Chapter 8

Sequences and Series

8.1 Sequences: Introduction and basic definitions

In mathematics, a sequence is a list of objects which have been ordered in a sequential
fashion. This means that each member either comes before, or after, every other
member. The most basic example is the set of all natural numbers N.
More formally, a sequence is a function with a domain equal to the set of
integers N or positive integers N+ , depending on how we enumerate its members.
For example, the sequence of all even numbers 0, 2, 4, . . . can be enumerated in the
following ways:
a1 = 0, a2 = 2, . . . , an = 2(n − 1)
or alternatively
b0 = 0, b1 = 2, . . . , bn = 2n
.
In contrast to sets, in sequences the order of the elements does matter. For
example, the tenth even number a10 from the first representation gives 18, and from
the second b10 = 20.
Sequences like sets may be finite but also infinite. For example, the sequence
wels is finite with a1 = w, a2 = e, a3 = l and a4 = s. On the other hand, the
sequence of all even numbers is infinite.
A common way to denote a sequence is the term {an }. More precisely, if we
need to mark that the sequence is infinite we use the term {an }∞ 25
n=1 , and also {an }n=1
for denoting that the sequence is finite and contains 25 elements starting from 1.

93
94 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Definition: The sequence {an } is bounded above if and only if there exists a
number M , such that for any n ∈ N an ≤ M . The number M is called an upper
bound.

Definition: The sequence {an } is bounded below if and only if there exists a
number m, such that for any n ∈ N an ≥ m. The number m is called a lower bound.

Definition: The sequence {an } is bounded if and only if it is bounded above

and below.

For example, the sequence (1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3) is finite (containing nine el-

ements), bounded, having an upper bound 3 and a lower bound 1. In fact, any
number bigger than 3 is an upper bound and also any number smaller than 1 is a
lower bound for that sequence.

Definition: The sequence {an } is called increasing if and only if for any n ∈ N
an ≤ an+1 .

Definition: The sequence {an } is called strictly increasing if and only if for
any n ∈ N an < an+1 .

Definition: The sequence {an } is called decreasing if and only if for any n ∈ N
an ≥ an+1 .

Definition: The sequence {an } is called strictly decreasing if and only if for
any n ∈ N an > an+1 .
8.1. SEQUENCES: INTRODUCTION AND BASIC DEFINITIONS 95

Definition: The sequence {an } is called monotonic if and only if it is either

increasing or decreasing.

For example, considering the natural numbers as a sequence, we notice that

it is bounded below, increasing, strictly increasing and monotonic. It is possible to
construct sequences which are at the same time increasing and also decreasing; such
are the constant sequences, (5, 5, 5, 5) or (5, 5, 5, 5, . . . ). They are monotonic as well.
However, it is not possible to construct a sequence which is at same time strictly
increasing and decreasing.

1. Compute the first six elements of each of the following sequences.

Are the sequences bounded?

1. an = n2 − 3n

2. an = n2 + n − 1

3. an = 2n

4. an = 3n2 + 1
n+2
5. an = 3n−4

3n−1
6. an = n+4

2n−1
7. an = n2

n−5
8. an = n2

(−1)n ·n
9. an = n+1

2. Compute the first five elements of each of the following sequences.

Are the sequences monotonic?

1. a1 = 3, an+1 = an − 4
96 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

2. a1 = 8, an+1 = an · 3

3. a1 = 1, an+1 = 1 − an

3. Are the sequences monotonic?

5n−2
1. an = 3n+4

3n+2
2. an = 2−5n

4+2n
3. an = 3n−2

n
4. an = 2n+1

5n+1
5. an = 3n−2

1−2n
6. an = n

8.2 Limit of a sequence

In mathematics, the limit of a sequence is the value that the terms of a sequence
tend to. If such a limit exists, the sequence is called convergent. A sequence that
does not converge is said to be divergent.

Definition: We call a the limit of the sequence {an } if and only if for any
real number  > 0 , there exists a natural number n0 such that, for every natural
number n ≥ n0 , we have |an − a| < .
In other words, for every measure of closeness , the sequence’s terms are
eventually that close to the limit. The sequence {an } is said to converge to or tend
to the limit a, written an → a, or limn→∞ an = a.
8.2. LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE 97

Some basic limit computations include the following:

1
lim =0
n→∞ n

1
lim =0
n→∞ n2

lim 2 = 2
n→∞

lim n =↑
n→∞

lim n2 =↑
n→∞

For example, limn→∞ (1 − n1 ) = 1. This is because the term 1

n
is getting smaller
and smaller when n gets bigger, i.e., n1 → 0.
In many situations finding a limit of a sequence is not obvious or in some
situations difficult. However, if the elements a sequence may be defined as a fraction
of polynomials then defining its limit is very easy. Let is consider the following
example:

3
2n + 3 2+ n 2
lim = lim 4 =
n→∞ 3n + 4 n→∞ 3 + 3
n
.
In fact, such observation may be applied even if the two polynomials are of a
different degree. Let is consider the following example:

2n + 3 0n2 + 2n + 3 0
lim = lim = =0
n→∞ 3n2 + 4 n→∞ 3n2 + 4 3
.
If however, the degree of the upper polynomial is higher that the lower, then
there is no limit and the sequence is divergent.
98 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

4. Find the limit for each of the sequences in case of convergence:

n+2
1. an = 2n+1

2n+1
2. an = 3n−1

2−n
3. an = n+3

5−4n
4. an = 2n+4

n2 −1
5. an = n2 +1
n
6. an = n2 +1

n2 −2
7. an = 2n−1

n3 +2n−3
8. an = n−1

(n−2)2
9. an = n2 +3

In order to explore the properties of a sequence, we would be interested not

only on its limit if convergent, but also on finding relevant upper and lower bounds.
For that purpose, for a given sequence {an } we may apply the following strategy:

1. determine the limit a if the sequence is convergent;

2. find max/min elements of the sequence;

3. explore and prove {an } be increasing/decreasing.

For example, consider the sequence an = 1 − n1 . We first observe the it is

convergent with limit a = 1. We now compute a couple of initial elements:

a1 = 0,
1
a2 = ,
2
2
a3 = ,
3
3
a4 = ,
4
8.2. LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE 99

4
a5 = .
5
From here we conjecture that {an } is increasing with minimal element a1 = 0 and
also never exceeding its limit a = 1. In order to prove our conjecture, we need to
prove that {an } is increasing:
an+1 > an
if and only if
1 1
1− >1−
n+1 n
if and only if
n+1−1 n−1
>
n+1 n
if and only if
n n−1
>
n+1 n
if and only if
n2 (n + 1)(n − 1)
>
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)
if and only if
n2 > n2 − n + n − 1
which is true for any n.
Based on the above observation and proof, we conclude that the sequence
{1 − n1 } has an upper bound 1 and a lower bound 0.

5. Verify whether the given numbers are upper/lower bounds for

the corresponding sequences:
2n−1 13 4
1. an = ; ,
3n+1 20 5
8n+1
2. an = 6n−3
; 1 21 , 1
6n−2
3. an = 4n+1
; 1, 1 43
3n−1
4. an = ; 8,7
4n+1 11 4
3n−1 13 5
5. an = ; ,
2n−1 18 4
100 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

6. Find upper and lower bounds for each of the sequences:

3n−1
1. an = n+1
n
2. an = 2n+1

4n−1
3. an = 1−2n

8.3 Arithmetic and Geometric sequences

Definition: An arithmetic sequence (arithmetic progression) is a sequence of num-
bers such that the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a con-
stant. It is often denoted as ·· an . The difference d is determined as d = an+1 − an .

For arithmetic sequences it is easy to see the explicit relationship an = a1 +

(n − 1)d.

7. For each of the following sequences find its closed form represen-
tation, i.e., define an explicitly. Compute their 10th and 110th elements.

1. 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .

2. 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .

3. 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .

4. 2, 7, 12, 17, . . .
8.3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 101

8. For each of the following sequences find the first element a1 and
the difference d.

1. an = 2n + 1

2. an = 7n − 2

3. an = 21 n + 3
−1 7
4. an = 10
n + 10

9. For each of the following sequences find its closed form represen-
tation, i.e., define an explicitly.

1. a1 = 15, a4 = 30

2. a4 = 19, a10 = 49

3. a6 = −13, a10 = −17

4. a8 = 5.6, a10 = 6

10. Prove that the sum of any three consecutive elements of an

arithmetic sequence of natural numbers is divisible by three.

With the following corollary we point to various properties of arithmetic se-

quences.
Corollary: For any arithmetic sequence an = a1 + n · d, the following hold:

• is bounded below and unbounded above if d > 0;

• is unbounded below and bounded above if d < 0;

• is bounded below and above if d = 0;

102 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

• is strictly increasing if d > 0;

• is strictly decreasing if d < 0;

• is constant if d = 0;

• is convergent if d = 0;

Definition: A geometric sequence (geometric progression) is a sequence of

numbers such that the quotient of any two successive members of the sequence is a
constant. It is often denoted as ···· an . The quotient q is determined as q = an+1
an
.

For geometric sequences it is easy to see the explicit relationship an = a1 · q n−1 .

11. For each of the following sequences find its closed form represen-
tation, i.e., define an explicitly. Compute their 10th and 110th elements.

1. 1, 2, 4, 8, . . .

2. 1, 21 , 14 , 18 , . . .

3. 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .

4. 1, −1, 1, −1, . . .

12. For each of the following sequences find the first element a1 and
the quotient q.

1. an = 3 · 2n

2. an = 5 · 3n

3. an = 1.5 · (−0.5)n
8.3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 103

4. an = −2 · 1.2n

13. For each of the following sequences find its closed form repre-
sentation, i.e., define an explicitly.

1. a1 = 1, q = 2

2. a1 = 3, q = 3

3. a1 = 6, q = 0.1

4. a2 = 81, q = 3

5. a1 = 98, a2 = 686

With the following corollary we point to various properties of geometric se-

quences.
Corollary: For any arithmetic sequence an = a1 · q n , the following hold:

• is strictly monotonic increasing if q > 1;

• is strictly monotonic decreasing if 0 < q < 1;

• is constant if q = 1;

• is bounded if |q| ≤ 1;

• is not bounded if |q| > 1;

• is convergent with limit 0 if |q| < 1;

• is divergent if |q| > 1;

• is convergent with limit a1 if q = 1;

• is divergent if q = −1.
104 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

14. For each of the following sequences decide whether bounded,

increasing/decreasing, and convergent.

1. an = 3 · 0.5n

2. an = −2 · 1.5n

3. an = 1.3 · 2n−1

8.4 Finite Series

A series is, informally speaking, the sum of the terms of a sequence. If the sequence
is finite, then the sum of the elements is also a finite number,

S = a1 + a2 + · · · + an .

(a1 +an )n
Corollary: For any arithmetic sequence S = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 2
.

15. For each of the following series find the sum.

1. 1 + 2 + · · · + 11

2. 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 23

3. 1 + 4 + 7 + · · · + 25

4. (−1) + (−2) + · · · + (−33)

5. 7 + 9 + 11 + · · · + (t − 2) + t
8.5. INFINITE SERIES 105

16. Prove each of the following statements without using a master-

theorem.

n(n+1)
1. 1 + 2 + · · · + n = 2

2. 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n = n(n + 1)

3. 4 + 8 + 12 + · · · + 4n = 2n(n + 1)

4. 10 + 20 + · · · + 10n = 5n(n + 1)

Corollary: For any geometric sequence with q 6= 1 S = a1 + a2 + · · · + an =

n −1
a1 qq−1 .

17. For each of the following series find the sum.

1. 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 1024

2. 1 + 3 + 9 + · · · + 310

3. 4 + 4 · 5 + 4 · 52 + · · · + 4 · 510

8.5 Infinite Series

If the sequence is infinite, it is still possible in some cases obtaining a finite number
as the sum of all the elements.
For example, imagine, we start serving pieces of pizza in one plate following
the procedure:

1
1. 2
pizza; then we add
1
2. 4
pizza; then we add
106 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

1
3. 8
pizza; then we add
4. . . .

Following that procedure we will not manage to serve the whole pizza in finitely
many steps.
first piece

50 %

3.125 %
6.25 % fifth piece
25 %
12.5 %
forth piece
second piece
third piece

However, after infinitely many steps we will obtain the whole pizza.

As we already mentioned, a series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. That

is, it is an expression of the form a1 + a2 + · · · where {an } is possibly an infinite
sequence of real numbers.

Definition: The partial sums of a series are the expressions:

S1 = a1
S 2 = a1 + a2
Sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an
The partial sums themselves form a sequence {Sn }, which is called the sequence of
partial sums.
8.5. INFINITE SERIES 107

Definition: If the sequence of partial sums converges, then we say that the
series ∞
P
a
n=1 n is convergent, and the limit limN →∞ SN is called the value of the
series.

P∞ We use the same notation to denote a series and its value, i.e. we write
n=1 an = limN →∞ SN .

P∞ Corollary: If a geometric sequence is convergent, i.e. |q| < 1, then the series
1
a
n=1 n = lim S
N →∞ N = a 1 1−q .

18. For each of the following series find the sum if convergent.

1. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + . . .

2. 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + . . .

3. 4 + 4 · 5 + 4 · 52 + · · · + 4 · 510 + . . .

4. 1 + 21 + 14 + 81 + . . .

5. 1 + (− 12 ) + 14 + (− 18 ) + . . .

6. 1 + (−1) + (−1)2 + (−1)3 + . . .

108 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

8.6 Solutions to selected problems

15. Find the sum of the series: 7 + 9 + 11 + · · · + (t − 2) + t

Solution: As we see, t must be an odd number with t ≥ 7 and the sum shall
depend on that parameter t. We know that for any arithmetic sequence
(a1 +an )n
S = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 2
.
t−7 t−5
In our case we have a1 = 7, an = t and n = 2
+1 = 2
. Then for the sum
we obtain:

(7 + t)( t−5
2
) (t + 7)(t − 5) t2 + 2t − 35
S= = = .
2 4 4
Let us check if that formula for the sum S is reasonable for a couple of values
of the parameter t.
t = 7, S = 7
49 + 14 − 35 28
S= = =7
4 4
t = 9, S = 7 + 9
81 + 18 − 35 64
S= = = 16
4 4
t = 11, S = 7 + 9 + 11
121 + 22 − 35 108
S= = = 27
4 4

t = 13, S = 7 + 9 + 11 + 13
169 + 26 − 35 160
S= = = 40
4 4