers. Following retirement,
he volunteered as a science instructor
at the Cedar Springs Presbyterian
Church Weekday School in Knoxville,
where he was referred to as “Mr. Artie,
the Science Smarty.” Additionally, he
joined the American Welding Society
(AWS) in 1974 and achieved Silver
Member status in 1999. He was also
an AWS Fellow Class of 1999. He re-
ceived the A. F. Davis Silver Medal
Award — Machine Design in 1981.

Isaac “Ike” Chapman Fortenberry

Charles Robert McGowan Arthur “Artie” J. Moorhead
Charles Robert
McGowan died on
April 26. He was
91. McGowan was
an expert welder
and traveled the
country solving
problems. He
was an industrial
engineer from
Youngstown Uni-
versity and retired
C. R. McGowan from the Ameri-
can Bridge Divi-
Isaac “Ike” Chapman Fortenberry
passed away on April 16 with his fami-
Arthur “Artie” ly by his side. He was 75. Fortenberry
J. Moorhead had more than 45 years in the welding
passed away industry and was well known by dis-
March 20. He was tributors in the Southern region of the
80. Moorhead was United States. He was the owner and
a 1962 graduate of founder of Fortenberry Marketing.
the University of In addition to his parents, he was
Tennessee’s Col- preceded in death by his wife, Diane;
lege of Engineer- four brothers; and seven sisters. He is
ing, majoring in survived by a son, Truett; four grand-
metallurgical engi- children; a sister; and many nieces,
neering. He nephews, cousins, and friends. WJ
A. J. Moorhead worked for Oak
Ridge National

PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
— continued from page 21

America). It states that 37% of the mar-

ket growth will originate from Asia-Pa-
cific, leading to significant business op-
portunities for vendors in that region.
However, the welding fire blankets seg-
ment is described as being fragmented Submit a New Products Item for Consideration
due to the many key players occupying
the market. The report advises vendors If your company has a new welding, fabricating, or manufacturing product
to focus on the construction segment readily available, the details required to be considered for possible
because it accounts for the largest mar- publication in the Welding Journal are as follows:
ket share. Additionally, the report in- • Press release with the product’s name, important features, and specific
cludes insights on postCOVID-19 im- industries it’s aimed for; and
• High-resolution JPG or TIFF photo (300 or more dots per inch).
pacts to help companies evaluate their Please email submissions to Associate Editor Katie Pacheco at
business approaches. kpacheco@aws.org.
Technavio
technavio.com
(844) 364-1100

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 71

NI JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 1:08 PM Page 72

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY UACCM Becomes an AWS Accredited Welder

Certification Test Facility
— continued from page 10

highlights, structural development, and manufacturing fea-

tures for a variety of 2021 new vehicles, including the Ford
Mustang Mach-E (Ford Motor Co.), Chevrolet Trailblazer
(General Motors [GM]), Cadillac Escalade (GM), Acura TLX
(Honda), and more. The session was moderated by Catterall.
Mike Davenport, executive director of the Auto/Steel
Partnership (A/SP), moderated the Track 2 forum. The ses-
sion commenced with the presentation “Investigation of
Resistance Spot-Welding for 3rd Gen AHSS: Welding Quality UACCM held a ceremony at its Tyson Training Hall in the
and Performance” by Hassan Ghassemi-Armaki, lead re- UACCM Workforce Training Center to celebrate it becoming
search engineer at ArcelorMittal Global R&D, and Kevin Arkansas’s first AWS Accredited Test Facility.
Tang, welding engineer at GM, on behalf of A/SP. Ghassemi-
Armaki touched upon the different resistance spot-welding
factors the joining team is investigating, including LME and The University of Arkansas Community College at Mor-
how it’s affecting the substrate (both industry and third- rilton (UACCM) has been approved as Arkansas’s first and
generation grades) and coating/gauge. They’re also looking only American Welding Society (AWS) Accredited Test Facili-
at welding parameters, industrial conditions, and the effect ty (uaccm.edu/aws).
of LME on the application. UACCM is recognized as having the requirements for
Track 3 consisted of presentations showcasing advance- testing facilities, personnel, and equipment to qualify
ments in technology, including “Development of a Tailor welders to the nationally-recognized standards and commits
Welded Hot Stamped Side Frame” by Michael Worswick, to adhering to strict standards for welder testing and quality
professor of mechanical and mechatronics engineering at assurance. This accreditation authorizes UACCM to conduct
the University of Waterloo. Worswick gave background in- AWS welding qualification and certification tests in accor-
formation on the hot-stamped steels on the 2016 Honda. dance with the organization’s codes, with AWS issuing the
He continued with the development of a baseline front-end certification. The welder can obtain certifications through
module that led to the design of a tailor-welded, hot- UACCM’s test facility for shielded metal arc, gas metal arc,
stamped side-frame member. He also detailed the manufac- gas tungsten arc, and flux cored arc welding.
turing, fabrication, and testing of hot-stamped crush tips.
The Track 3 moderator was Hesham Ezzat, senior technical
consultant with the AISI automotive program. Oerlikon Combines Services at Expanded
In addition, GDIS attendees were able to tour virtual ex- Facility
hibits and chat with executives, engineers, automotive de-
signers, peers, and sponsors. To close the event, AISI repre- Oerlikon Metco Coating Services (MCS) has focused its
sentatives thanked all of the speakers; automotive investors; U.S. thermal spray and laser cladding activities by joining
gold, silver, and bronze sponsors; and media partners. — Oerlikon AM in Huntersville, N.C.
Roline Pascal, education editor Oerlikon AM recently established an additive manufac-
turing facility in Huntersville. Now the company has com-
mitted to a substantial investment at this facility to add
Alpena Community College’s Welding thermal spray and laser cladding capabilities, which are core
Department Receives a $2.4-Million Grant areas of Oerlikon MCS’s service offering. By combining addi-
tive manufacturing capabilities with coating competencies
Alpena Community College, Alpena, Mich., has accepted
a $2.4-million CARES Act Recovery Assistance grant from
the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Economic Development
Administration (EDA) to renovate its advanced manufactur-
ing lab and welding shop. The grant, along with a $600,000
local investment, is expected to help retain about 275 jobs
and generate $15 million in private investment.
The project will renovate two spaces, totaling more than
14,000 sq ft, to allow for the college to expand its advanced
manufacturing program and provide 16 new welding
booths.
“This investment in the Alpena Community College Man-
ufacturing Skills Center Initiative will create new training
opportunities for northeast Michigan’s workforce and en-
sure there is a steady pool of skilled workers for local busi-
nesses,” said Dennis Alvord, EDA’s acting assistant secretary Pictured is the Oerlikon facility at Huntersville, N.C.
of commerce for economic development.

72 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

NI JULY 21.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 11:34 AM Page 73
under one roof, the company can offer print-and-coat parts.
The expansion will not only be outfitted with coating and
cladding equipment, but it will also offer pre- and postcoat-
ing inspection and machining services as well as built-to-
print replacement parts manufactured on computer numeri-
cal control machinery to very tight tolerances.
The decision to locate in Huntersville improves proximity
to power generation and aerospace customers. The excellent
transport logistics in the area in combination with the up-
graded, more efficient service capabilities will facilitate
transfer of key business activities from the Barboursville,
W.Va., and Houston, Tex., facilities. Oerlikon MCS will begin
implementation in the 2021 second quarter and plans to
complete the expansion by the end of this year.
SDCCE Trains More Women to Enter Skilled
Trades Industries
Students safely return to on-campus classes at SDCCE’s
welding yard.
The welding program at San Diego College of Continuing
Education (SDCCE) is preparing graduates for in-demand
careers at General Dynamics NASSCO and with national
union apprenticeships.
For no cost, students can attain welding certificates in
shielded metal, gas metal, gas tungsten, and flux cored arc
welding; pipe welding; and metal fabrication.
Following nearly a year of campus closures, the college
adopted hybrid options for hard-to-transition skilled and
technical trades classes. Smaller class sizes are meeting for
hands-on learning at SDCCE’s outdoor welding yard located
in Mountain View, while others are learning remotely,
studying blueprint reading, welding symbols, theory, and
math.
To equalize access for minority populations joining the
building and construction trades, SDCCE awards grants to
students enrolled in a nontraditional area of study and pro-
vides opportunities to enter union apprenticeships. For
more information, visit sdce.edu.
Industry Notes
• NUBURU, Centennial, Colo., a provider of high-power blue
laser technology, has been awarded U.S. Patent No.
10,940,562 by the U.S. Patent Trademark Office for blue
laser applications of welding copper material and its alloys.
“This new patent covers all forms of 3D printing, welding,
and methods of opening up the keyhole using blue laser
light,” said Mark Zediker, founder and chair of NUBURU.
• ESAB Welding & Cutting Products, Annapolis Junction,
Md., has announced that its Robust Feed wire feeder re-
ceived the Red Dot Award: Product Design 2021. The wire
feeder was designed for portability, durability, and produc-
tivity and is claimed to be the only portable feeder with an
IP44 protection class rating, which means it is protected
against water splashes from all directions. In addition, a
completely sealed wire feed compartment protects the wire
from dust.
• VELO3D Inc., Campbell, Calif., a provider of additive manu-
facturing for high-value metal parts, and JAWS Spitfire Ac-
quisition Corp., Miami, Fla., a special purpose acquisition
company, have entered into a definitive business combina-
tion agreement. The transaction is anticipated to strengthen
VELO3D’s position as a trusted partner for companies seek-
ing novel manufacturing solutions for complex design chal-
lenges. Upon completion, expected to occur in the second
half of 2021, the combined company will operate as VELO3D.
• Industrial Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa., a global provider of
gas detection, has announced that the company’s iNet® Now
live monitoring software and Radius® BZ1 area monitor
have won platinum awards in the Occupational Health &
Safety Industrial Hygiene Awards. iNet Now received the
top award for hazard communication and Radius BZ1 re-
ceived the top award for gas and vapor detection.
• Kemppi, Lahti, Finland, which is committed to boosting
the quality and productivity of welding by continuous devel-
opment of the welding arc, has been through many changes
during the past few years. For its story to portray what the
company is today, this new slogan has been established:
“Designed for welders.”
• Weiler Abrasives, Cresco, Pa., a provider of abrasives,
power brushes, and maintenance products for surface condi-
tioning, is offering its Weiler Consumable Productivity pro-
gram to help end users better manage their abrasives costs
and increase productivity. The program tests and evaluates
abrasives to compare product life, reduce cycle times, and in-
crease efficiencies. Visit weilerabrasives.com/multipass-
consumable-productivity.
Do You Have Some News to Tell Us?
If you have a news item that might interest Welding
Journal readers, send it to the following address:
Welding Journal Dept., Attn: Kristin Campbell
8669 NW 36 St., #130, Miami, FL 33166
Items can also be email to kcampbell@aws.org.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 73
ce-july-2021.qxp_Layout 1 6/6/21 9:32 AM Page 74
COMING EVENTS
— continued from page 55
cation, and research. There are regularly scheduled classes in
laser welding, laser cutting, and drilling. Online learning is
available. HDE Technologies Inc.; laserweldtraining.com;
(916) 714-4944.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Laser training courses for
personnel in research, industrial, and medical laser facilities.
Courses based on ANSI Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. For sched-
ule and location, go to lia.org. Laser Institute of America;
(800) 345-2737.
Machine Safeguarding Seminar. Rockford, Ill. Online sem-
inar teaches how to properly safeguard machinery for
OSHA/ANSI standards. Go to rockfordsystems.com/product/
seminar.
NDE Classes. Moraine Valley Community College, Palos
Hills, Ill., offers NDE classes in PT, MT, UT, RT, radiation
safety, and eddy current, as well as API 510 exam prep and
weld inspection. (708) 974-5735; ccce@morainevalley.edu;
morainevalley.edu.
NDT Classroom Training and e-Learning Course. Offers
courses in UT, RT, MT, PT, eddy current, and remote visual
inspection. On-site training is also available. (855) 232-
7470; waygateinspectionacademy.com.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ loca-
tions. Level I, II, and III refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra-
diation safety, radiography, visual, and more. Test NDT LLC;
testndt.com; (714) 255-1500.
Online Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Test-
ing of Welds and Other Welding-Related Topics. Online
courses meet the requirements of AWS QC1 and can be ap-
plied toward professional development hours for recertifica-
tion of certified welding inspectors and educators. Hobart
Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448;
welding.org/product-category/online-courses.
Part B Study Group. Scheduled for July 5–9, this session
prepares individuals for the CWI part B practical examina-
tion. For information, contact Albert Moore at
amoore999@comcast.net.
PIT Family-Themed MIG Welding Workshop. July 24, 25.
Designed for the do-it-yourself individual/family who’d like
to learn the basics of the gas metal arc welding process, par-
ticipants will learn about welding machine setup and com-
ponents, welding techniques, and more. Participants will
also have the opportunity to build useful take-home proj-
ects. Reserve your seats at visitpit.com.
74 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021
PIT TIG Welding Workshop. Aug. 16–20. The workshop will
be split evenly between steel and aluminum applications as
well as various types of weld joints. The instructors will also
cover welding machine setup, operation, components, and
more during the five-day workshop. Limited to 12 partici-
pants, each person will be assigned his or her own welding
booth and equipment. One hour will be given for lunch each
day with refreshments provided for attendees. Register at
visitpit.com.
Preparation for AWS — CWI/CWE Examination. The two-
week class offers nine days of instruction with the test being
administered on the tenth day. It includes a backpack for the
convenience of carrying books and other study
materials. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;
hiwt@welding.org; (800) 332-9448; welding.org.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses.
At various locations and online. The Society for Protective
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; sspc.org.
Resistance Welding Seminar. Subjects covered include ba-
sics of resistance welding, resistance welding terms, pneu-
matic systems and troubleshooting, welding transformer
operation and troubleshooting, basic resistance welding ma-
chine setup and weld lobe development, electrode selection
and maintenance, quality assurance, operator safety, and
identifying problems and solutions. Online, one-day, and in-
plant training seminars are available. For the complete
schedule, visit T. J. Snow Co. (tjsnow.com/seminars) or con-
tact Cheryl McDonald, CherylMcDonald@tjsnow.com, (423)
308-3214.
Veterans Goodwill Weld Training Program. South Burling-
ton, Vt., and Eagle River, Wis. AWI and Veterans of Foreign
Wars offer veterans a complimentary two-day training at
AWI facilities. Contact (802) 660-0600, (715) 337-0122, or
awi.edu.
Welding Educator Workshops. National Center for Weld-
ing Education & Training (Weld-Ed). The professional devel-
opment workshop series will feature seven training modules
designed exclusively for welding educators and industrial
trainers. Workshop participants can earn four continuing
education units (CEUs) and 40 professional development
hours (PDHs), with the exception of the three-day NDT
workshop, which offers 2.5 CEUs and 30 PDHs. For descrip-
tions, training locations, and registration links for each
workshop, go to weld-ed.org or call (866) 529-9353.
WJM Technologies Welding Training Courses. Courses
include Resistance (Spot) Welding, Laser Welding and
Materials Processing, TIG/MIG Welding, and Metallurgy
and Welding. Classes are offered online and on-site. For
more information, contact Girish P. Kelkar, girish@welding-
consultant.com, or go to welding-consultant.com.
page 75 AWS Certification.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:14 AM Page 75
July 2021 Classifieds.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 5:42 PM Page 76

CLASSIFIEDS

FOR SALE OR RENT

JOE FULLER LLC

We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
joefuller.com

email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA

ADVERTISER INDEX
Arcos IBC FABTECH 1
arcos.us (800) 233-8460 fabtechexpo.com (888) 394-4362

AWS Certification 75 Flexovit 8

aws.org/crwt-training (800) 443-9353 flexovitabrasives.com (800) 689-3539

AWS Membership 41 G.A.L. Gage Co. 53

aws.org/takethetorch (800) 443-9353 galgage.com (269) 465-5750

Bluco 18 Liburdi Gapco 33

bluco.com (800) 535-0135 liburdigapco.com (800) 991-2100
sales@liburdigapco.com
Bug-O 20
bugo.com/dciv_wj (800) 245-3186 Lincoln Electric OBC
lincolnelectric.com (888) 935-3877
Camfil 2
camfilapc.com (800) 479-6801 Red-D-Arc 10
reddarc.com (866) 733-3272
Cor-Met Inc. 32
cor-met.com (800) 848-2719 Select-Arc IFC
sales@cor-met.com select-arc.com (800) 341-5215

Diamond Ground 9 Triangle Engineering 54

diamondground.com (805) 498-3837 trieng.com (781) 878-1500
sales@diamondground.com
Watts Process Machinery 54
Donaldson 19 wattsmachinery.com (253) 770-4858
donaldson.com (800) 365-1331
Weld Engineering 21
Electron Beam 53 weldengineering.com (508) 842-2224
electronbeam.com (815) 935-2211

76 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021

Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 221
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JULY 2021
Sponsored by the American Welding Society
A State-of-the-Art Review of Laser Welding
of Polymers — Part I: Welding Parameters
This paper reviews the influence of different processing parameters,
including laser power, scanning speed, standoff distance, and clamping pressure
BY N. KUMAR, N. KUMAR, AND A. BANDYOPADHYAY
ABSTRACT
Polymers are widely used in automotive parts and fields
like mechatronics and biomedical engineering because of
their excellent properties, such as high durability and light
weight. Welding of polymers has grown to be an important
field of research due to its relevance among products of
everyday life. Through transmission laser welding (TTLW)
has been frequently selected by the contemporary re-
searchers in the field of welding as it is relatively modern
and more efficient than other welding processes. This pa-
per reviews the influence of different processing parame-
ters, including laser power, scanning speed, standoff dis-
tance, and clamping pressure. The present article is ex-
pected to provide the reader with a comprehensive under-
standing of TTLW and research on the aforementioned four
welding parameters in TTLW. The significance of finite ele-
ment modeling, a few simulation studies, different optimiza-
tion approaches, morphological characteristics, and other
behaviors of laser welded polymers will be included in the
next part of the review.
KEYWORDS
• Polymers • Laser Welding • Optimization • Morphology
• Finite Element Modeling
Introduction
The polymer is known to be an important engineering
material due to several reasons. The combination of a wide
range of properties like toughness, good strength-to-weight
ratio, noncorrosive, good chemical resistance, moisture re-
sistance, low thermal and electrical conductivity, ease of fab-
rication into complicated shapes, and so on are unattainable
from any other materials. In addition, more desirable prop-
erties can be achieved by incorporating various compound-
https://doi.org/10.29391/2021.100.019
WELDING RESEARCH
ing ingredients, such as reinforcing agents, colorants, plasti-
cizers, stabilizers, flame retardants, and more (Ref. 1).
Joints between polymer/plastic parts can be of three
types — namely mechanical, adhesive, and welded joints.
While mechanical joints are composed of screws, snap-fit,
or press-fit, which result in the least time of production,
they cannot be leak proof. When it comes to the remaining
two types, where a complete leak-proof joint can be
achieved, the advantage with adhesive joints over welded
ones is the versatility of the types of materials and the
shapes of joining parts. The disadvantages with the former
include high material cost, which is not beneficial for high-
volume production, and slow curing time, which leads to
longer production time. On the other hand, plastic welding
has been a rapidly improving field in which the disadvan-
tages are being addressed effectively and efficiently
through extensive research. Among the many methods
adapted for welding of polymers, like ultrasonic, friction
stir, hot plate, and hot gas welding, laser welding is one of
the most promising techniques due to its ability to produce
highly accurate and strong joints maintaining tighter toler-
ances (Refs. 17–23). Although electron beam welding can
also perform with similar benefits, it is more expensive be-
cause of the complexities in setup, such as requirement of
a vacuum, and is less safe due to the production x-rays. The
few disadvantages of laser welding, in general, include a
high initial cost of setup, which makes it uneconomical for
low-volume production, requirement of careful joint de-
sign to avoid costly mistakes, and so on. The basic types of
laser welding in practice are given below.
Types of Laser Welding of Plastics (Ref. 5)
Contour Welding. Contour welding is a process where
welding is done in one pass. This method is highly flexible to
facilitate high quality control. A disadvantage is that the
welding speed is less than that of other methods.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 221-s
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 222
WELDING RESEARCH
A B C
Fig. 1 — Schematic diagrams of various modes of laser
welding: A — Conduction mode; B — transition mode; C —
keyhole mode.
Simultaneous Laser Welding. In this type of welding,
heating and welding of the entire joint are done at the same
time. Multiple lasers are designed into arrays using multiple
fiber optic cables, and the beam itself is formed in the shape
of the joint. This method has an advantage of faster welds.
But the complexity involved in designing the arrangement
with multiple laser tools results in higher costs.
Quasi-Simultaneous Laser Welding (QSLW). In this
type of welding, the laser beam is fed into a mirror system,
which will facilitate it to trace the joint multiple times rap-
idly. Since the jointis heated repeatedly at faster pace, the
heating is almost simultaneous.
Hybrid Laser Welding. In this method, a halogen lamp is
added to the contour welding in which the parts will be provid-
ed with extra heat. This will facilitate preheating and also
stress relieving of the joining parts to allow a better gap filling.
Modes of Laser Welding (Ref. 5)
Conduction Mode. In this mode, the heat required for
fusion is conducted from the surface with a beam of low en-
ergy density. The weld nugget formed is smooth and wide
with a low depth of penetration.
Transition Mode. The beam in this method has a medi-
um power density and produces more penetration than
conduction mode. This mode is almost exclusively used by
a pulsed Nd:YAG laser for many seam and spot welding
applications.
Keyhole or Penetration Mode. In this mode, a high peak
power density beam is used, which produces a narrow and
deep hole in the part by melting the material. The hole gets
filled with molten metal during the weld. With the aspect ra-
tio higher than 1.5, this method is used for thick job parts.
The schematic heat transmission profiles for the three
above mentioned welding modes can be seen in Fig. 1. The
relative amount of heat propagation is proportional to the
size of the arrow in the corresponding direction.
Transmission Welding by Incremental Scanning
Technique (TWIST). This mode of welding is used to opti-
mize the heat distribution throughout the weld zone to
prevent the material damages occurring at the focal spot.
The energy is provided using overlapping oscillations of
the laser beam moving along the weld contour (Ref. 39).
Two sample oscillation profiles can be seen in Fig. 2.
The current study focuses on through transmission
222-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
Fig. 2 — Sample oscillation profiles of the laser beam in
TWIST mode.
laser welding (TTLW), also referred to as laser transmis-
sion welding (LTW), a high-energy-density joining process.
Initially, it was used to join molded thermoplastic articles
or films. Nowadays, it has become an established process
for welding polymer products, including composites (Refs.
2–4). They are widely used in industries like automotive,
microelectronics, aerospace, medical, packaging, optoelec-
tronics, microsystems, and so forth (Ref. 5). Welding of
different materials having varying thicknesses and config-
urations is also possible using this technique (Ref. 6).
Through an industrial perspective, the key advantages of
TTLW are reproducibility of the process without wear and
tear of the tool combined with increased productivity and
better quality. It is a noncontact, flexible, and easily con-
trollable process with almost no contamination (Ref. 7).
With the use of lasers, narrow and localized heat zones can
be created. However, there are various investigations still
going on in this field (Ref. 8).
The TTLW process is widely used with varying types of
lasers for joining plastic parts (Ref. 9). A CO2 laser produces
an infrared (IR) light beam with wavelength bands at 10.6
m (Ref. 10). These lasers are restricted to welding of thin
films (micrometers to 1 mm) (Ref. 11), whereas the Nd:YAG
laser and diode lasers are suitable for welding of thick parts
due to the high transmission of polymers in the near IR field
(Ref. 12). Diode lasers are the most widely used lasers in in-
dustries due to their compactness, modular setup, high en-
ergy efficiency, and relatively low cost per watt of photon
energy (Refs. 13–16). The difficulty in joining plastic parts
can be overcome using this innovative type of laser (Refs.
17–21). Apart from some research publications, little infor-
mation is available in the field of TTLW of polymers. Al-
though many experiments, process optimizations (Refs. 19,
22–43), modelings (Refs. 44–83) and analyses emphasizing
morphology (Refs. 71–85), performance evaluations, etc.,
have been carried out, there are certain lapses observed dur-
ing the literature survey.
Process Overview and Important Parameters
of Transmission Welding
Extensive studies have been done in the process overview
of laser welding of polymers (Refs. 12, 17–23, 24–114). The
process overview is summarized in this section along with
the important process parameters.
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 223
Process Overview of Through Transmission
Laser Welding
The most basic configuration for TTLW of polymers is an
overlap joint assembled by a transparent polymer work mate-
rial placed on the top of an absorbing polymer — Fig. 3
(Refs. 17, 19, 22, 23). The laser beam is transmitted through
the upper transparent part and is converted into heat by the
absorbing lower part (Ref. 25). Both the parts are to be
clamped together during the process. Due to this clamping
force, the two surfaces come in intimate contact with each
other, and heat is conducted from the absorbing lower part
to the transmissive part. This allows both parts to melt and
create a joint only where the laser beam is directed. Nearly all
thermoplastics can be welded using this technique. Special
additives/pigments also allow TTLW of two opaque materials
as well as two transparent workpieces (Refs. 85, 88, 90–93).
To determine whether two polymers are weldable (i.e., weld
compatible), weldability charts are available for six selected
materials by Juhl et al. (Ref. 18). TTLW has various advan-
tages as compared to conventional techniques, such as ultra-
sonic welding, hot plate welding, and adhesion. While these
techniques have their own significance, each has limitations
either related to the process or the materials besides dedicat-
ed tooling requirements. In terms of running costs, electrical
efficiency of diode lasers is greater than 30% as compared to
typical levels for CO2 (10%) and Nd:YAG (4%) (Ref. 21).
The present study is primarily divided into three sections
that are essential to formulate a complete working under-
standing of TTLW. The first section deals with the most sig-
nificant process parameters of the TTLW, namely laser pow-
er, scanning speed, standoff distance, and clamping pressure.
Each parameter is analyzed with respect to its effects on the
weld quality. Weld quality is basically described through vari-
ous output parameters, namely joint strength, weld geome-
try, heat-affected zone (HAZ), etc. The relationships between
these aspects are rather complex and not proportional to
each other. In addition, the quality of a weld is not depen-
dant on one single parameter. Instead, it is the combined ef-
fect of all the output parameters to deliver the performance
of the joint to the extent it is designed for.
Important Parameters of Through
Transmission Laser Welding
It is clearly observed in various studies of TTLW of poly-
mers (Refs. 12–114) that the main influencing factors are
laser power, scanning speed, spot radius, standoff distance,
clamping pressure, frequency, energy density, and more. In
this subsection, the major parameters of TTLW have been
discussed in brief.
Laser Power
The laser power is the main source of heat in TTLW (Ref.
114). In general, higher power allows greater travel speeds
for welding and faster welds required higher power. The
weld width increases with laser power (Refs. 23–27, 52).
During through transmission laser (diode) welding of trans-
parent acrylics to opaque ones (thickness = 4 mm), it is ob-
served that joint strength increases with laser power (19–24
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 — A scheme of the laser transmission welding process.
W) (Ref. 22). A similar result for TTLW of white thermoplas-
tics to polycarbonate (PC), in terms of breaking load, and
polyamide, in terms of maximum load, has been achieved by
Mamuschkin et al. (Ref. 108) and Chen et al. (Ref. 113), re-
spectively. It is also found from through transmission laser
(Nd: YVO4) welding of transparent acrylic (thickness = 0.5
mm) and transparent PC (thickness = 0.5 mm) that weld
width increases and breaking load decreases with the laser
power (7.6–11.6 W) (Ref. 23). The results of laser welding of
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and PC-based poly-
mers using a continuous wave diode laser with a laser power
between 6 and 8 W, as well as a scanning speed of 1500,
3000, and 4500 mm/min, concluded that the weld width de-
creases as the total heat input decreases by increasing the
scanning speed or lowering the input power. While no regu-
lar trend has been obtained between heat input and average
shear strength (Ref. 24), it is observed during diode laser
welding of natural and black (containing 0.2 wt-% carbon
black as color pigment) acrylic plaques of dimensions 80 *
35 * 4 mm each that weld width and lap-shear strength in-
crease with laser power (Ref. 25). Tao et al. (Ref. 123) ob-
tained a maximum shear strength of 2052N with an opti-
mum power of 700 W. They concluded that the optimum
power resulted in a large interfacial joining area with no de-
composition. It can be inferred from their observations that
an increase in power results in an increased joining area up
to certain extent, and further increase in power results in
decomposition, which in turn reduces the joint strength.
It is also found from the perturbation plot that the joint
strength and weld width increase with the laser power in
laser transmission joining of PC (thickness = 1 mm) while
laser power has a nonsignificant effect on joint cost (Ref.
27). The penetration depth against laser power has been cal-
culated for polypropylene (PP) and high-density and low-
density polyethylene. It has been concluded that penetra-
tion depth increases with laser power for all types of poly-
mers (Ref. 50). The results of TTLW of polyethene tereph-
thalate (PET) and PP showed that weld width and depth in
absorbing PP increase with laser power (Ref. 52). The works
of Chen et al. (Ref. 58) and Coelho et al. (Ref. 59) show that
the weld strength of TTLW of polymers varies with the en-
ergy density. They have concluded that there is no regular
trend between energy density and weld strength. Dwivedi
and Sharma (Ref. 34) noticed that the joint strength of a
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 223-s
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 224
WELDING RESEARCH
PET and 316 stainless steel weld increases with the increase
of laser power. This is because in the laser transmission join-
ing process, heat input increases with the laser power result-
ing in an increased weld seam width. The higher the weld
width, the higher the melting joint area will be (Ref. 105),
and, consequently, the joint strength. Literature by Ilie et al.
(Ref. 61) reveals that the failure force of diode-laser-welded
ABS first increases then decreases with laser power and,
hence, is the trend for the joint strength concerning the line
energy in the diode TTLW process (Refs. 106, 107, 112).
This is because the heat induced to work materials increases
until the line energy reaches a threshold value, which results
in improving the joint strength. Above the threshold limit of
line energy, the heat input to the material gets excessive,
leading to the material burning and partial decomposition
and, hence, lowering the joint strength. Ghasemi et al. (Ref.
105) developed a model that simply explains the effects of
various process parameters on meltdown characteristics in
QSLW. They found that an increase in power reduces induc-
tion time and overshoot and, therefore, produces higher
meltdown when the number of passes is kept constant. De-
vrient et al. (Ref. 111) found that with an increase in the
laser power, the cross section of the HAZ gets bigger and be-
comes more elliptical or lenticular in shape (losing the sym-
metry to the joining plane).
Choi et al. (Ref. 124) investigated the effect of laser pow-
er on the adhesion between a graphene layer and the PC sur-
face. Later, they also studied the effect of bending on the ca-
pacitance of the laser irradiated supercapacitors.
Scanning Speed
Scanning speed is one of the important parameters that
increases the productivity of the welding process. In addi-
tion, weld width, joint strength, joint cost, and depth of
penetration are affected by the welding speed (Refs. 22,
26–29, 48, 50, 52, 51, 61, 123). At low scanning speeds, a
higher irradiation time is produced, which results in over-
heating and degradation of the polymers and, consequen-
tially, a lower joint strength. However, increasing the weld-
ing speed above threshold value results in a lower irradia-
tion time (Ref. 112), thus causing a low heat input and in-
complete joint penetration (Ref. 105), which decreases the
joint strength (Ref. 22). During TTLW of polymers, it has
been concluded that the velocity has a negative effect on the
joint strength (Refs. 22, 27, 28), while the weld width and
joint cost decrease with the welding speed. The velocity has
a significant effect on the joint cost. The productivity rate
can be increased by increasing velocity with acceptable joint
strength and joint width (Ref. 27).
Experiments of carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic
(CFRTP)/stainless steel laser direct joining have been carried
out by Jiao et al. (Ref. 28). They have concluded that the join-
ing speed has a great effect on the thermal defect zone size
and the joint strength. The weld soundness of polymers de-
pends on several factors like the nonisothermal crystallization,
the germs growth rate, and the dimensions of the HAZ in-
duced by recrystallization. Increasing the welding speed
caused reduction in the maximum temperature, consequently
resulting in a faster cooling rate and vice versa (Ref. 61). Dur-
ing the welding process, the polymer is heated up to the tem-
224-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
perature range of crystallization that is between the glass-
transition temperature and the melting temperature. Crys-
tallinity is strongly dependent on the heating/cooling rates of
the polymers (Ref. 48). Casalino and Ghorbel (Ref. 50) investi-
gated the effect of welding speed on the keyhole depth of CO2
laser welding of PP in butt and lap joint configurations of 4
mm thickness. They observed the keyhole depth decreases
with the welding speed due to a decrease in the line energy.
The depth-to-width (D/W) ratio of the molten pool has a sig-
nificant influence on the shear strength of TTLW of PET and
PP. The weld width and depth increase with lower welding
speed. However, the shear strength gradually increases first
and then rapidly decreases with the increase of the D/W ratio
(Ref. 52). Transmission laser welding of 0.5-mm-thick PET
plate using TWIST mode and conventional contour welding
mode was investigated by Wang et al. (Ref. 109). They have
found that the welding speed has a negative effect on shear
strength in TWIST mode, while there was a small change in
the shear strength values of the weld seams obtained through
conventional contour welding. This is because, in conventional
contour welding, the effect of crystallization is counteracting
the diffusion at a lower welding speed, while the sharp de-
crease in the melted and fused area decreases the shear
strength in TWIST mode (Ref. 39). In the case of QS welding,
when compensated with the number of passes, an increase in
scanning speed was observed to reduce total weld time and in
turn reduce total meltdown (Ref. 123).
Standoff Distance
Kumar et al. (Ref. 19) studied the influence of standoff
distance (30–34 mm) on diode laser TTLW of acrylics. They
found that with an increase in the standoff distance, weld
width and joint strength decreases. It may indicate that the
laser spot diameter decreases with increasing standoff dis-
tance and the weld width becomes narrower. Due to the de-
crease in weld width, a lesser amount of material is fused.
Further, heat conduction between the materials is not suffi-
cient (Ref. 106). Thus, joint strength is decreased. In the
work of Acharjee et al. (Ref. 22), diode laser TTLW of
acrylics was conducted at varying standoff distances (6–15
mm). They found that joint strength increases with an in-
crease in the focal distance up to 9 mm, and then it starts to
decrease as the focal distance increases beyond this point.
This is because the beam spot area was controlled by varying
the focal distance of the beam. It can be observed from the
perturbation plot in Ref. 25 that the weld-seam width varies
positively with the standoff distance. Increasing standoff
distance increases the laser beam spot size at the weld inter-
face, which results in spreading the beam energy onto a wide
area. Consequently, the base material of the weld zone being
melted leads to an increase in weld-seam width. In the work
of Wang et al. (Ref. 26), a statistical technique was applied
to correlate the standoff distance and output variables, such
as maximum temperature at the weld interface (Tmax), the
maximum temperature at the top surface of the transparent
PET (Ttop), weld width (WW), weld depth in the transparent
PET (DT), etc. Also, the model was validated with the confir-
matory tests. Wang et al. (Ref. 52) studied the effect of
standoff distance on the depth of penetration of TTLW of
PET and PP. It has been concluded that molten depths in-
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 225
crease as standoff distance decreases. This is because a de-
crease in standoff distance leads to an increase in localized
laser energy density and also the molten depths.
Clamping Pressure
Clamping pressure is required to decrease the opening
between two polymer plates/sheets, because heat conduc-
tion between the two plates is more important in the TTLW
process. With an increase in the clamping pressure, the weld
width increases (Ref. 27). This may be due to an increase in
effectiveness of the intimate contact between the two
plates. Kumar et al. (Ref. 19) found that clamping pressure
has the most influencing effect on the weld width but no
significant effect on joint strength or the joint cost of TTLW
of PC, as mentioned by Wang et al. (Ref. 27). The effect of
clamping pressure (0–0.8 MPa) on the joint strength of fiber
laser welding of CFRTP and stainless steel was studied by
Jiao et al. (Ref. 28). It was found that the polyphenylene sul-
fide (PPS) matrix melted adequately when the clamping
pressure was in the range of 0.1–0.2 MPa. The melted PPS
squeezed out from the CFRTP/stainless steel interface, and
the melted PPS for bonding reduced when the clamping
pressure was greater than 0.2 MPa. Consequently, the joint
strength decreased slowly when the clamping pressure was
greater than 0.2 MPa, and the highest shear stress was ob-
tained at the clamping pressure of 0.15 MPa. A similar trend
was obtained in the studies presented by Huang et al. (Ref.
106) and Liu et al. (Ref. 107), where the joint strength first
increases and then decreases with the increase of clamping
pressure in the diode TTLW process. The response surface
plot for the failure force as a function of laser power (10–20
W) and clamping pressure (0.4–0.55 MPa) indicated that the
optimal zone has to be searched toward low laser power and
high pressure (Ref. 61). The meltdown rate did not change
with pressure. However, the total meltdown increased with
pressure (Refs. 105, 112) in TTLW using a T-shaped test as-
sembly. It is possible to form faultless welds using a dual
clamping device by the use of proper welding parameters
and, therefore, prevent the risk of downtime or poor weld
seam quality due to contaminated clamping devices or im-
proper clamped joining partners (Ref. 110). Clamping pres-
sure was also observed to reduce induction time in QS weld-
ing (Ref. 123).
Summary
The basic concept and the technical aspects of the TTLW
process have been overviewed. Different variants of TTLW
processes have been briefly discussed. Four welding parame-
ters — namely power, scanning speed, standoff distance,
and clamping pressure — were chosen as the most signifi-
cant for the present study and have been reviewed.
References
1. Klotzbuecher, T., Letschert, M., Braune, T., Drese, K. S., and
Doll, T. 2006. Diode laser welding for packaging of transparent
micro-structured polymer chips in laser-based micropackaging. In-
WELDING RESEARCH
ternational Society for Optics and Photonics, 610704.
2. Aden, M., Mamuschkin, V., and Olowinsky, A. 2015. Influ-
ence of carbon black and indium tin oxide absorber particles on
laser transmission welding. Optics & Laser Technology 69: 87–91.
3. Sapuan, S. M., Haniffah, W. H., Al-Oqla, F. M., Nukman, Y.,
Hoque, M. E., and Sanyang, M. 2016. Effects of reinforcing ele-
ments on the performance of laser transmission welding process in
polymer composites: A systematic review. International Journal of
Performability Engineering. DOI: 10.23940/ijpe.16.6.p535.mag
4. Kumar, N., Mukherjee, M., and Bandyopadhyay, A. 2017.
Comparative study of pulsed Nd: YAG laser welding of AISI 304
and AISI 316 stainless steels. Optics and Laser Technology 88:
24–39.
5. Grewell, D., and Benatar, A. 2007. Welding of plastics: Funda-
mentals and new developments. International Polymer Processing
22: 43–60.
6. Coelho, J. P., Abreu, M. A., and Pires, M. C. 2000. High-speed
laser welding of plastic films. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 34:
385–395.
7. Sari, F., Hoffmann, W. M., Haberstroh, E., and Poprawe, R.
2008. Applications of laser transmission processes for the joining
of plastics, silicon and glass micro parts. Microsystem Technologies
14: 1879–1886.
8. Kailas, S. V. 2009. Material Science. NPTEL online courses.
nptel.ac.in/courses/112/108/112108150. Accessed January 10, 2020.
9. Reinl, S. 2013. Diode lasers used in plastic welding and selec-
tive laser soldering–applications and products. Physics Procedia 41:
234–240.
10. Hilton, P. A., Jones, I. A., and Sallavanti, R. 2000. Laser
welding of fabrics using infrared absorbing dyes. ASM International
Conference on Joining of Advanced and Speciality Materials III: 9–12.
11. Chen, M. 2009. Gap bridging in laser transmission welding
of thermoplastics. Dissertation. University of Minnesota.
12. Visco, A., Scolaro, C., Quattrocchi, A., and Montanini, R.
2018. Response to fatigue stress of biomedical grade polyethene
joints welded by a diode laser. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of
Biomedical Materials 86: 390–396.
13. Ghorbel, E., Casalino, G., and Abed, S. 2009. Laser diode
transmission welding of polypropylene: Geometrical and mi-
crostructure characterisation of weld. Materials & Design 30:
2745–2751.
14. Kurosaki, Y., and Satoh, K. 2010. A fiber laser welding of
plastics assisted by transparent solid heat sink to prevent the sur-
face thermal damages. Physics Procedia 5: 173–181.
15. Atanasov, P. A. 1995. Laser welding of plastics: Theory and
experiments. Optical Engineering 34: 2976–2981.
16. Kocheny, S. A. 2002. Three approaches in utilizing high
power diode laser to join thermoplastics. SPE ANTEC.
17. Juhl, T. B., Christiansen, J. C., and Jensen, E. A. 2013. Me-
chanical testing of polystyrene/polystyrene laser welds. Polymer
Testing 32: 475–481.
18. Juhl, T. B., Bach, D., Larson, R. G., Christiansen, J. C., and
Jensen, E. A. 2013. Predicting laser weldability of dissimilar poly-
mers. Polymer 54: 3891–3897.
19. Kumar, N., Rudrapati, R., and Pal, P. K. 2014. Multi-
objective optimisation in through laser transmission welding of
thermoplastics using grey-based Taguchi method. Procedia Materi-
als Science 5: 2178–2187.
20. Nakamura, H., and Masaki, T. 2003. Plastics welding with
diode laser. Journal of the Japan Welding Society 72: 189–92.
21. Bryden, B. G. 2004. Welding of plastics with high power
diode lasers. Industrial Robot: An International Journal 31: 30–33.
22. Acherjee, B., Kuar, A. S., Mitra, S., and Misra, D. 2000. Selec-
tion of process parameters for optimising the weld strength in
laser transmission welding of acrylics. Journal of Engineering Manu-
facture 224: 1529–1536.
23. Kumar, N., Kumar, N., and Bandyopadhyay, A. 2018. Opti-
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 225-s
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 226
WELDING RESEARCH
mization of pulsed Nd:YVO4 through transmission laser welding of
transparent acrylic and polycarbonate. Materials Today: Proceedings
5: 5235–5243.
24. Shin, H. M., and Choi, H. W. 2014. Design of energy optimi-
sation for laser polymer joining process. International Journal of Ad-
vanced Manufacturing Technology 75: 1569–1576.
25. Acherjee, B., Misra, D., Bose, D., and Venkadeshwaran, K.
2009. Prediction of weld strength and seam width for laser trans-
mission welding of thermoplastic using response surface method-
ology. Optics and Laser Technology 41: 956–967.
26. Wang, X., Chen, H., Liu, H., Li, P., Yan, Z., Huang, C., Zhao,
Z., and Gu, Y. 2013. Simulation and optimisation of continuous
laser transmission welding between PET and titanium through
FEM, RSM, GA and experiments. Optics and Lasers in Engineering
51: 1245–1254.
27. Wang, X., Zhang, C., Wang, K., Li, P., Hu, Y., Wang, K., and
Liu, H. 2012. Multi-objective optimisation of laser transmission
joining of thermoplastics. Optics and Laser Technology 44: 2393–
2402.
28. Jiao, J., Xu, Z., Wang, Q., Sheng, L., and Zhang, W. 2018.
CFRTP and stainless steel laser joining: Thermal defects analysis
and joining parameters optimisation. Optics and Laser Technology
103: 170–176.
29. Katsiropoulos, C. H. V., Moraitis, G. A., Labeas, G. N., and
Pantelakis, SP. G. 2009. Optimisation of laser welding process for
thermoplastic composite materials with regard to component qual-
ity and cost. Plastics, Rubber and Composites 38: 153–161.
30. Rodríguez-Vidal, E., Quintana, I., Etxarri, J., Azkorbebeitia,
U., Otaduy, D., González, F., and Moreno, F. 2012. Optical design
and development of a fiber coupled high-power diode laser system
for laser transmission welding of plastics. Optical Engineering 51:
124301-1 to 124301-9.
31. Mazumdar, S. K., and Hoa, S. V. 1995. Application of
Taguchi method for process enhancement of on-line consolidation
technique. Composites 26: 669–673.
32. Amanat, N., Chaminade, C., Grace, J., James, N. L., and
McKenzie, D. R. 2011. Optimal process parameters for thermoplas-
tic polyetheretherketone joints fabricated using transmission laser
welding and Lumogen® IR absorptive pigment. Journal of Laser Ap-
plications 23: 012003.
33. Labeas, G. N., Moraitis, G. A., and Katsiropoulos, C. V. 2010.
Optimization of laser transmission welding process for thermo-
plastic composite parts using thermo-mechanical simulation. Jour-
nal of Composite Materials 44: 113–130.
34. Dwivedi, S. P., and Sharma, S. 2014. Optimization on laser
transmission joining process parameters on joint strength of PET
and 316L stainless steel joint using response surface methodology.
Journal of Engineering Article ID 197060: 1–9.
35. Wang, X., Zhang, C., Li, P., Wang, K., Hu, Y., Zhang, P., and
Liu, H. 2012. Modeling and optimization of joint quality for laser
transmission joint of thermoplastic using an artificial neural net-
work and a genetic algorithm. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 50:
1522–1532.
36. Coman, G., and Bahrim, G. 2011. Optimization of xylanase
production by Streptomyces sp. P12-137 using response surface
methodology and central composite design. Annals of Microbiology
61: 773–779.
37. Demirel, M., and Kayan, B. 2012. Application of response
surface methodology and central composite design for the optimi-
sation of textile dye degradation by wet air oxidation. International
Journal of Industrial Chemistry 24: 1–10.
38. Acherjee, B., Mondal, S., Tudu, B., and Misra, D. 2011. Ap-
plication of artificial neural network for predicting weld quality in
laser transmission welding of thermoplastics. Applied Soft Comput-
ing 11: 2548–2555.
39. Boglea, A., Olowinsky, A., and Gillner, A. 2007. Fibre laser
welding for packaging of disposable polymeric microfluidic-
226-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
biochips. Applied Surface Science 254: 1174–1178.
40. Tillmann, W., Elrefaey, A., and Wojarski, L. 2010. Toward
process optimisation in laser welding of metal to polymer. Materi-
alwissenschaft Und Werkstofftechnik 41: 879–883.
41. Kagan, V. A. 2003. Innovations in laser welding of thermo-
plastics: This advanced technology is ready to be commercialised.
Proceedings of SAE 2003 World Congress Welding and Joining: 1–20.
42. Nakhaei, M. R., Mostafa Arab, N. B. , Naderi, G., and Ho-
seinpour Gollo, M. 2013. Experimental study on optimisation of
CO2 laser welding parameters for polypropylene-clay nanocompos-
ite welds. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 27: 843–848.
43. Nakhaei, M. R., Mostafa Arab, N. B., and Naderi, G. 2013.
Application of response surface methodology for weld strength
prediction in laser welding of polypropylene/clay nanocomposite.
Iranian Polymer Journal 22: 351–360.
44. Chen, M., Zak, G., and Bates, P. J. 2013. Description of
transmitted energy during laser transmission welding of polymers.
Weld World 57: 171–178.
45. Chen, M., Zak, G., and Bates, P. J. 2009. 3D finite element
modelling of contour laser transmission welding of polycarbonate.
Welding in the World 53: R188–R197.
46. Aden, M. 2016. Influence of the laser-beam distribution on
the seam dimensions for laser-transmission welding: A simulative
approach. Lasers in Manufacturing and Materials Processing 3:
100–110.
47. Geiger, M., Frick, T., and Schmidt, M. 2009. Optical proper-
ties of plastics and their role for the modelling of the laser trans-
mission welding process. Production Engineering Research and Devel-
opment 3: 49–55.
48. Hadriche, I., Ghorbel, E., Masmoudi, N., and Casalino, G.
2010. Investigation on the effects of laser power and scanning
speed on polypropylene diode transmission welds. International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 50: 217–226.
49. Lambiase, F., Genna, S., and Kant, R. 2018. Optimization of
laser-assisted joining through an integrated experimental-simula-
tion approach. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology 97: 2655–2666.
50. Casalino, G., and Ghorbel, E. 2008. Numerical model of CO2
laser welding of thermoplastic polymers. Journal of Materials Pro-
cessing Technology 207: 63–71.
51. Zoubeir, T., and Elhem, G. 2011. Numerical study of laser
diode transmission welding of a polypropylene mini-tank: Temper-
ature field and residual stresses distribution. Polymer Testing 30:
23–34.
52. Wang, X., Chen, H., and Liu, H. 2014. Investigation of the
relationships of process parameters, molten pool geometry and
shear strength in laser transmission welding of polyethylene
terephthalate and polypropylene. Materials and Design 55: 343–
352.
53. Aden, M., Liviany, F., and Olowinsky, A. 2013. Joint
strength for laser transmission welding of thermoplastics: A simu-
lation approach. International Polymer Processing XXVIII: 79–83.
54. Mayboudi, L. S., Birk, A. M., Zak, G., and Bates, P. J. 2007.
Laser transmission welding of a lap-joint: Thermal imaging obser-
vations and three–dimensional finite element modeling. Journal of
Heat Transfer 129: 1177–1186.
55. Beckar, F., and Potente, H. 2002. A step towards under-
standing the heating phase of laser transmission welding of poly-
mers. Polymer Engineering and Science 42: 365–374.
56. Liu, H., Liu, W., Zhong, X., Liu, B., Guo, D., and Wang, X.
2016. Modeling of laser heat source considering light scattering
during laser transmission welding. Materials and Design 99: 83–92.
57. Ilie, M., Kneip, J. C., Matteï, S., Nichici, A., Roze, C., and Gi-
rasole, T. 2007. Through-transmission laser welding of polymers–
Temperature field modeling and infrared investigation. Infrared
Physics and Technology 51: 73–79.
58. Chen, Z., Huang, Y., Han, F., and Tang, D. 2018. Numerical
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 227
and experimental investigation on laser transmission welding of
fiberglass-doped PP and ABS. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 31:
1–8.
59. Coelho, J. M. P., Abreu, M. A., and Rodrigues, F. C. 2008.
Modeling the spot shape influence on high-speed transmission lap
welding of thermoplastic films. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 46:
55–61.
60. Flock, D., Sickert, M., and Haberstroh, E. 2012. Temperature
measurement in laser transmission welding of plastics. Gummi
Fasern Kunststoffe 11: 704–708.
61. Ilie, M., Cicala, E., Grevey, D., Mattei, S., and Stoica, V. 2009.
Diode laser welding of ABS: Experiments and process modeling.
Optics and Laser Technology 41: 608–614.
62. Hopmann, C., and Kreimeier, S. 2016. Modelling the heat-
ing process in simultaneous laser transmission welding of semi-
crystalline polymers. Journal of Polymers 2016: 1–10.
63. Sooriyapiragasam, S. K., and Hopmann, C. 2016. Modeling
of the heating process during the laser transmission welding of
thermoplastics and calculation of the resulting stress distribution.
Weld World 60: 777–791.
64. Speka, M., Mattei, S., Pilloz, M., and Ilie, M. 2008. The in-
frared thermography control of the laser welding of amorphous
polymers. NDT&E International 41: 178–183.
65. Mayboudi, L. S., Birk, A. M., and Zak, G. 2009. Infrared ob-
servations and finite element modeling of a laser transmission
welding process. Journal of Laser Applications 21: 111–118.
66. Van de Van, J. D., and Erdman, A. G. 2007. Laser transmis-
sion welding of thermoplastics — Part I: Temperature and pressure
modeling. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 129:
849–858.
67. Fuller, J. J., and Marotta, E. E. 2001. Thermal contact con-
ductance of metal/polymer joints: An analytical and experimental
investigation. Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 15:
228–238.
68. Bronnikov, S. V., Vettegren. V. I., and Frenkel, S. Y. 2006.
New approach to the description of Young’s modulus for highly ori-
ented polymers. II. Relationship between Young’s modulus and
thermal expansion of polymers over a wide temperature range.
Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part B: Physics 32: 33–50.
69. Mikic, B. B. 1974. Thermal contact conductance; Theoretical
considerations. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 17:
205–214.
70. Kurosaki, Y. 2005. Radiative heat transfer in plastic welding
process. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer
93: 25–41.
71. Mubarak, Y., Harkin-Jones, E. M. A., Martin, P. J., and Ah-
mad, M. 2001. Modeling of non-isothermal crystallization kinetics
of isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 42: 3171–3182.
72. Albano, C., Papa, J., Gonzalez, E., Navarro, O., and Gonza-
lez, R. 2003. Temperature and crystallinity profiles in polyol efines
isothermal and non-isothermal solidification processes. European
Polymer Journal 39: 1215–1222.
73. Masubuchi, Y., Watanabe, K., Nagatake, W., Takimoto, J-.I.,
and Koyama, K. 2001. Thermal analysis of shear induced crystal-
lization by the shear flow thermal rheometer: Isothermal crystal-
lization of polypropylene. Polymer 42: 5023–5027.
74. Kneip, J. C., Martin, B., Loredo, A., Mattei, B., and Grevey,
D. 2004. Heat transfer in semi-transparent materials during laser
interaction. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 155–156:
1805–1809.
75. Majumdar, P., and Xia, H. 2007. A Green’s function model
for the analysis of laser heating of materials. Applied Mathematical
Modelling 31: 1186–1200.
76. Coluccelli, N. 2010. Nonsequential modeling of laser diode
stacks using Zemax: Simulation, optimization, and experimental
validation. Optical Society of America 49: 4237–4245.
77. Naqwi, A., and Durst, F. 1990. Focusing of diode laser
WELDING RESEARCH
beams: a simple mathematical model. Applied Optics 29:
1780–1785.
78. Ai, Y., Zheng, K., Shin, Y. C., and Wu, B. 2018. Analysis of
weld geometry and liquid flow in laser transmission welding be-
tween polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and Ti6Al4V based on nu-
merical simulation. Optics and Laser Technology 103: 99–108.
79. Wang, X., Guo, D., Chen, G., Jiang, H., Meng, D., Yan, Z.,
and Liu, H. 2016. Thermal degradation of PA6 6 during laser trans-
mission welding. Optics and Laser Technology 83: 35–42.
80. Mayboudi, L. S., Birk, A. M., Zak, G., and Bates, P. J. 2006. A
two-dimensional thermal finite element model of laser transmis-
sion welding for T joint. Journal of Laser Applications 18: 192–198.
81. Wilke, L., Potente, H., and Schnieders, J. 2008. Simulation
of quasi-simultaneous and simultaneous laser welding. Welding in
the World 52: 56–66.
82. Potente, H., Fiegler, G., Haferkamp, H., Fargas, M., von
Busse, A., and Bunte, J. 2006. An approach to model the melt dis-
placement and temperature profiles during the laser through trans-
mission welding of thermoplastics. Polymer Engineering and Science
46: 1565–1575.
83. Wang, X., Chen, H., and Liu, H. 2014. Numerical-
simulation-driven optimisation of a laser transmission welding
process under consideration of scattering. Journal of Applied Poly-
mer Science 131: 1–12.
84. Ghorbel, E., Casalino, G., and Abed, S. 2009. Laser diode
transmission welding of polypropylene: Geometrical and mi-
crostructure characterisation of weld. Materials and Design 30:
2745–2751.
85. Wang, C. Y., Bates, P. J., Aghamirian, M., Zak, G., Nicholls,
R., and Chen, M. 2007. Quantitative morphological analysis of car-
bon black in polymers used in laser transmission welding. Welding
in the World 51: 85–90.
86. Abed, S., Laurens, P., Carretro, C., Deschamps, J. R., and Du-
val, C. 2001. Diode laser welding of polymers: Microstructures of
the welded zone for polypropylene. Proceedings of ICALEO. DOI:
10.2351/1.5059820
87. Ma, L., Song, L., Wang, H., Fan, L. and Liu, B. 2018. Synthe-
sis and characterisation of poly(propylene carbonate) glycol-based
waterborne polyurethane with a high solid content. Progress in Or-
ganic Coatings 122: 38–44.
88. Hansch, D., Haaf, D., Putz, H., Treusch, H. G., Gillner, A.,
and Poprawe, R. 1998. Welding of plastics with diode laser. Proceed-
ings of ICALEO: 81–86.
89. Xu, X. F., Bates, P. J., and Zak, G. 2015. Effect of glass fibre
and crystallinity on light transmission during laser transmission
welding of thermoplastics. Optics and Laser Technology 69:
133–139.
90. Grewell, D., and Rooney, P. 2004. Relationship between opti-
cal properties and optimised processing parameters for through
transmission laser welding of thermoplastics. Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites 23: 13–18.
91. Wehner, M., Jacobs, P., and Poprawe, R. 2007. Rapid proto-
typing of micro-fluidic components by laser beam processing. Pro-
ceedings of SPIE 6459: 1–12.
92. Haberstorh, E., Hoffman, W. M., Poprawe, R., and Sari, F.
2006. Laser transmission joining in microtechnology. Microsystem
Technology 12: 632–639.
93. Bray, R. G., Kagan, V., and Chambers, A. 2003. Forward to
better understanding of optical characterisation and development
of coloured polyamides for the infra-red/laser welding: Part 1 – Ef-
ficiency of polyamides for infra-red welding. Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites 22: 533–547.
94. Zhu, X., Li, Y., Yan, D., and Fang, Y. 2001. Crystallization be-
havior of partially melting isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 42:
9217–9222.
95. Jonas, A., and Kegras, R. 1991. Thermal stability and crys-
tallization of poly(aryl ether ether ketone). Polymer 32: 2691–2706.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 227-s
Kumar et al Supp Part 1 202073 July 21 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:34 AM Page 228
WELDING RESEARCH
96. Katayama, S., and Kawahito, Y. 2008. Laser direct joining of
metal and plastic. Scripta Materialia 59: 1247–1250.
97. Azhikannickal, E., Bates, P. J., and Zak, G. 2012. Laser light
transmission through thermoplastics as a function of thickness
and laser incidence angle: Experimental and modeling. J. Manuf.
Sci. Eng. DOI: 10.1115/1.4007619
98. Amanat, N., Chaminade, C., Grace, J., McKenzie, D. R., and
James, N. L 2010. Transmission laser welding of amorphous and
semi-crystalline poly-ether–ether–ketone for applications in the
medical device industry. Materials and Design 31: 4823–4830.
99. Bagheriasl, D., Carreau, P. J., Dubois, C., and Riedl, B. 2015.
Effect of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) on crystallinity, mechanical
and rheological properties of polypropylene/CNCs nanocompos-
ites. AIP Conference Proceedings. DOI: 10.1063/1.4918445
100. Xu, X. F., Parkinson, A., Bates, P. J., and Zak, G. 2015. Ef-
fect of part thickness, glass fiber and crystallinity on light scatter-
ing during laser transmission welding of thermoplastics. Optics and
Laser Technology 75: 123–131.
101. Liangbin, L., Shiming, H., and Rui, H. 2002. Effect of pres-
sure on the crystallization behaviour of polyethylene terephtha-
late. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 14: 11195–11198.
102. Jaeschke, P., Herzog, D., Haferkamp, H., Peters, C., and
Herrmann, A. S. 2010. Laser transmission welding of high-
performance polymers and reinforced composites – A fundamental
study. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 29: 3083–3094.
103. Pelsmaeker, J. D., Graulus, G. J., Vlierberghe, S. V., Thien-
pont, H., Hemelrijck, D. V., Dubruel, P., and Ottevaere, H. 2018.
Clear to clear laser welding for joining thermoplastic polymers: A
comparative study based on physicochemical characterization.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 255: 808–815.
104. Jaeschke, P., Wippo, V., Suttmann, O., and Overmeyer, L.
2015. Advanced laser welding of high-performance thermoplastic
composites. Journal of Laser Applications. DOI: 10.2351/
1.4906379
105. Ghasemi, H., Zhang, Y., Bates, P. J., Zak, G., and DuQues-
nay, D. L. 2018. Effect of processing parameters on meltdown in
quasi-simultaneous laser transmission welding. Optics and Laser
Technology 107: 244–252.
106. Huang, C., Gao, Y., Liu, H., Chen, H., Li, P., and Wang, X.
2014. Multi-factors interaction effects of process parameters on
the joint strength of laser transmission joining between PC and
PA66. Key Engineering Materials 579–580: 91–96.
107. Liu, M., Ouyang, D., Zhao, J., Li, C., Sun, H., and Ruan, S.
2018. Clear plastic transmission laser welding using a metal ab-
sorber. Optics and Laser Technology 105: 242–248.
108. Mamuschkin, V., Roesner, A., and Aden, M. 2013. Laser
transmission welding of white thermoplastics with adapted wave-
lengths. Physics Procedia 41: 172–179.
109. Wang, Y. Y., Wang, A. H., Weng, Z. K., and Xia, H. B. 2016.
Laser transmission welding of clearweld-coated polyethylene glycol
terephthalate by incremental scanning technique. Optics and Laser
Technology 80: 153–161.
110. Devrient, M., Knoll, B., and Geiger, R. 2013. Laser trans-
mission welding of thermoplastics with dual clamping devices.
Physics Procedia 41: 70–80.
228-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
111. Devrient, M., Frick, T., and Schmidt, M. 2011. Laser trans-
mission welding of optical transparent thermoplastics. Physics Pro-
cedia 12: 157–165.
112. Prabhakaran, R., and Kontopoulou, M. 2006. Contour laser
– Laser-transmission welding of glass reinforced nylon 6. Journal of
Thermoplastic Composite Materials 19: 427–439.
113. Chen, M., Zak, G., Bates, P. J., Baylis, B., and McLeod, M.
2011. Experimental study on gap bridging in contour laser trans-
mission welding of polycarbonate and polyamide. Polymer Engineer-
ing and Science 51: 1626–1635.
114. Acharjee, B. 2018. Hybrid laser arc welding: State-of-art re-
view. Optics and Laser Technology 99: 60–71.
115. Pawar, S. M., Moholkar, A. V., Kim, I. V., Shin, S. W., Moon,
J. H., Rhee, J. I., and Kim, J. H. 2010. Effect of laser incident ener-
gy on the structural, morphological and optical properties of
Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin films. Current Applied Physics 10:
565–569.
116. Kurosaki, Y., and Satoh, S. K. 2010. A fiber laser welding of
plastics assisted by transparent solid heat sink to prevent the sur-
face thermal damages. Physics Procedia 5: 173–181.
117. Prabhakaran, R., Kontopoulou, M., Zak, G., Bates, P. J., and
Baylis, B. 2003. Laser transmission welding of glass reinforced ny-
lon 6. No. 2003-01-1133. SAE Technical Paper.
118. Kagan, V. A., Bray, R. G., and Kuhn, W. P. 2002. Laser
transmission welding of semi-crystalline thermoplastics — Part I:
Optical characterization of nylon based plastics. Journal of Rein-
forced Plastics and Composites 21: 1101–1122.
119. Kagan, V. A., and Pinho, G. P. 2004. Laser transmission
welding of semicrystalline thermoplastics — Part II: Analysis of
mechanical performance of welded nylon. Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites 23: 95–107.
120. Acherjee, B., Kaur, A. S., Mitra, S., and Misra, D. 2012. Ef-
fect of carbon black on temperature field and weld profile during
laser transmission welding of polymers: A FEM study. Optics &
Laser Technology 44: 514–521.
121. Hsu, S. T., Tan, H., and Yao, Y. L. 2012. Effect of excimer
laser irradiation on crystallinity and chemical bonding of
biodegradable polymer. Polymer Degradation and Stability 97:
88–97.
122. Schmailzl, A., Quandt, B., Schmidt, M., and Hierl, S. 2018.
In-situ process monitoring of laser transmission welding of PA6-
GF30. Procedia CIRP 74: 524–527.
123. Tao, W., Su, X., Chen, Y., and Tian, Z. 2019. Joint forma-
tion and fracture characteristics of laser welded CFRP/TC4 joints.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45: 1–8.
124. Choi, H., Nguyen, P. T., and In, J. B. 2019. Laser transmis-
sion welding and surface modification of graphene film for flexible
supercapacitor applications. Applied Surface Science 483: 481–488.
NITESH KUMAR (nitesh.ju@gmail.com) and ASISH BANDYOPAD-
HYAY are with the Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur
University, Kolkata, India. NIKHIL KUMAR is with Warwick Manu-
facturing group, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 3:14 PM Page 229
Post Underwater Wet Welding Heat Treatment
by Underwater Wet Induction Heating
This paper presents the results of exploratory research into postweld
underwater electromagnetic induction heating
BY E. C. P. PESSOA, A. Q. BRACARENSE, V. R. DOS SANTOS, R. R. MARINHO, H. L. ASSUNÇÃO, AND F. C. RIZZO
ABSTRACT
Wet welding procedures of Class A structural ship steels
frequently fail to comply with the American Welding Society
(AWS) D3.6M, Underwater Welding Code, in the maximum
hardness criterion for the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The
maximum hardness accepted in a welded joint is 325 HV
for higher-strength steel (yield strength > 350 MPa). In multi-
pass welds, this problem occurs frequently and is restricted
to the HAZ of the capping passes. The HAZ of the root and
filling passes are softened by the reheating promoted by
their respective subsequent passes. This paper presents
the results of exploratory research into postweld underwa-
ter electromagnetic induction heating. The objective of the
research was to evaluate the ability of induction heating to
soften the specific high-hardness HAZs in underwater con-
ditions. The results showed that this technique could
reduce the maximum HAZ hardness of low-carbon
structural ship steel welds to values below 325 HV, which is
the maximum accepted by AWS for Class A welds. The in-
duction-heated zone reached a maximum depth of about 10
mm, which is considered adequate to treat the HAZ of cap-
ping passes in underwater wet welds.
KEYWORDS
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) • Wet Welding
• Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) • Hardness Control
• Underwater Welding • Induction Heating
• Covered Electrodes • Oxyrutile Electrodes
Introduction
Underwater wet welding (UWW) trials have been carried
out at depths of 10 m (Refs. 1–3) to verify whether the me-
chanical properties of welded joints met the main require-
ments of the American Welding Society (AWS) D3.6M, Un-
derwater Welding Code, Class A (Ref. 4). The trials in Pessoa
et al. (Ref. 2) and dos Santos et al. (Ref. 3) applied an
oxyrutile-type, electrode-to-weld multipass V-butt and fillet
joints using base metal (BM) steels with a carbon equivalent
https://doi.org/10.29391/2021.100.020
WELDING RESEARCH
(CE) varying between 0.32 and 0.39%. At a water depth of
10 m, the diffusible hydrogen content deposited by this elec-
trode was about 20 mL/100 g, the weld metal (WM) porosi-
ty was about 0.5%, and the elongation values were higher
than 15% (Ref. 3). There were two requirements of the AWS
Code that were not met in the majority of the welded joints
(Ref. 2): 1) maximum hardness limit in the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) and 2) total approval in the bending tests.
The maximum hardness value accepted for Class A welds
is 325 HV when the BM is a high-strength ship steel (yield
strength > 350 MPa). The high hardness values frequently
found in the HAZ of wet welds is caused by the association
of high hardenability of the BM with high cooling rates typi-
cal of wet welding (Refs. 5–8). Researchers reported t8/5 in
the range of 2.5 to 3 s (Refs. 9–11), which is 10 to 15 times
faster than dry welds.
In multipass welds, this problem occurs frequently and is
always restricted to the HAZ of the capping passes because
the HAZ of the root and filling passes are softened by the re-
heating promoted by subsequent passes. The unaltered
coarse grain heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of the final cap-
ping pass is normally where the highest hardness occurs.
This region is also the most susceptible to cold cracks due to
the coarse martensite microstructure and the lack of tem-
pering (Refs. 1, 12).
The hardness of the underwater wet welded HAZ de-
pends directly on the CE of the BM because the cooling rates
in this situation are always high enough to harden the HAZ
of the joint (Refs. 5, 7, 8). To comply with the maximum
hardness limit of the AWS Code, a reliable temper-bead (TB)
technique or local postweld heat treatment (PWHT) must be
applied (Ref. 5).
Only a few papers concerning local underwater softening
heat treatments can be found. For example, systems apply-
ing a hydrogen-oxygen cutting torch as the heating device or
a jet-heating gun (underwater high-velocity, oxygen-fuel
thermal spraying system) along the weld bead have already
been tested successfully under exploratory conditions (Refs.
13, 14). Laser applications have also been attempted (Refs.
15, 16). Nevertheless, applications of industrial or extensive
underwater in-situ heat treatments are unknown.
The most common technique studied and applied to re-
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 229-s
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 3:18 PM Page 230
WELDING RESEARCH
duce the hardness of the HAZ, and consequently improve
the weldability of high-strength steels, is the TB technique
(Refs. 13, 17, 18).
Fydrych et al. (Ref. 18) simulated the TB technique in
steel plates with 0.37 CE. The welds were made in a water
depth of 0.5 m using rutile electrodes. The hardness meas-
urements showed a reduction from 450 to 300 HV10 when
the pitch value (overlap) between subsequent beads varied
between 55 and 100%. The authors stated this technique is
limited by the repeatability of the process in underwater ap-
plications due to the high number of factors that need to be
controlled.
Fydrych et al. (Ref. 19) studied the weldability of high-
strength steels with a CE of 0.3 and 0.4 in wet welding con-
ditions. They found a HAZ hardness of about 280 HV10 in
the 0.3 CE steel. For the 0.4 CE, the values reported were
more than 400 HV10. All the Tekken tests performed un-
derwater for both steels presented cracks. Rogalski et al.
(Ref. 20) studied a UWW repair at a depth of 0.5 m on an
API 5L X65 pipe with a CE of 0.43. Pipes were welded un-
der two conditions: insulated from water and noninsulated
from water. Hardness measurements were performed at
the critical point of the HAZ (close to the surface exposed
to the water). The results measured ranged from 300 to
318 HV10 in the insulated pipe specimens, and they
reached maximum values of 386 and 385 HV10 in the non-
insulated specimens.
Recently, Fydrych et al. (Ref. 21) studied the impact of
heat input (HI) on the weldability of high-strength steels
with a CE of 0.38. Controlled thermal severity test joints
were produced at a water depth of 0.2 m using 4.0-mm-
diameter rutile electrodes. The HI varied between 1.3 and
1.9 kJ/mm. The hardness values found were in the range of
370 to 460 HV10. No correlation between HI and maximum
hardness in the HAZ was found.
Li et al. (Ref. 22) explored the same topic of HI for arc
stability and weld quality in underwater wet flux cored arc
welding of E40 steel (CE of 0.41). Bead-on-plate (BOP) welds
and joints were produced at a water depth of 0.5 m, and the
the HI varied from 16 to 39 kJ/cm. The authors concluded
the HI had a limited effect on the hardness of the CGHAZ al-
though the t8/5 cooling time increased from 3.2 to 7.9 s.
The hardness values in the CGHAZ were about 400 HV for
all conditions tested.
Gao et al. (Ref. 12) performed studies at a depth of 0.5
m using S355 steel (CE of 0.39) and with a HI ranging from
0.8 to 2.5 kJ/mm. The authors found that increasing the
HI resulted in an increase in the t8/5 cooling time from 1.5
to 4.9 s. The increment in the cooling time resulted in dif-
ferent CGHAZ microstructures. Lower HIs produced only
lath martensite in the CGHAZ while higher HIs produced
small amounts of upper bainite beside the predominant
lath martensite. The maximum hardness measured in the
CGHAZ at 0.8 kJ/mm was 417 HV5, and this decreased to
396 and 376 HV5 at 1.5 and 2.5 kJ/mm, respectively. The
authors also concluded the welds didn’t meet the require-
ments for Class A and B welds, according to the AWS
D3.6M Code (Ref. 4) and “the prevention of rapid cooling
by increasing welding HI was not effective.”
The use of real-time, induction-heat-assisted UWW was
investigated by Zhang et al. (Ref. 23) in 2015 with the aim
230-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
of increasing the HI during UWW. The industrial or in-situ
application of this technique depends on automated systems
that have not yet been developed. A reduction of the HAZ
hardness values from 425 to 300 HV was reported when an
output voltage of 350 V was applied to the back side of a
plate by induction heating during the welding procedure.
The results were interesting because the method reduced
the hardness to 325 HV, as required by the AWS D3.6M
Code for Class A welds (Ref. 4).
In 2016, Pessoa et al. (Ref. 1) performed an exploratory
study on underwater wet induction heating to observe the
temperature distribution in a steel plate at the region just
below the coil. An AISI 4340 steel plate, water quenched
from 850°C, was used as the BM. An 18-kW induction vari-
able power source coupled with an oval inductor (coil) with a
field concentrator was able to induce temperatures in the
austenite field at the points closest to the coil. This under-
water wet procedure reduced the hardness from 636 HV at
the hardest point to 361 HV. The HAZ reached about 10 mm
into the steel plate. The presence of a semielliptic-shaped
martensitic area near the surface of the plate, right under
the coil, indicated the temperatures reached values above
the austenitic transformation temperature.
In 2019, Brätz et al. (Ref. 24) developed an induction
heating technology that was able to run an inductor at weld-
ing speed in a fully mechanized underwater welding system.
They investigated the effect of the HI on underwater welds
and attempted to carry out underwater shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) with simultaneous inductive heating as
well as leading and trailing inductive heating. They reported
that both the hardness and the hydrogen content could be
reduced by running an inductor at welding speed along the
weld bead. Induction technology in fully mechanized SMAW
systems allows heat management control by actively con-
trolling the energy input.
Brätz et al. (Ref. 24) also performed occupational safety
tests, which included measuring the electromagnetic field
strength near the inductor. The authors stated, “There is no
health risk to the diver performing the exercise.” They also
checked the practical side of induction technology with
welding divers who manually performed the inductive heat
treatments. The authors reported the divers were able to
manually handle the inductor in the diving pool safely. The
authors also reported a gradual reduction in the hydrogen
concentration with increased warming time. The heat devel-
opment and distribution were measured, and uniform heat-
ing over the cross section of a 10-mm-thick plate was
achieved with a 16-kW induction system with temperatures
in the range of 100° to 400°C.
The use of the TB welding technique is theoretically rea-
sonable but can be unreliable and unreproducible considering
the poor visibility and other restraints typical of manned un-
derwater activities (Ref. 18). Furthermore, the results of the
aforementioned studies indicated the HI control has a limited
role in reducing the hardness of the CGHAZ. As a result, there
is consistent evidence that these two techniques (TB and HI
control) commonly applied in dry welding to reduce hardness
of the HAZ are not suitable under UWW conditions.
All methods reported in the literature are able to soften
the HAZ of wet welds but only at very specific conditions
and with serious limitations.
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 3:20 PM Page 231
Fig. 1 — Inductor coil with dimensions (left) and underwater
(right).
Fig. 3 — Schematic of the Type 1 experiments used to meas-
ure the thermal cycles and maximum steady temperature.
Flame-based processes present lower productivity due to
the low travel speed and water depth limitations of acety-
lene (7.5-m limit) or the max pressures allowed for fuel gas-
es, such as hydrogen. Other serious limitations are the im-
possibility of carrying out precise joint temperature control,
torch positioning, and travel speed by the operator. The jet-
heating gun (Ref. 13) has a low travel speed (4.0 cm/min
maximum), and it is difficult to control the distance be-
tween the nozzle and the welded plate as well as the travel
speed.
In summarizing, it is possible to say the methods report-
ed in the literature do not have techniques to control the
holding temperature, holding time, and cooling rate of the
HAZ. Controlling these three parameters is essential for any
practical PWHT (Refs. 25, 26). The use of lasers and auto-
mated induction heating systems in the back of the plate, or
moving together with the torch/electrode, significantly in-
creases the complexity of the process, and its practical appli-
cation is presently far from being a reality.
Therefore, because there is no industrial underwater wet
PWHT that can be effectively applied nowadays, the promis-
ing results presented in the primary attempts performed
underwater on hardened plates (Ref. 1) with induction heat-
ing can be applied to develop a method that is integrated
with the UWW techniques used today. After depositing a
weld bead, the diver/welder places an inductor/coil on the
toe of the weld. In sequence, the surface cabin operator
turns on the high-frequency source with all the induction
parameters programed, such as power, frequency, and time.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 — The setup used to perform PWHT under wet conditions.
The proposed method enables a region of the HAZ in the
underwater wet welded joint to be exposed to a complete
heat treatment cycle with fine control of the holding tem-
perature, holding time, and cooling rate.
This paper describes the development of this method,
which is able to control the HAZ hardness of underwater
wet welds.
Experimental Methods
A variable induction power source with an 18-kW power
maximum, adjustable time, and induction frequency was
specially developed by IMC Soldagem. A 40-mm-long and
6-mm-wide oval inductor coil containing two turns with a
field concentrator prepared for underwater operations was
used — Fig. 1. The inductor was placed directly in contact
with the plate with no gap. All underwater wet PWHTs were
performed at a water depth of 300 mm. Figure 2 shows an
inductor/coil and plate with weld beads set up in a fish tank.
The frequency was kept constant at 25.5 kHz because the
resonance frequency of the inductor coil allowed for the
maximum permeability and deepest heating into the plate.
Figures 3–5 show the schematics of the three types of ex-
periments performed. Figure 3 depicts Type 1, with meas-
urements of the thermal cycles at a 1-mm plate depth with
both normal and controlled cooling rates. Figure 4 illus-
trates Type 2, with hardness measurements in the HAZ of
BOP welds at different distances from the contact surface of
the plate and coil. Figure 5 shows Type 3, with coil position-
ing and hardness measurements in the V-groove welds.
Hardness measurements were made according to the AWS
D3.6M Code recommendations for Class A procedure quali-
fications (Ref. 4). A structural ship steel ASTM A131-8 grade
AH36 steel, whose chemical composition is presented in
Table 1, was used as the BM for the Type 1 and 2 experi-
ments. The same type of steel was used in the Type 3 experi-
ment but with a different chemical composition.
Type 1 Experiments
A 200  100  12-mm plate was instrumented with K- and
S-type thermocouples welded onto the bottom of holes drilled
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 231-s
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:24 AM Page 232
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 — Schematic of the Type 2 experiments used to per-
form hardness measurements in cross sections of the HAZ of
underwater wet welded BOP welds.
from the back of the plate at a distance of 1 mm from the sur-
face — Fig. 3. The temperature was monitored so that the ap-
plied power could be correlated to the maximum stable tem-
peratures achieved at this specific distance as a function of
time. Initially, the maximum temperatures were determined
for the following five power values: 7, 10, 13, 15.5, and 18 kW.
The so-called holding temperature is the steady-state tempera-
ture observed at a depth of 1 mm in a 12-mm-thick low-car-
bon steel plate submitted to an induction heating cycle — Fig.
3. The acquisition data system was shut off after 60 s.
To avoid the formation of hard microstructures, a cooling
ramp was programmed in the induction source software.
The cooling ramp operation used here applied a linear power
reduction from the maximum power to 0 kw (shutting off
the system). Figure 3 shows how the temperatures were
measured. The heating power of 13 kW was then used with
five different cooling ramps, which resulted in cooling times
to room temperatures of 0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 s, respectively.
The t8/5 values were measured from the temperature vs.
time curves.
Type 2 Experiments
The application of the underwater induction postweld
heat treatment (UIPWHT) to the HAZ of a typical structural
steel was tested. BOP weldments were deposited by a gravity
feed system in wet underwater conditions at a m equivalent
depth of 10 m on an ASTM AH36 steel plate using an ESAB
WW70 commercial wet welding oxyrutile-type electrode
with a 3.25-mm-diameter rod. The chemical composition of
the BM is shown in Table 1 (only main elements are listed).
Table 1 — Chemical Composition of the Base Metal and Weld Metal (wt-%) Used in the Type 1, 2, and 3 Experiments
Type 1 and 2 Experiments
C Mn P S
Certificate 0.181 1.38 0.014
Measured 0.167 1.27 0.009
Type 3 Experiments
C Mn Si
Base Metal 0.13 0.98 0.296
Weld Metal 0.038 0.035 0.029
232-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
Fig. 5 — Schematic of the Type 3 experiments used to per-
form hardness measurements in cross sections of the under-
water wet multipass V-groove butt welds.
The CE was calculated according to the formula from the In-
ternational Institute of Welding. The time spent (holding
time) in the postweld treatment can have a significant influ-
ence on the total diving time. Based on this assumption, the
following two temperature ranges were considered: 1) Below
critical temperature (avoiding austenitization but applying
longer holding times), and 2) above critical temperature (ap-
plying shorter holding times).
In the first situation, no phase transformation occurred,
and the HAZ softening was driven by tempering. In the second
situation, a ferrite/cementite-to-austenite transformation oc-
curred; therefore, it was necessary to control the cooling rate to
avoid martensite formation during the fast cooling (quench-
ing) presented in the aqueous environment.
The heat treatment procedures were performed by placing
the coil in contact with the welding toe (HAZ) of a single BOP
weld — Fig. 4. Power and time were varied. Three cross-sec-
tional samples were removed from each heat-treated BOP
weld, and five different BOP welds were deposited on two dif-
ferent plates. The two sets of BOP welds deposited on Plates 1
and 2 were used to study the effects of the different maximum
steady temperatures (holding temperatures) and induction
times (holding times) at maximum steady temperatures on the
HAZ hardness at different depths in the plate.
All of the samples were prepared metallographically fol-
lowing the standard grinding and polishing procedures as
Si Al CE
0.005 0.327 0.039 0.420
0.004 0.292 0.031 0.385
Mo Ni CE
— — 0.30
0.213 2.72 —
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 3:58 PM Page 233
Fig. 6 — The heating cycles and steady maximum tempera-
ture at a depth of 1.0 mm in an underwater steel plate as a
function of power and time.
well as etching with Nital 2% solution. Six HV1 microhard-
ness measurements were performed in the HAZ of each
sample starting at 0.5 mm from the surface of the plate and
with a distance of 0.5 mm between indentations — Fig. 4.
Type 3 Experiments
Based on the results obtained in the Type 2 experiments, a
set of parameters was selected to test their application on a
19-mm-thick V-butt joint that was welded using a gravity feed
system inside a hyperbaric chamber in underwater wet condi-
tions at an equivalent depth of 10 m. The chemical composi-
tion of the base and weld metals (only the main elements) are
given in Table 1. The main welding conditions were as follows:
electrode — WW70 commercial oxyrutile-type, 3.25 mm;
welding current — 170–190 A constant current; welding volt-
age — 25–27 V; and welding speed — 3.8 mm/s.
To check whether the maximum hardness met the AWS
D3.6M Class A (< 325 HV) requirements, only the HAZ of one
side of the weld was postheated following the same general
conditions adopted in the BOP tests (Fig. 5) except the heating
time was 30 s and a cooling ramp of 60 s was imposed. The ap-
plied power was 18 kW. A HV1 microhardness was measured
on both sides of the weld joint, and microstructural analyses
were performed in the two regions. All the samples were pre-
pared metallographically following the standard grinding and
polishing procedures as well as etching with Nital 2% solution.
Results and Discussion
Temperature Measurements
Temperature measurements at a depth of 1.0 mm in the
plate for the specific conditions used (Fig. 3) showed a
strong correlation between the power and maximum
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 — Approximate CCT diagram for low-carbon steel show-
ing two different pathways to avoid martensite formation.
steady temperature achieved. The thermal cycles showed
that it takes about 10 s to reach maximum temperature af-
ter which the heat flow reaches an equilibrium and the
temperature remains constant. Figure 6 shows that for the
powers 7, 10, 13, 15.5, and 18 kW, the maximum tempera-
tures stabilized at about 500°, 800°, 1000°, 1100°, and
1200°C, respectively. However, this equilibrium tempera-
ture depends on other variables, such as the mass and
shape of the steel plate as well as the dimensions and ma-
terial of the coil. For 7.0 kW, the maximum temperature
reached was about 500°C. That is ideal for longer PWHT
times and when austenitization is avoided. At this temper-
ature, the resulting hardness and microstructure depend
only on the time needed for the development of the
martensite tempering stages, such as carbon segregation,
carbon precipitation, carbides conversion to cementite,
austenite decomposition, recovery of dislocation structure,
and recrystallization.
As shown in Fig. 6, the power range between 10 and 18 kW
induced the maximum temperature in the plate above the
pearlite to austenite phase transformation (A1 temperature).
That means, when using these parameters in some region of
the plate, martensitic transformation will occur unless the
cooling speed is controlled and the final hardness can be even
higher than that exhibited before the heat treatment.
Promoting austenite to perlite or bainite transformation
can be done by forcing an isothermal transformation at a
temperature below A1 (e.g., 600°C with the power of 7 kw)
or by continuous cooling that ends the pearlite transforma-
tion before the martensite transformation starting tempera-
ture, as represented in the approximate continuous cooling
transformation (CCT) diagram in Fig. 7. The isothermal
transformation can take longer, and CCT is more practical
and has proved to be efficient in controlling the final hard-
ness of the HAZ. The UIPWHT method described here al-
lows both types of control to be applied.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 233-s
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:24 AM Page 234

WELDING RESEARCH

Table 2 — t8/5 as a Function of the Cooling Ramp Times and

Respective Estimated Maximum HAZ Hardness in Steel with the
Chemical Composition as Shown in Table 1

Cooling Ramp Time (s) 0 5 10 20 30

Cooling Rate (C/s) 500 200 120 71.4 35.8

t8/5 (s) 0.6 1.5 2.5 4.2 7.8
Estimated Maximum 430 408 368 322 268
Hardness (HV)
Average Maximum Hardness 442.8 — — — —
at the HAZ of BOP Welds

rate by selecting the CRT for a linear power reduction from

Fig. 8 — Cooling cycles at a depth of 1.0 mm in the underwa-
ter plate as a function of time for different cooling ramps.
The applied power was 13 kW.
Cooling Rate Control
The t8/5 values and cooling rates were measured for five
different cooling ramp times (CRTs) at a depth of 1 mm in
the plate, as shown schematically in Fig. 3. The results
shown in Fig. 8 indicate that t8/5 without any cooling ramp
was around 0.6 s, and the cooling rate was an impressive
500°C/s. This value is in accordance with data reported in
previous works (Refs. 7, 8, 13). This cooling rate would cer-
tainly promote an amount of martensite formation of the
CGHAZ in most of the steels currently applied in the con-
struction of offshore structures. This cooling rate would also
explain the HAZ hardness values found between 350 and
450 HV1 in steels with a CE between 0.3 and 0.4, like the
ones used in this work. The UIPWHT method developed by
this research group enabled a precise control of the cooling
the maximum power to 0 kw in the system.
Table 2 shows the t8/5 and cooling rate values as a func-
tion of the CRTs selected during the Type 1 experiments.
The t8/5 increased with the increase in the cooling ramp
and cooling rate times at depth of 1.0 mm in the plate, re-
duced from 500 to 35.8C/s with the application of a 30-s
CRT. The estimated maximum HAZ hardness values for the
steel used in the Type 1 and 2 experiments were calculated
using the Yurioka method (Ref. 27). This method is based
on an empirical equation that can be applied to predict the
maximum HAZ hardness through the transformation tem-
perature range as a function of the cooling rates and compo-
sition. Table 2 also shows the average maximum hardness
values of all measurements performed in the HAZ of BOP
welds in the Type 2 experiments. The idea here is not to
compare or test the accuracy of the Yurioka method but to
show this type of empirical equation can be used to estimate
the cooling rate that will produce maximum hardness in the
HAZ of wet welds. With that information, the user can pro-
gram the CRT in the system to ensure, within a certain tol-
erance, the maximum hardness of the HAZ will be below the
limit established by the standard. By applying the Yurioka
method to the steel grade used in this work in the Type 1

A B

Fig. 9 — Example of the HAZs after UIPWHT was applied to the toe of the BOP welds. Schematics of cross sections show the HAZs
with bad (A) and good (B) coil positioning.

234-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100

Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:24 AM Page 235
Fig. 10 — Plot of the HAZ microhardness as a function of distance to the surface for different underwater induction holding times.
The applied power was 18 kW.
Fig. 11 — Plot of the HAZ microhardness as a function of the
holding time for the holding temperature of 1200°C (with an
applied power of 18 kW) at different depths in the HAZ of the
BOP welds deposited on Plate 2.
and 2 experiments, a minimum CRT of 20 s and a cooling
rate of 71.4°C/s were estimated to soften the HAZ to a maxi-
mum value less than 325 HV.
Postheating in the HAZ of BOP Welds
Tests varying the power (holding temperature on Plate 1)
and the holding time (Plate 2) of induction heating were
performed in wet conditions with the coil positioned in con-
tact with the toe of the BOP wet welds, as described above
and illustrated in Fig. 4. The HAZs were postheated under
contact surface areas of about 40  8 mm — Fig. 9. The
hardness results in Figs. 10 and 11 demonstrate that, for an
applied power of 18 kW, which corresponds to a holding
temperature of 1200°C, hardness values of around 325 HV1
were found in the fourth indentation located at 2.0 mm
from the plate surface along the weld interface in the HAZ.
This proved to be the maximum HAZ depth of the BOP
welds deposited on steel plates applied in the Type 2 experi-
ments that can be softened to values below the limit accept-
ed by AWS D3.6M with the maximum allowable power (18
kW) in the induction source used in this work. It is possible
to increase the depth of the heat in the plate when using an
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 12 — Plot of the HAZ microhardness as a function of the
holding temperature measured in Plate 1. The holding time
was 60 s.
induction source by controlling the frequency of the current
and the shape of the coil as well as increasing the power of
the system.
Inversions in the order of the maximum hardness values
measured at indentations 2, 4, and 5 can be explained by the
variation in the positioning of the coil relative to the toe of
the BOP weld — Fig. 9. A proper alignment between the
center of the coil and the toe maximizes the size and depth
of the treated area of the BOP HAZ — Fig. 9A, B. Bead sur-
faces irregularities (roughness) like the ones presented in
Region 1 can obstruct the contact between the coil and the
toe of the weld, leading to a variation in the level of HAZ ex-
posure to heat in the same region. To overcome this, the
welder/diver can grind the toe of the weld using a manual
grinder to ensure the correct positioning of the coil onto the
HAZ of the weld.
Figures 10 and 11 also show a minimum time of 60 s was
required to soften the HAZ at a depth of 2.0 mm, and the
difference between 60, 120, and 180 s was not significant.
That means there is a real possibility of reproducing effec-
tive TB results using wet PWHT with a heating cycle of 60 s.
This time seems to be reasonable for all practical purposes
because it is the same order of magnitude as the time spent
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 235-s
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:24 AM Page 236

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 13 — Plot of the HAZ microhardness as a function of the Fig. 14 — Macrograph of the V-groove butt weld joint showing
holding temperature measured in Plate 2. The holding time capping passes without (left) and with (right) UIPWHT, re-
was 120 s. spectively. The white ellipse circumscribes the HAZ.

A B
Table 3 — Hardness HV1 Measurements in the Welded Joint

Fig. 15 — Micrographs showing the untreated HAZ and WM (A) Location HV 10

as well as the treated HAZ and WM (B).
1 211
2 199
by a welder to deposit an underwater wet weld bead. 3 188
Figures 12 and 13 show the influence of the holding tem- 4 224
perature on the HAZ hardness at different depths in the HAZ 5 350
HAZ of Plates 1 and 2. The variation in the hardness values 6 321
7 315
in the nontreated condition (0 holding temperature) is due 8 204
to the different measurements in this condition on different 9 172
samples. Inversions in the order of hardness values are due WM 10 170
to a lack of repeatability in positioning the coil at the toe of 11 179
BM 12 199
the BOP welds, as previously explained. The selected holding
temperatures of 600°, 800°, and 1200°C correspond to the
powers of 7, 10, and 18 kW, respectively. Holding times of the HAZ when a 120-s holding time was applied. This be-
60 and 120 s were selected. havior indicates that deeper HAZs did not reach the A1
As expected, higher holding temperatures increased soft- transformation temperature, and the holding times of 60
ening for the same holding time. The results shown in Figs. and 120 s were not enough to temper these regions.
12 and 13 indicate the 600°C temperature did not reduce The holding temperature of 1200°C was able to reduce
the HAZ hardness to values below 325 HV when holding hardness to less than 325 HV1 at the depth of 3.0 mm at a
times of 60 and 120 s were applied. Tempering the HAZs of holding time of 120 s, indicating that martensite-to-pearlite
carbon steel usually takes longer than an hour because it is a phase transformation occurred under these conditions.
diffusion-dependent process (Ref. 26). This behavior con- One way to increase the depth of the HAZ softening is to
firmed that tempering takes longer than the available time promote a holding temperature at the surface of the plate
in a real UWW procedure. In wet welding, the nonsaturation close to the melting point of the steel and deeper regions in
diving time varies between 1 and 2 h, depending on the the HAZ that will be exposed to temperatures higher that
depth of the dive. The welding diver can perform the subse- A1. Furthermore, it is important to control grain size in the
quent pass in about 5 min. The results obtained in Type 2 regions exposed to higher temperatures.
experiments showed that HAZ tempering by induction heat- For the 60-s treatment time, only the holding tempera-
ing in a wet environment can take longer than the diving ture of 1200°C was able to reduce hardness under 325 HV1
time for UWW operations. at a depth of 1.5 mm in the HAZ.
The holding temperature of 800°C reduced the maximum Considering the main application of the UIPWHT
hardness to values below 325 HV1 at a depth of 0.5 mm in method is to soften the capping passes in a multipass under-

236-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100

Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:24 AM Page 237
water wet welded joint, an effective depth of 3.0 mm in the
HAZ should be enough to meet the standard maximum
hardness requirements.
Postheating the HAZ of a Capping Pass
The results of the simulated UIPWHT on a 16-mm-thick
multipass butt weld are presented in Figs. 14 and 15 as well as
Table 3. The parameters — 18-kW power (holding tempera-
ture of 1200°C at 1.0 mm depth), and 30-s holding time, 60-s
cooling ramp — were applied to the right toe (Fig. 5) of a V-
groove butt weld. The changes of the gray intensities between
the two sides (region inside the ellipse in Fig. 14) indicated
that both the WM and HAZ microstructures were affected by
the heat treatment. Figure 15A and B show the microstruc-
tures of untreated and treated regions. Figure 15A was com-
posed predominantly of the following: a HAZ with martensite
(M) and bainite (B) as well as a WM with columnar grains of
ferrite with aligned second phases (FSAP) and proeutectoid
ferrite (PEF). Figure 15B was composed predominantly of the
following: a HAZ with polygonal ferrite (PF), bainite (B), and
ferrite-carbide aggregates (FCA) as well as a WM of recrystal-
lized polygonal ferrite (PF).
These microstructural changes indicate that high hard-
ness phases were transformed to austenite, and the control
of the cooling rate was effective to ensure the perlite/ferrite
transformation.
The effectiveness of the heat treatments is confirmed by
the hardness measurements shown in Table 3, according to the
AWS D3.6M Code’s (Ref. 4) recommendations for butt joints
during a welding qualification process. The maximum hard-
ness was reduced from 350 HV1 in the HAZ of the capping
pass without UIPWHT to 211 HV1 in the treated region.
Conclusion
An induction power source with a software program to
impose specified cooling ramps was developed with success-
ful results. The holding temperatures were measured on a
flat surface of an instrumented steel plate at 1 mm depth.
Based on the specific conditions as well as the materials and
equipment used in this work, it is possible to conclude the
following:
Microhardness measurements performed in the HAZ of
BOP and V-groove butt multipass welds indicated the tech-
nical feasibility of UIPWHT in terms of meeting the 325 HV
maximum criterion.
The maximum depth of the heated region was about 5
mm and the maximum HAZ in a single BOP weld that
UIPWHT was able to soften to the 325 HV maximum was
about 2.5 mm. The underwater induction power of 18 kW
with a specific coil/inductor was able to heat subsurface re-
gions (1.0 mm depth) of a steel plate up to a maximum tem-
perature of about 1200°C.
The proposed UIPWHT was able to control the essential
parameters (holding temperature, holding time, and cooling
rate) for a successful PWHT of the underwater wet welded
HAZ. The optimal set of parameters for each specific power
source and accessory has to be determined, and the cooling
rates have to be estimated for each particular application.
The proposed UIPWHT enabled the tempering of subsur-
WELDING RESEARCH
face regions in the HAZ of underwater wet welds, but the
times required to perform this procedure made its applica-
tion unfeasible in wet welding. Martensite-to-austenite
phase transformation followed by a controlled cooling rate
was shown to be the fastest heat treatment to soften a
depth up to 2.5 mm in the HAZ of UWW deposits.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to express their gratitude to PETRO-
BRAS – CENPES for their financial support of this project
and to the Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological
Development – CNPq for graduate scholarships.
References
1. Pessoa, E. C. P., Bracarense, A. Q., dos Santos, V. R., Marinho,
R. R., Menezes, P. H. R., and Assunção, H. L. 2016. Estudo de aque-
cimento por indução eletromagnética no tratamento térmico pós-
soldagem de soldas subaquáticas molhadas. XLII CONSOLDA –
Congresso Nacional de Soldagem, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
2. Pessoa, E. C. P., Bracarense, A. Q., dos Santos, V. R., Monteiro,
M. J., Rizzo, F. C., Marinho, R. R., Vieira, L. A., and Silva, D. B.
2013. Wet welding field trials in shallow waters for structural re-
pairs in floating oil production units. ASME 32nd International Con-
ference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Nantes, France.
DOI: 10.1115/OMAE2013-10097
3. Dos Santos, V. R., Monteiro, M. J., Rizzo, F. C., Barcarense, A.
Q., Pessoa, E. C. P., Marinho, R. R., and Vieira, L. A. 2012. Develop-
ment of an oxyrutile electrode for wet welding. Welding Journal
91(12): 319-s to 328-s.
4. AWS D3.6M:2017, Underwater Welding Code. 2017. Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
5. Pessoa, E. C. P., Bracarense, A. Q., dos Santos, V. R., Monteiro,
M. J., Vieira, L. A., and Marinho, R. R. 2013. Challenges to develop
an underwater wet welding electrode for “Class A welds” classifica-
tion, as required in the AWS D3.6 code. ASM 9th International
Trends in Welding Research: p. 259.
6. Bracarense, A. Q., Pessoa, E. C. P., dos Santos, V. R., Monteiro,
M. J., Rizzo, F. C., Paciornik, S., Reppold, R., Domingues, J. R., and
Vieira, L. A. 2008. Comparative study of commercial electrodes for
underwater wet welding. IIW 2nd Latin American Welding Con-
gress, XXXIV CONSOLDA, São Paulo, Brazil.
7. Tsai, C. L., and Masubuchi, K. 1979. Mechanisms of rapid
cooling in underwater welding. Applied Ocean Research 1(2): 99–
110. DOI: 10.1016/0141-1187(79)90023-3
8. Hasui, A., and Suga, Y. 1979. On cooling of underwater welds.
Journal of the Japan Welding Society 48(12): 1077–1083. DOI:
10.2207/qjjws1943.48.1077
9. Fukuoka, T., and Fukui, S. 1993. Analysis for cooling process
of underwater welding. Journal of the Marine Engineering Society in
Japan 28(12): 767–774. DOI: 10.5988/jime1966.28.767
10. Pan, J., Yang, L., Hu, S., and Chai, S. 2015. Numerical analysis
of thermal cycle characteristics and prediction of microstructure in
multi-pass UWW. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 84: 1095–1102. DOI:
10.1007/s00170-015-7787-6
11. Brown, R. T., and Masubuchi, K. 1975. Fundamental research
on underwater welding. Welding Journal 54(6): 178-s to 188-s.
12. Gao, W., Wang, D., Cheng, F., Di, X., Deng, C., and Xu, W.
2016. Microstructural and mechanical performance of underwater
wet welded S355 steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology
238: 333–340. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.07.039
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 237-s
Pessoa 202034.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:24 AM Page 238

WELDING RESEARCH

13. Szelagowski, P., and Ibarra, S. 1992. In-situ post-weld heat
treatment of wet welds. 24th Annual Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, Tex. DOI: 10.4043/6907-MS
14. Leão, C. A., dos Santos, V. R., and Vaz, M. A. 2003. Emprego
do pós-aquecimento na soldagem subaquática molhada. Soldagem
& Inspeção 8(13): 113–117.
15. Yu, L., Saida, K., Hirano, S., Chigusa, N., Mochizuki, M., and
Nishimoto, K. 2017. Application of neural network-based hardness
prediction method to HAZ of A533B steel produced by laser tem-
per bead welding. Welding in the World 61: 483–498. DOI: 10.1007/
s40194-017-0433-1
16. Fukuda, T., Sumiya, R., Kono, W., Suezono, N., Tamura, M.,
and Chida, I. 2009. Temper-bead weld by underwater laser beam
welding. 17th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering, Brus-
sels, Belgium. DOI: 10.1115/ICONE17-75124
17. Olsen, K., Olson, D. L., and Christensen, N. 1982. Weld bead
tempering of the heat-affected zone. Scandinavian Journal of Metal-
lurgy 11(4): 163–168.
18. Fydrych, D., Świerczyńska, A., Rogalski, G., and Łabanowski,
J. 2016. Temper bead welding of S420G2+M steel in water environ-
ment. Advances in Materials Science 16(4): 5–16. DOI: 10.1515/
adms-2016-0018
19. Fydrych, D., Łabanowski, J., and Rogalski, G. 2013. Weld-
ability of high strength steels in wet welding conditions. Polish
Maritime Research 20: 67–73. DOI: 10.2478/pomr-2013-0018
20. Rogalski, G., Fydrych, D., and Łabanowski, J. 2017. Under-
water wet repair welding of API 5L X65M pipeline steel. Polish Mar-
itime Research 24(S1): 188–194. DOI: 10.1515/pomr-2017-0038
21. Fydrych, D., Łabanowski, J., Tomków, J., and Rogalski, G.
2015. Cold cracking of underwater wet welded S355G10+N high
strength steel. Advances in Materials Science 15(3). DOI: 10.1515/
adms-2015-0015
22. Li, H., Liu, D., Yan, Y., Guo, N., Liu, Y., and Feng, J. 2018. Ef-
fects of heat input on arc stability and weld quality in underwater
wet flux-cored arc welding of E40 steel. Journal of Manufacturing
Processes 31: 833–843. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.01.013
23. Zhang, H. T., Dai, X. Y., Feng, J. C., and Hu, L. L. 2015. Pre-
liminary investigation on real-time induction heating-assisted
underwater wet welding. Welding Journal 94(1): 8-s to 15-s.
24. Brätz, O., Henkel, K. M., Klett, J., and Hassel, T. 2019. In-
duction as heat technology for wet underwater welding of high-
strength steels. 7th Conference Underwater Technology. DVS Reports
359, DVS Media GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany: pp. 5–13.
25. Canale, L. C. F., Yao, X., Gu, J., and Totten, G. E. 2008. A his-
torical overview of steel tempering parameters. Int. J. Microstructure
and Materials Properties 3(4/5): 474–525. DOI: 10.1504/IJMMP.
2008.022033
26. Ramirez, J. E., Mishael, S., and Shockley, R. 2005. Proper-
ties and sulfide stress cracking resistance of coarse-grained heat-
affected zones in V-microalloyed X60 steel pipe. Welding Journal
84(7): 113-s to 123-s.
27. Yurioka, N., Okumura, M., Kasuya, T., and Cotton, H. J. U.
1987. Prediction of HAZ hardness of transformable steels. Metal
Construction 19(4): 217R–223R.
EZEQUIEL CAIRES PEREIRA PESSOA (ezequielpessoa@letu.
edu) is with the Materials Joining Engineering Department,
LeTourneau University, Longview, Tex.; ALEXANDRE QUEIROZ
BRACARENSE and HENRIQUE LEITE ASSUNÇÃO are with the
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universidade Federal
de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil; VALTER ROCHA dos
SANTOS and FERNANDO COSME RIZZO are with the Materials
Engineering Department, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do
Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and RICARDO REPPOLD
MARINHO is with the PETROBRAS Research Center, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil.

Welding Journal Now Publishing

Direct Object Identifier (DOI) Numbers
Dear members of the welding research community,

Note that in each issue of the Welding Journal Research Supplement, we are including Direct Object Identifier (DOI)
numbers with each of the papers published in print and online. A direct object identifier is a unique alphanumeric string
assigned by a registration agency (we are using Crossref.org) to identify content and provide a persistent link to its
location on the Internet. Our decision to begin assigning a DOI for each paper comes directly from a request by the
research community.

As part of our obligation to Crossref.org, we are asked to provide DOI numbers, when available, in the references section
of papers. So, if you have submitted a paper to the Welding Journal or are planning on submitting a paper, we ask that
you update your references to include DOI numbers whenever possible.

Thank you.

Annette Alonso
Publisher, Welding Journal

238-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100

Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 239
Parametric Study of Automated Electrospark
Deposition for Ni-Based Superalloys
The influence of seven process parameters on the deposition rate were studied
using a fractional factorial design of experiment
BY P. D. ENRIQUE, S. PETERKIN, AND N. Y. ZHOU
ABSTRACT
Conventional electrospark deposition (ESD) processes
used in industry are well suited to the coating and repair of
small areas for the purpose of hardfacing, corrosion resist-
ance, or dimensional restoration. Although significant
advances have been made in the range of materials that
can be processed, the comparatively slow deposition rate
limits the potential applications of a traditional manually
operated ESD process. In this study, an automated ESD
system was demonstrated for the application of Ni-based
superalloy (Inconel 718) coatings on Ni- and Fe-based
substrates. A preliminary study was used to determine the
influence of process parameters on an automated system,
with capacitance, voltage, electrode force, and electrode
travel speed parameters chosen to provide higher deposi-
tion rates while maintaining high deposition quality. A com-
parison of Inconel 718 and 316L stainless steel substrates
found that the influence of substrate composition on coat-
ing hardness and coating composition was limited to the
first 40 m. These results pave the way for ESD of larger-
area coatings and longer-duration repairs without the need
for human operators.
KEYWORDS
• Electrospark Deposition • Automation • Ni-Superalloy
• Inconel • Stainless Steel
Introduction
A variety of industries, including nuclear, oil and gas,
aerospace, metal processing, and chemical processing,
benefit from reduced infrastructure costs by repairing or
protecting Ni- and Fe-based components rather than fully
replacing them. This is typically performed by depositing
material to repair cracks and other surface defects or
coating and recoating surfaces that experience degradation
(Ref. 1), extending a component’s service life. The deposi-
tion of Inconel® 718 — a frequently used Ni-based superal-
loy with high strength and good corrosion resistance at
https://doi.org/10.29391/2021.100.021
WELDING RESEARCH
elevated temperatures — has a long-studied history in
both component repair and coating applications. Deposi-
tion of Inconel 718 and other Ni-superalloys has often
been performed with laser directed-energy deposition
(DED) (Refs. 2–6), thermal spray (Ref. 7), and cold spray
(Refs. 8, 9). It has also been demonstrated for the joining,
repair, and protective coating of similar and dissimilar sub-
strates. For components particularly susceptible to ther-
mal buildup during deposition, laser DED may be problem-
atic. Although thermal spray and cold spray technologies
result in lower heat input, issues with porosity and deposi-
tion/substrate bonding are common.
Electrospark deposition (ESD) is a micro arc-welding
process commonly used for the repair and joining of sensi-
tive, high-value parts as well as for interlayers and wear/
corrosion-resistant coatings (Refs. 10–14). The formation of
a spark between an electrode (anode) and substrate (cath-
ode) results in small droplets of electrode material transfer-
ring onto the substrate surface. With a combination of low
heat input and high cooling rates (Ref. 15), ESD can produce
fine-grained coatings and repairs with minimal damage to
the substrate. However, the low material transfer rate limits
the typically manual ESD process to the repair of small de-
fects and coating of small areas.
Large-area repairs and coatings have the potential to be
more economically feasible due to the development of versa-
tile automated ESD systems. Additionally, factors such as
electrode force and electrode travel speed can now be con-
trolled, whereas they were left to the operator’s discretion in
manual ESD systems. An understanding of the impact of
these factors in comparison to the more frequently con-
trolled voltage, capacitance, and frequency factors can be
used to obtain more uniform and higher-quality depositions.
Two applications of an automated ESD system were in-
vestigated in this study: the deposition of Inconel 718 to
repair an Inconel 718 substrate and the deposition of In-
conel 718 to coat a 316L stainless steel substrate. An ex-
periment was constructed using a factorial design to iden-
tify ESD process parameters that provide good deposition
rates, and the microstructure and properties of these coat-
ings were characterized.
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 239-s
Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 240

WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

D E F

G H I

Fig. 1 — OM images of etched cross sections from Trials 1–8 (A–H) and a higher magnification image of the layered droplet mi-
crostructure (I). Note the changes in scale between images.

Materials and Methods
Process Parameters in Automated ESD
The main electrical parameters driving the mass transfer
mechanism for ESD include capacitance (C), capacitor
charge voltage (V), and pulse frequency (f) (Ref. 16). The
ESD system used in this study operated in a direct current
electrode positive configuration, although the system is ca-
pable of alternating current and electrode negative configu-
rations. The ESD circuit charges the chosen capacitance to
the set voltage level and uses a logic-driven thyristor circuit
to control the discharge frequency. Contact between the
electrode and substrate as well as some near-contact arcing
events result in the discharge of the capacitor circuit with a
high peak current, short duration pulse (Ref. 17). The capac-
itor charge voltage influences the maximum arc gap be-
tween the anode and cathode; a larger voltage, and conse-
quently higher gap, results in greater ionization of gas
atoms between the electrode and substrate. This creates
more heat and increases the area of cathodic etching on the
substrate. Higher capacitor voltages also result in higher
peak current outputs from the capacitor circuits. The capaci-
tance parameter has a linear effect on the energy discharged
from the ESD circuit, with higher capacitance serving to
broaden the current peak of the ESD discharge and increas-
ing the duration of the arc. The Joule heating energy pro-
duced by the electrical ESD parameters is summarized by
the total output energy (E) in Equation 1 and power (P) in
Equation 2. The effect of the discharge frequency relates to
the output power of the circuit, serving to control the heat

Table 1 — Chemical Composition (wt-%) Determined by EDX

Ni Cr Nb Mo Ti Al Fe Mn Si
Substrate IN 718 54 19.7 3.3 2.6 1.1 0.3 19 — —
Electrode IN 718 53.7 19.2 3.8 2.8 1 0.3 19 — 0.2
Substrate 316L SS 10.2 17.8 — 3.9 — — 66.1 1.4 0.6

240-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100

Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 241
Fig. 2 — Deposition thickness for Inconel 718 on Inconel 718 with white dots showing the mean thickness, boxes showing 2nd
and 3rd quartiles, and bars showing ± one standard deviation.
buildup in the electrode and rate of material transfer. Be-
cause the electrode does not make constant contact with the
substrate, an  term is introduced to obtain the actual fre-
quency of capacitor discharge. Within the context of these
trials, an average contact of  = 0.96 was achieved, which
suggests that almost all the predicted power was delivered
during the actual ESD process.
E = 1/2C  V2 (1)
P = E  f = 1/2C  V2  f (2)
Automated ESD systems are developed to minimize opera-
tor influence in the process. Power supply controls are used to
set the capacitance, voltage, and frequency. Electrode motion
is integrated into automated systems with accurate control
over combinations of linear, rotating, and vibrating motion
types that prevent the electrode from welding and sticking to
the substrate. However, electrode compliance and electrode-
to-substrate pressure control are the main concerns addressed
with automated systems. Force, capacitor discharge, tempera-
ture, and visual feedback systems are often employed to main-
tain the optimal conditions for ESD coatings.
The automated ESD system functions as a coating head
integrated with a motion system, such as a robot arm, CNC
machine, or, in this case, a small gantry. The head is fitted
with a fixed angle relative to the substrate plane, and a lin-
ear motor supports the weight of the head and provides
compliance for the automated system. A load cell is fitted
between the linear motor and the head, which is also influ-
enced by the friction from the head bearings, a compression
spring, and a neoprene damper. Thus, the force parameter is
a measure of the compressive force applied by the linear mo-
tor when normalizing the tension forces of the weight of the
head. The control system functions with hierarchical control
loops, where the output is a motor movement command af-
WELDING RESEARCH
fecting the ESD head’s position, which in turn affects the
electrode position. First, the system determines if contact is
made between the electrode and the substrate and capacitor
discharge is occurring. If there is no contact, the unit will
advance until the electrode makes an electrical contact with
the substrate. Second, a closed-loop proportional integrative
(PI) feedback system uses the force sensor input to output a
movement command to maintain the set force parameter.
Should the electrode lose contact with the workpiece due to
a command from the PI control, or relief on the surface of
the substrate, then the first control loop takes precedence. A
simplified applied load equation is presented below, where
the applied load (F) is determined from the load at the load
cell (FLC), the gravitational force on the coating head (G), and
the spring and damper effects (SD).
F = FLC – G  SD (3)
Materials and Characterization
The 3.2-mm-diameter electrode used for ESD was made
of Inconel 718, with the composition listed in Table 1. The
10-mm-thick, 25  25-mm substrates used for this study in-
cluded solution-annealed Inconel 718 and 316L stainless
steel, the compositions of which are also listed in Table 1.
Cross sections of the coating tracks were made using a
Struers Accutom-50 precision saw. To prepare samples for
analysis, cross sections were hot mounted in a conductive
resin, ground with a series of silicon carbide grinding papers
(400, 600, 800, and 1200 grit), and then polished using an
alumina slurry with 1-m particle size. Select samples were
etched with inverted glyceregia (HCl:HNO3:Glycerol in a
5:1:1 ratio) for approximately 75 s.
Characterization of cross-sectioned samples was performed
using an Oxford BX51M optical microscope (OM). Higher
magnification images were obtained with a Zeiss UltraPlus
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 241-s
Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 242
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 — Deposition thickness for Inconel 718 on 316L stain-
less steel with white dots showing the mean thickness,
boxes showing 2nd and 3rd quartiles, and bars showing  one
standard deviation.
scanning electron microscope (SEM) and an AMETEK EDAX
Apollo XL energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) attach-
ment. Hardness measurements were performed on a Wolpert
Wilson® 402 MVD micro Vickers hardness tester using a load
of 0.1 kgf. The measurement of coating thickness and quantity
of defects was done using ImageJ on the OM cross section im-
ages. Analysis of the obtained data was performed using De-
velve, jamovi, and Veusz software.
Fig. 4 — Quantity of defects for initial trials with white dots showing the mean defect area and bars showing  one standard error.
242-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
Experimental Design
Previous studies on the manual ESD of Inconel 718 have
identified electrical parameters in which high-quality deposi-
tions are achievable (Refs. 18–20), and these studies were used
as the basis for parameter selection on the newly developed
automated system. The response variable of interest in this
study was the deposition thickness, which is related to the
deposition rate and is used to address an industry need for
faster ESD process times and thicker coatings. The quantity of
defects within the coatings were also measured to confirm
that the coatings created with the chosen parameters are suit-
able for industries where high coating quality is necessary.
A resolution III fractional factorial design of experiment
was chosen to identify which process parameters had an
influence on the final deposition thickness. A Huys Indus-
tries automated low-energy welding system with a 4100-
automation head controller and a 6350-automation inte-
grated universal ESD power supply was used. Parameters
for the deposition of Inconel 718 on Inconel 718 are listed
in Table 2 and parameters for Inconel 718 deposited on
316L stainless steel are listed in Table 3. All depositions
were performed using coaxially delivered 5.0-grade argon
shielding gas. The electrode angle was kept constant at 45
deg, and the vibration on/off parameter dictated if the
electrode was driven in a linear motion by a 2.5-mm-offset,
33-g mass rotating at 3500 rpm. Deposition time was kept
constant at 15 min per track, and three 10-mm tracks were
made for each trial. A unidirectional scan pattern was used
with the electrode lifted from the substrate at the end of
the track and returned to the substrate at the beginning.
These tracks were then cross sectioned along their long
axis for analysis, and a minimum of 150 measurements of
coating thickness were made for each trial. Low and high
parameters for each of the factors were 70 and 100 V for
the voltage, 60 and 100 F for the capacitance, 70 and 100
Hz for the frequency, 440 and 940 rpm for the rotation
speed, 100 and 300 mm/min for the travel speed, off and
on for the vibration, and 0.2 and 2.3 N for the force.
Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 243

WELDING RESEARCH

Table 2 — Trial Parameters for Deposition of Inconel 718 on Inconel 718

Trial Factor
Force (N) Travel Speed (mm/min) Vibration Capacitance (F) Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V) Rotation Speed (rpm)

1 0.2 100 On 100 70 100 440

2 0.2 100 On 60 100 70 940
3 0.2 300 Off 100 70 70 940
4 0.2 300 Off 60 100 100 440
5 2.3 100 Off 100 100 100 940
6 2.3 100 Off 60 70 70 440
7 2.3 300 On 100 100 70 440
8 2.3 300 On 60 70 100 940

Table 3 — Trial Parameters for Deposition of Inconel 718 on 316L Stainless Steel

Trial Factor
Force (N) Travel Speed (mm/min) Vibration Capacitance (F) Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V) Rotation Speed (%)
9 2.3 100 On 100 178 75 100
10 2.3 100 On 100 100 100 100
11 2.3 100 On 100 156 80 100

Results
Table 4 — Coefficient Statistics for Model in Equation 4

The optical images in Fig. 1A–H show representative
cross sections of the deposition and substrate according to
Trials 1–8 in Table 2. Figure 1I displays at higher magnifi-
cation the typical microstructure features that are common
in ESD coatings. The etchant made visible droplets, which
were transferred during ESD and were repeatedly layered
to build up the coating.
Deposition thickness data obtained from cross sections
is presented in Fig. 2. Trials 1, 5, and 8 all displayed a sig-
nificant buildup of deposited material and full coverage
along the deposition track. Trials 2, 3, 4, and 6 were no-
ticeably thinner with some regions having no deposition
coverage. On the other hand, Trial 7 showed a thin but
more consistent coverage along the entire cross section.
Deposition thickness data from Trials 9, 10, and 11 are
shown in Fig. 3, with all samples displaying a significant
buildup of deposited material comparable to Trials 1, 5,
and 8.
Measurements of defect quantity, however, did not
show notable differences between trials, with all samples
having an average area of defects below 1% — Fig. 4. This
is similar to previous studies, which used comparable pa-
rameters on a manually operated ESD system to obtain
good quality depositions with few defects (Refs. 18–20).
The main type of defect detected in this study is also simi-
lar to those previously reported, consisting primarily of Al-
and Ti-rich oxides (Fig. 5) with small quantities of Cr, Nb,
and Mo. The high standard free energy of formation for Al
and Ti oxides explains their prevalence in this phase (Ref.
21), with aggregation of these elements attributed to dif-
fusion while the transferred material was at elevated tem-
peratures. The extent of diffusion and the resulting quan-
tity of these phases has been shown to decrease with the
use of lower capacitance, voltage, or frequency, all of which
reduce the overall heat input (Ref. 22). A comparison of
the chosen electrical parameters in Table 1 to those stud-
Standard Error T Pooled p-values
Constant 76.836 –3.863 0.003
9.910 1.932 0.080
Force (F)
Travel Speed (TS) 0.104 –2.171 0.053
Capacitance (C) 0.520 3.144 0.009
Voltage (V) 0.694 5.119  0.001
ied in Ref. 22 suggests that an area of defects below 1% is
not unexpected.
For applications that require further defect reductions,
an increase in shielding gas flow rate or the use of multiple
shielding gas sources or a glovebox enclosure are expected
to lower the quantity of oxide inclusions that form. Very
few gas pores were identified, while lack of fusion defects
and cracks were mainly observed at the track ends. This is
attributed to changes in the arc gap at locations where the
electrode was brought into contact or removed from the
substrate.
For the deposition of Inconel 718 on 316L stainless steel,
the use of an SEM backscatter detector (Fig. 6) showed a
lighter coating — indicative of a material with higher atomic
number — and a dark substrate. In between was the pres-
ence of a region with an intermediate shade. This suggests
that a mixing zone (MZ) was formed due to substrate melt-
ing, which acted to dilute the Inconel 718 transferred from
the electrode. The use of EDX confirmed that the composi-
tion of the MZ was between that of Inconel 718 and 316L
stainless steel with respect to the Ni and Fe content and was
approximately 40 m in size.
The effect of the MZ on hardness is shown in Fig. 7A,
with a noticeably softer region within the coating that is not
present in the case of Inconel 718 deposited on Inconel 718
(Fig. 7B). Deposited material beyond the first 40 m dis-
played the expected hardness of Inconel 718. Both deposi-
tions shown in Fig. 7 resulted in some hardening of the sub-
strate, limited to approximately 100 m.

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 243-s

Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/7/21 3:25 PM Page 244
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 — SEM images and their respective EDX maps. A — An Al- and Ti-rich cracked oxide defect in ESD-processed Inconel 718;
B — a smaller intact oxide defect with similar composition.
Discussion
Influence of Process Parameters on
Thickness
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) method was used to de-
termine whether a statistically significant difference in the
mean deposition thickness existed. The nonpooled p-values
are shown in Fig. 8 and were used to discard factors clearly
did not provide a significant influence on deposition thick-
ness in the chosen process parameter range. These included
the rotation speed of the electrode (p = 0.146), frequency (p
= 0.593), and electrode vibration (p = 0.214). Once these
factors were pooled, the new p-values were compared. With
a threshold p-value of 0.1 indicating significance, voltage (p
< 0.001), capacitance (p = 0.009), travel speed (p = 0.053),
and force (p = 0.08) factors were significant in the range
studied. These four factors also provided a good balance be-
tween predictive ability and complexity for the regression
analysis, obtaining a predictive model with an adjusted R2
value of 0.73 that dropped to 0.60 when travel speed and
force were removed, but only increased to 0.77 when rota-
tion speed, frequency, and electrode vibration were includ-
ed. The significance of the parameters and their effect on
the response variable in the model can be seen in Fig. 8 and
Table 4. Voltage had a noticeably larger effect on the deposi-
Table 5 — Analysis of Variance Statistics for Model in Equation 4
df Sum of Squares
Model 4 77147.13
Error 11 19055.3
Total 15 96202.43
244-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
tion thickness when varying from the low to high setting
(106.5 m) when compared to the capacitance (65.4 m),
travel speed (45.2 m), and force (40.2 m).
Based on these results, Equation 4 can be expected to
predict deposition thickness (D) in units of m, where V is
the voltage in volts, C is capacitance in F, TS is the travel
speed in mm/min, and F is the force in newtons. As shown
in Table 5, 80% of the variability in deposition thickness is
explained by these four factors.
D = 3.55V + 1.64C – 0.23TS + 19.15F – 296.82 (4)
The electrospark deposition process has three primary
electrical parameters: voltage, capacitance, and frequency. An
increase in both voltage and capacitance parameters are ex-
pected to increase the ESD spark energy, according to the
equation for stored energy in a capacitor (Equation 1).
Greater spark energy has been shown to increase the deposi-
tion rate and mass transfer quantity (Ref. 23). This can be at-
tributed to higher temperatures and greater melting of the
electrode. The influence of voltage is greater than that of ca-
pacitance (Ref. 24), which can be attributed to the square de-
pendence of voltage — and only linear dependence of capaci-
tance — on energy output. The voltage further affects the arc
gap of the ESD process (Ref. 24) and the current peak of the
ESD discharge. The capacitance increases the net energy and
broadens the current peak, resulting in a longer arc duration.
Mean Square F p R2 Adj. R2
19286.78 11.13  0.01 0.80 0.73
1732.3 — — — —
— — — — —
Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 245

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 6 — A — SEM backscatter detector image of Inconel 718 deposited on 316L stainless steel; B — EDX composition results along
the line indicated in A.

A B

Fig. 7 — Microhardness measurements. A — Inconel 718 (IN718) deposited on 316L stainless steel (SS316L); B — Inconel 718 de-
posited on Inconel 718.

These findings are clearly seen in Fig. 8 and reflected in Equa- travel speed is expected to decrease material transfer due to
tion 4, where voltage and capacitance have a positive relation- faster heat dissipation (Ref. 25). As the electrode moves
ship with the deposition thickness. An increase in the fre- more quickly to a lower temperature region of the substrate,
quency of electrical discharge is also expected to increase the there is less heat buildup and less material melting than
deposition rate with a greater number of mass transfer would be expected from repeated discharges in one localized
events. A secondary effect of an increase in the frequency pa- area. This is reflected in Equation 4, with a negative rela-
rameter is greater heat buildup in both the electrode and sub- tionship between the travel speed and deposition thickness.
strate (Ref. 25), attributed to an increase in heat generation
without an equivalent increase in the rate of heat dissipation.
However, the present study found the chosen frequency range Table 6 — One-Way Welch’s ANOVA for the Effect of Vibration on
Force and the Standard Deviation of Force
typically used for deposition of Inconel 718 had no significant
effect on deposition thickness. This agrees with a previous
Group Descriptives One-Way ANOVA
study that found no difference in substrate mass change Vibration Factor Mean SD p-value
when varying frequency from 55 to 90 Hz (Ref. 25), although
another study that investigated higher frequencies from 200 Force Off 1.37 1.4733
On 1.375 1.337 0.996
Hz to 5 kHz reported a positive relation between frequency Std. Dev. Off 0.343 0.0768
and deposition thickness (Ref. 26). of Force On 0.762 0.0883  0.001
With respect to the mechanical parameters, an increased

JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 245-s

Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 4:03 PM Page 246
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 — Mean of means plots for the main factors with non-pooled p-values displayed.
Fig. 9 — Load cell readings from Trial 2 and Trial 4.
The distance between the electrode and substrate — con-
trolled by the force parameter — may change the electrical
discharge and mass transfer mechanism. Lower forces that
result in larger discharge gaps have shown increased mass
gain on the substrate (Refs. 25, 27), with contradicting re-
sults as to whether an increase in force increases or decreas-
es the substrate temperature (Refs. 25, 28). However, in the
current study, an unexpected relationship was obtained; a
greater force applied on the substrate by the electrode re-
sulted in a thicker deposition. This can be attributed to the
ESD process being effective within a narrow band of applied
electrode pressure, where no contact prevented the ESD cir-
cuit from discharging, and too high of a pressure resulted in
a short circuit contact and no sparking event. Other me-
chanical parameters, such as electrode vibration and elec-
trode rotation speed, which are used to prevent fusion of
the electrode to the substrate, did not measurably influence
the deposition thickness.
Some limitations to the study and findings are worth
identifying. As is typically the case with these experiment
designs, it is not prudent to extrapolate Equation 4 and the
relationships in Fig. 8 beyond the parameter ranges studied.
This is because depositions created with high process pa-
rameters were shown to have a maximum thickness, after
which erosion occured (Ref. 29). The existence of a maxi-
mum deposition thickness — or equivalently, a maximum
deposition time — was attributed to thermal-fatigue-
induced erosion of the workpiece that became more pro-
nounced as the deposition thickness increased (Ref. 30).
246-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
Measurements captured during ESD of the load cell sup-
porting the coating head revealed that electrode vibration may
influence the electrode force. An example is shown in Fig. 9,
where load cell readings from Trial 2 with electrode vibration
showed higher deviation from the set point than those of Trial
4 without electrode vibration. A one-way Welch’s ANOVA of
Trials 1–8 (Table 6) indicates vibration had no significant in-
fluence on the average force (p = 0.996). The force feedback
mechanism was able to maintain the desired average setpoint
regardless of the vibration setting. However, vibration did sig-
nificantly affect the standard deviation of the force (p <
0.001), confirming the observation in Fig. 9. A greater devia-
tion in force increases and decreases the distance between the
electrode and the substrate, leading to potential changes in the
mass transfer mechanism. However, vibration or force  vibra-
tion was not found to influence the deposition thickness with
statistical significance within the parameter range investigat-
ed. Qualitative analysis of the overall visual appearance of the
coatings did demonstrate an effect of the vibration  force in-
teraction on the localized buildups and overall surface rough-
ness of the coatings. Increased surface roughness was shown
in literature to not influence the average coating thickness or
deposition rate (Ref. 31), although a reduced roughness is ben-
eficial for the formation of uniform coatings that require less
post-processing and offer greater protection to the underlying
substrate.
Model Validation and Extension to 316L
Stainless Steel Substrates
A comparison of predicted and actual thicknesses based
on Equation 4 are shown in Fig. 10A to validate the suitabili-
ty of the obtained model. The closer the values are to the 45
deg line, the more accurate the thickness prediction. Predic-
tion quality is also quantified through the standardized
residuals in Fig. 10B, with positive residuals indicating a pre-
diction that was higher than the actual value and negative
residuals indicating a prediction that was lower.
The ability of Equation 4 to predict deposition thickness for
Inconel 718 on Inconel 718 was consistent across the entire
studied range, with similar residuals regardless of the predict-
ed thickness. The ability to predict thickness for the deposi-
tion of Inconel 718 on 316L stainless steel was also quite good,
Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 247
A B
Fig. 10 — A — Comparison of predicted and actual deposition thickness; B — the standardized residual of the predicted deposition
thickness.
with similar residuals to the initial trials. Overall, 91% of the
predicted deposition thicknesses fell within two standardized
residuals of the actual thicknesses. This was close to the ex-
pected result of 95% assuming a normal distribution, especial-
ly considering the small sample size of 11 data points. This
suggests that the model is useful for predicting the deposition
of Inconel 718 on nickel- and steel-based substrates. The phys-
ical reason for this is attributed to the small MZ identified in
Fig. 6, where the effect of the substrate material on the deposi-
tion was limited to the first few layers.
Within these layers, substrate melting was occurring, and
substrate erosion rates will differ depending on the substrate
material. However, after a certain deposition thickness, the de-
posited material and exposed top layer can be considered ef-
fectively the same material, and the deposition rates would be
similar for thicker coatings. Mechanical properties of these
coatings are also expected to be similar without significant in-
fluence from the substrate. Microhardness results in Fig. 7A
show that a reduction in hardness of the coating occured with-
in the 40 m MZ between Inconel 718 and SS316L, compara-
ble to results previously shown in literature for other material
combinations (Refs. 29, 30, 32). However, a comparison of Fig.
7A and B shows that the coating hardness of the upper layers
was similar regardless of the substrate composition. The limit-
ed dilution is promising for the dissimilar coating of Fe-based
parts with Ni-based superalloys, which can provide improved
surface properties at a lower cost than using a fully Ni-based
superalloy part.
Conclusions
The use of an automated ESD system for deposition of
Inconel 718 on similar (Inconel 718) and dissimilar (316L
stainless steel) substrates was demonstrated. The influence
of seven process parameters on the deposition rate were
studied using a fractional factorial design of experiment to
WELDING RESEARCH
make the coating of larger areas more feasible. The chosen
range of process parameters resulted in coatings with an av-
erage thickness of as little as 50 m to an average thickness
of 240 m, with four process parameters identified as the
most significant contributors to the variation in thickness.
The influence of Ni- or Fe-based substrates on the deposi-
tion rate and coating properties were also investigated, with
the regression model created for deposition on Inconel 718
also effective at predicting deposition thickness on 316L
stainless steel. The following conclusions were drawn from
the current study:
1) Of the seven process parameters studied, two electrical
factors (voltage and capacitance) and two mechanical factors
(force and travel speed) had a significant effect (p < 0.1) on
the deposition rate. Voltage, capacitance, and force were all
found to be positively correlated with the deposition rate,
while a higher travel speed resulted in thinner coatings.
Three factors (electrode rotation, electrode vibration, and
frequency) were not statistically significant within the pa-
rameter ranges investigated.
2) Electrode vibration was found to affect the standard
deviation of the measured force. This has implications for
coating roughness but did not influence the deposition rate.
3) A relationship between the significant process parame-
ters and deposition rate was successfully used to identify pa-
rameters that can more quickly produce Inconel 718 coating
thicknesses of approximately 200 m on both Inconel 718
substrates and 316L stainless steel substrates. No increase in
the rate of defects, which remained below 1% and were prima-
rily oxide inclusions, was observed when using higher deposi-
tion rates. Voltage, capacitance, force, and travel speed collec-
tively accounted for 80% of the variance observed in the depo-
sition thickness.
4) The difference between a Ni- and Fe-based substrate
was limited to the first 40 m of the deposit, in which a mix-
ing zone with a composition and hardness between that of In-
conel 718 and 316L stainless steel was formed. Outside of the
JULY 2021 / WELDING JOURNAL 247-s
Enrique 202053 Supplement.qxp_Layout 1 6/4/21 9:38 AM Page 248
WELDING RESEARCH
mixing zone, the coating composition matched that of In-
conel 718 and the substrate had no further influence on com-
position or properties of the coating regardless of thickness.
References
1. Donachie, M. J., and Donachie, S. J. 2002. Superalloys: A Tech-
nical Guide. ASM International.
2. Kumar, L. J., and Nair, C. G. K. 2017. Laser metal deposition
repair applications for Inconel 718 alloy. Materials Today: Proceed-
ings 4(10): 11068–11077.
3. Onuike, B., and Bandyopadhyay, A. 2019. Additive manufac-
turing in repair: Influence of processing parameters on properties
of Inconel 718. Materials Letters 252: 256–259. DOI:
10.1016/j.matlet.2019.05.114
4. Petrat, T., Graf, B., Gumenyuk, A., and Rethmeier, M. 2016.
Laser metal deposition as repair technology for a gas turbine burn-
er made of Inconel 718. Physics Procedia 83: 761–768. DOI:
10.1016/j.phpro.2016.08.078
5. Lambarri, J., Leunda, J., García Navas, V., Soriano, C., and
Sanz, C. 2013. Microstructural and tensile characterization of In-
conel 718 laser coatings for aeronautic components. Optics and
Lasers in Engineering 51(7): 813–821. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlaseng.
2013.01.011
6. Khan, M. S., Enrique, P., Song, G., Faria, M. I. S. T., and Zhou,
Y. 2020. Laser-assisted wire cladding using a retrofitted laser weld-
ing system. Surface Engineering 37(5): 634–641. DOI: 10.1080/
02670844.2020.1820266
7. Ramesh, C. S., Devaraj, D. S., Keshavamurthy, R., and Sridhar,
B. R. 2011. Slurry erosive wear behaviour of thermally sprayed In-
conel-718 coatings by APS process. Wear 271(9–10): 1365–1371.
DOI: 10.1016/j.wear.2011.01.057
8. Singh, R., Schruefer, S., Wilson, S., Gibmeier, J., and Vassen,
R. 2018. Influence of coating thickness on residual stress and adhe-
sion-strength of cold-sprayed Inconel 718 coatings. Surface and
Coatings Technology 350: 64–73. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2018.
06.080
9. Ma, W., Xie, Y., Chen, C., Fukanuma, H., Wang, J., Ren, Z.,
and Huang, R. 2019. Microstructural and mechanical properties of
high-performance Inconel 718 alloy by cold spraying. Journal of Al-
loys and Compounds 792: 456–467. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.
04.045
10. Stiglich, J., Campillo, B., Rosales, I., and Perez, R. 1999.
Wear characteristics of WC-6Co coating deposited using pulsed
electrode surfacing technique. Surface Engineering 15(4): 307–311.
DOI: 10.1179/026708499101516650
11. Goodall, G., Kaplin, C., and Brochu, M. 2011. Autogenous
electrospark deposition of NiCoCrAlY. Canadian Metallurgical Quar-
terly 50(2): 145–152. DOI: 10.1179/000844311X12949291727817
12. Liu, Y., Wang, D., Deng, C., Huo, L., Wang, L., and Fang, R.
2015. Study on fabrication of ceramic coatings on Ti-6Al-4V alloy
by combined ultrasonic impact treatment and electrospark. Surface
Engineering 31 (12): 892–897. DOI: 10.1179/1743294414Y.
0000000413
13. Gould, J. E., Ritzert, F. J., and Loewenthal, W. S. 2006. Pre-
liminary investigations of joining technologies for attaching refrac-
tory metals to Ni-based superalloys. AIP Conference Proceedings
813: 757–765. DOI: 10.1063/1.2169257
14. Reynolds, J. L., Holdren, R. L., and Brown, L. E. 2003. Electro-
spark deposition. Advanced Materials & Processes 161(3): 35–37.
15. Gould, J. 2011. Application of electro-spark deposition as a
joining technology. Welding Journal 90(10): 191-s to 197-s.
16. Peterkin, S. 2016. Electro-spark deposition machine design,
physical controls and parameter effects. Master’s diss., University
of Waterloo.
248-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2021, VOL. 100
17. Tang, S. K., Nguyen, T. C., and Zhou, Y. 2010. Materials trans-
fer in electro-spark deposition of TiCp/Ni metal-matrix composite
coating on Cu substrate. Welding Journal 89(8): 172-s to 180-s.
18. Enrique, P. D., Jiao, Z., and Zhou, N. Y. 2018. Effect of direct
aging on heat-affected zone and tensile properties of electrospark-
deposited Alloy 718. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 50:
285–294. DOI: 10.1007/s11661-018-4997-1
19. Enrique, P. D., Jiao, Z., Zhou, N. Y., and Toyserkani, E. 2018.
Dendritic coarsening model for rapid solidification of Ni-superalloy
via electrospark deposition. Journal of Materials Processing Technolo-
gy 258: 138–143. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.03.023
20. Enrique, P. D., Jiao, Z., Zhou, N. Y., and Toyserkani, E. 2018.
Effect of microstructure on tensile properties of electrospark depo-
sition repaired Ni-superalloy. Materials Science and Engineering A
729: 268–275. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2018.05.049
21. Reed, T. B. 1971. Free Energy of Formation of Binary Com-
pounds: An Atlas of Charts for High-Temperature Chemical Calcula-
tions. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
22. Felix, L. M., Kwan, C. C. F., and Zhou, N. Y. 2019. The effect
of pulse energy on the defects and microstructure of electro-spark-
deposited Inconel 718. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
50(9): 4223–4231. DOI: 10.1007/s11661-019-05332-8
23. Lešnjak, A., and Tušek, J. 2002. Processes and properties of
deposits in electrospark deposition. Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining 7(6): 391–396. DOI: 10.1179/136217102225006886
24. Kees, K. P. 1983. Hard-facing with electro-spark deposition.
Final report. Washington State Univ. DOI: 10.2172/5537601
25. Frangini, S., and Masci, A. 2010. A study on the effect of a
dynamic contact force control for improving electrospark coating
properties. Surface and Coatings Technology 204(16–17):
2613–2623. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.02.006
26. Wang, P. Z., Pan, G. S., Zhou, Y., Qu, J. X., and Shao, H. S.
1997. Accelerated electrospark deposition and the wear behavior of
coatings. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 6(6):
780–784. DOI: 10.1007/s11665-997-0081-5
27. Belik, V. D., Litvin, R. V., Kovalchenko, M. S., and Rogozin-
skaya, A. A. 2007. Effect of pulse duration and size of interelec-
trode interval on electrospark spraying. II. Effect of pulse duration
and size of interelectrode interval on composition and mechanical
properties of coatings. Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics
46(1–2): 95–99. DOI: 10.1007/s11106-007-0015-7
28. Belik, V. D., Litvin, R. V., and Kovalchenko, M. S. 2012. Effect
of substrate temperature on the electrospark deposition, structure,
and mechanical properties of coatings. I. Kinetics of substrate heating
during electrospark deposition. Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics
50(11–12): 698–703. DOI: 10.1007/s11106-012-9377-6
29. Vaidyanathan, S. 1970. Reducing wear of high-speed steel
cutting tools by spark hardening. Wear 16(4): 255–260. DOI:
10.1016/0043-1648(70)90249-8
30. Vaidyanathan, S., and Venkatesh, V. C. 1974. Improving
wear-resistance of high speed steel tools by carbide coating. Tribol-
ogy 7(2): 54–58. DOI: 10.1016/0041-2678(74)90033-5
31. Enrique, P. D., Keshavarzkermani, A., Esmaeilizadeh, R., Pe-
terkin, S., Jahed, H., Toyserkani, E., and Zhou, N. Y. 2020. Enhanc-
ing fatigue life of additive manufactured parts with electrospark
deposition post-processing. Additive Manufacturing 36: 101526.
DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101526
32. Kahlon, C. S., Baker, H. J., Noble, C. F., and Koenigsberger, F.
1970. Electric spark toughening of cutting tools and steel compo-
nents. International Journal of Machine Tool Design and Research
10(1): 95–121. DOI: 10.1016/0020-7357(70)90028-4
PABLO D. ENRIQUE and NORMAN Y. ZHOU are with the University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. STEPHEN PETERKIN
(speterkin@huysindustries.com) is with Huys Industries Ltd.,
Weston, Ontario, Canada.
Page C3 Arcos.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:39 AM Page C3
Page C4 Lincoln.qxp_FP_TEMP 6/6/21 9:42 AM Page C4