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S e s s io n 12

S o il Im p ro v e m e n t — S ta te - o f- th e - A r t R e p o rt

A m é lio ra tio n d e s S o ls

J.K. MITCHELL Professor and Chairman of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

SYNOPSI S Because of t he i ncr easi ng need t o ut i l i ze mar gi nal si t es and because many soi l s
can be made i nt o usef ul const r uct i on mat er i al s i f pr oper l y t r eat ed, soi l i mpr ovement has become a
par t of many pr esent day ci vi l engi neer i ng pr oj ect s. I n t hi s st at e- of - t he- ar t r epor t t he pr i nci ­
pl es, appl i cat i ons, and desi gn pr ocedur es f or soi l i mpr ovement usi ng di f f er ent met hods ar e pr esent ed.
Soi l i mpr ovement met hods r evi ewed i ncl ude i n- si t u deep compact i on of cohesi onl ess soi l s, pr ecom­
pr essi on wi t h and wi t hout ver t i cal dr ai ns, i nj ect i on and gr out i ng, admi xt ur e st abi l i zat i on, t her mal
met hods, and soi l r ei nf or cement . Compr ehensi ve r ecent r ef er ences on each t opi c ar e l i st ed.

I NTRODUCTI ON r epor t i s on pr act i cal aspect s of soi l i mpr ove­

Most of man' s const r uct i on i s done on, i n, or
wi t h soi l . As t he avai l abi l i t y of sui t abl e con­
st r uct i on si t es decr eases, t he need t o ut i l i ze
poor soi l s f or f oundat i on suppor t and ear t hwor k
const r uct i on i ncr eases. I n addi t i on, i t i s
becomi ng i ncr easi ngl y necessar y t o st r engt hen
t he gr ound under exi st i ng st r uct ur es t o i nsur e
st abi l i t y agai nst adj acent excavat i on or t unnel ­
i ng, or t o i mpr ove r esi st ance t o sei smi c or
ot her speci al l oadi ngs. Fur t her mor e, many hun­
dr eds of r ecent successf ul pr oj ect s have shown
t hat t hr ough t he use of sui t abl e r ei nf or cement
mat er i al s and syst ems, t he uses of nat ur e' s
most abundant const r uct i on mat er i al — soi l - - can
be gr eat l y ext ended. I t i s not ‘sur pr i si ng,
t her ef or e, t hat t he gener al ar ea of soi l i mpr ove­
ment and r ei nf or cement has been of gr eat i nt e­
r est and r api d devel opment i n t he past sever al
year s. The i ncl usi on of t hi s t opi c f or t he
f i r st t i me as a mai n sessi on i n an I nt er nat i onal
Conf er ence of our Soci et y i s cl ear r ecogni t i on
of t hi s f act .
The basi c concept s of soi l i mpr ovement ; namel y,
dr ai nage, densi f i cat i on, cement at i on, r ei n­
f or cement , dr yi ng, and heat i ng, wer e devel oped
hundr eds or t housands of year s ago and r emai n
val i d t oday. The comi ng of machi nes i n t he
19t h cent ur y r esul t ed i n vast i ncr eases i n bot h
t he quant i t y and qual i t y of wor k t hat coul d be
done. Among t he most si gni f i cant devel opment s
of t he past 50 year s ar e t he i nt r oduct i on of
vi br at or y met hods f or densi f i cat i on of cohesi on-
l ess soi l s, new i nj ect i on and gr out i ng mat er ­
i al s and pr ocedur es, and new concept s of soi l
r ei nf or cement .
The pur pose of t he pr esent r epor t i s t o synt he­
si ze t he pr esent st at e- of - t he- ar t of soi l
i mpr ovement i nt o a f or m sui t abl e f or di r ect
appl i cat i on by pr act i ci ng engi neer s. At t he
same t i me t he aut hor has at t empt ed t o i dent i f y
suf f i ci ent r ef er ences t hat i nt er est ed r eader s
wi l l be abl e t o l ocat e mor e det ai l ed i nf or ma­
t i on, case hi st or i es, et c. Emphasi s i n t hi s
ment , t o i ncl ude such consi der at i ons as soi l
t ypes best sui t ed f or t r eat ment , ef f ect i ve
t r eat ment dept hs, pr oper t i es of t r eat ed soi l s,
maj or appl i cat i ons, and r el at i ve cost s. Because
of t he ext ensi ve scope of t he subj ect t he i n­
cl usi on of det ai l ed case hi st or i es i s not
possi bl e.
METHODS AND SCOPE
The Conf er ence Or gani zi ng Commi t t ee has i dent i ­
f i ed t he f ol l owi ng t opi cs f or di scussi on i n
Sessi on 12, so t hey have been chosen f or cover ­
age i n t hi s st at e- of - t he- ar t r epor t .
1. Compact i on, especi al l y heavy t ampi ng and
bl ast i ng. Emphasi s i s on i n- si t u deep
densi f i cat i on of cohesi onl ess soi l s, and
compact i on i n t hi n l ayer s i s excl uded.
2. Consol i dat i on by pr el oadi ng and/ or ver t i cal
dr ai ns, el ect r o- osmosi s.
3. Gr out i ng, excl udi ng cont r ol of gr oundwat er
f l ow and seepage.
4. Soi l st abi l i zat i on usi ng admi xt ur es and by
i on exchange ( chemi cal st abi l i zat i on) .
Emphasi s i s on new devel opment s and appl i ca­
t i ons ot her t han subgr ades and base cour ses
f or r oads and ai r f i el ds.
5. Ther mal st abi l i zat i on.
6. Rei nf or cement of soi l . Emphasi s i s on t he
i ncl usi on dur i ng const r uct i on or i nst al l a­
t i on i n- si t u of bot h t ensi l e and compr es­
si on r ei nf or cement el ement s. Geot ext i l es
used as r ei nf or cement ar e i ncl uded.
The r epor t concl udes wi t h a t abul ar summar y of
t he met hods di scussed and consi der at i on of
f act or s gover ni ng t he choi ce of a met hod f or any
gi ven case.

509
DEEP COMPACTI ON OF COHESI ONLESS SOI LS
I nt r oduct i on
Thi ck deposi t s of l oose cohesi onl ess soi l s may
r equi r e i mpr ovement s i n or der t o el i mi nat e t he
subsequent devel opment of excessi ve t ot al and
di f f er ent i al set t l ement s and t o mi ni mi ze t he pos­
si bi l i t y f or l i quef act i on under dynami c l oadi ng.
Sui t abl e i mpr ovement can be achi eved i n many
cases by densi f i cat i on; however , t he needed
densi f i cat i on cannot or di nar i l y be achi eved
usi ng pr el oad sur char ge f i l l s or compact i on at
t he sur f ace. I n- si t u densi f i cat i on of l oose,
cohesi onl ess soi l l ayer s i s usual l y done by
dynami c met hods. I n many met hods dynami c l oad­
i ng i s accompani ed by di spl acement i n t he f or m
of t he i nser t i on of a pr obe and/ or const r uct i on
of a sand or gr avel col umn i n- si t u.
Met hods t hat ar e used f or t he i n- si t u deep den­
si f i cat i on of cohesi onl ess soi l s i ncl ude bl ast ­
i ng, vi br ocompact i on, and heavy t ampi ng.
Vi br ocompact i on i s used her ei n t o r ef er col ­
l ect i vel y t o al l t hose met hods i nvol vi ng t he i n­
ser t i on of vi br at i ng pr obes i nt o t he gr ound wi t h
or wi t hout t he addi t i on of a backf i l l mat er i al .
Compact i on pi l es ar e al so consi der ed i n t hi s
cat egor y. The abi l i t y of any of t hese met hods
t o accompl i sh t he needed i mpr ovement i n pr oper ­
t i es depends on sever al f act or s, i ncl udi ng:
1. Soi l t ype, especi al l y i t s gr adat i on and
f i nes cont ent
2. Degr ee of sat ur at i on and wat er t abl e
l ocat i on
3. I ni t i al r el at i ve densi t y
4. I ni t i al i n- si t u st r esses
5. I ni t i al soi l st r uct ur e, i ncl udi ng t he
ef f ect s of age, cement at i on, et c.
6. Speci al char act er i st i cs of t he met hod
used.
Mechani sm of Densi f i cat i on
Densi f i cat i on of cohesi onl ess soi l l ayer s wi t h
accompanyi ng i mpr ovement i n mechani cal pr oper ­
t i es r equi r es f i r st t hat t he i ni t i al soi l st r uc­
t ur e be br oken down so t hat par t i cl es can be
moved t o new packi ng ar r angement s. I n sat ur at ed
cohesi onl ess mat er i al s t hi s i s most r eadi l y
accompl i shed by i nduci ng l i quef act i on by means
of dynami c and cycl i c l oadi ngs. I n t he case of
met hods such as bl ast i ng and heavy t ampi ng t he
compr essi on wave gener at ed by t he sudden l ar ge
ener gy r el ease can gi ve an i mmedi at e bui l d- up i n
por e wat er pr essur e whi ch gr eat l y r educes t he
shear st r engt h. Thi s wave i s f ol l owed by a
shear wave whi ch i s r esponsi bl e f or f ai l ur e of
t he mass. Af t er passage of t hese waves t he soi l
par t i cl es set t l e i nt o new and, ul t i mat el y, mor e
st abl e posi t i ons. Vi br ocompact i on met hods ar e
ef f ect i ve i n much t he same way, except t hat t he
ener gy per event i s many t i mes smal l er , t he
vi br at i ons cont i nue over a much l onger per i od,
and t he ef f ect s ar e f el t t o di st ances f r om t he
ener gy sour ce of one t o t wo met er s i nst ead of
up t o 10 m or mor e as i s t he case wi t h bl ast i ng
and heavy t ampi ng.
For par t l y sat ur at ed soi l s, i ncl udi ng some con­
510
t ai ni ng f i nes and many wast e f i l l s, densi f i ca­
t i on i s mai nl y by col l apse of t he soi l st r uct ur e
and escape of gas f r om t he voi ds. The pr ocess
i s much t he same as densi f i cat i on by i mpact com­
pact i on as commonl y done i n t he l abor at or y.
Densi f i cat i on accompanyi ng gr ound t r eat ment by
t hese met hods occur s r api dl y. Set t l ement of t he
gr ound sur f ace i s essent i al l y compl et e by t he
end of t r eat ment . I mpr ovement i n pr oper t i es, as
measur ed, f or exampl e, by penet r at i on t est s or
pr essur emet er t est s, may cont i nue over ext ended
t i me per i ods. Thi s l at t er poi nt may be of con­
si der abl e pr act i cal i mpor t ance i n t he eval uat i on
of gr ound t r eat ment .
Exper i ence has i ndi cat ed t hat i t i s of t en easi er
t o densi f y t o a speci f i ed hi gh r el at i ve densi t y
f r om a l oose i ni t i al condi t i on t han f r om an
i nt er medi at e r el at i ve densi t y. Thi s i s because
t he i ni t i al st r uct ur e of t he l oose mat er i al i s
easi er t o br eak down.
Soi l Type Consi der at i ons
Vi br ocompact i on met hods ar e best sui t ed f or den­
si f i cat i on of cl ean, cohesi onl ess soi l s.
Exper i ence has shown t hat t hey ar e gener al l y
i nef f ect i ve when t he per cent age by wei ght of
f i nes ( par t i cl es f i ner t han 200 mesh si eve or
0. 074. mm di amet er ) exceeds 20 t o 25. Thi s i s
because t he per meabi l i t y of mat er i al s cont ai n­
i ng gr eat er per cent ages of f i nes i s t oo l ow t o
al l ow t he r api d dr ai nage of por e wat er t hat i s
r equi r ed f or densi f i cat i on f ol l owi ng l i quef ac­
t i on under t he act i on of t he vi br at or y f or ces,
and because t he st r uct ur e may be mor e di f f i cul t
t o di sr upt owi ng t o cohesi on cont r i but ed by t he
f i nes.
Some soi l s cont ai ni ng gr eat er amount s of f i nes;
e. g. , some si l t y sands and l oess, can be densi -
f i ed by bl ast i ng and/ or heavy t ampi ng, bot h of
whi ch i mpar t l ar ge amount s of ener gy al l at once
and cause l ar ge gr ound di spl acement s. Mor e
speci f i c consi der at i ons concer ni ng t he i n­
f l uences of soi l t ype ar e pr esent ed i n t he di s­
cussi on of par t i cul ar met hods. For pr el i mi nar y
pl anni ng, however , i t may be consi der ed t hat t he
r ange of par t i cl e si ze di st r i but i ons shown by
Fi g. 1 wi l l be best sui t ed f or densi f i cat i on by
deep i n- si t u met hods.
Eval uat i on of Tr eat ed Gr ound
Measur ement of t he ef f ect i veness of deep com­
pact i on can be made usi ng one or mor e of sever al
met hods. Techni ques t hat have been used i ncl ude:
1. Sur f ace set t l ement mar ker s
2. Vol ume of soi l added t o f i l l cr at er s, t o
f or m compact i on pi l es, or t o car r y out a
vi br ocompact i on pr ocess
3. St andar d Penet r at i on Test s ( SPT)
4. Cone Penet r at i on Test s ( CPT)
5. Pr essur emet er Test s (PMT)
6. Sei smi c shear wave vel oci t y det er mi nat i ons
7. Pi l e dr i vi ng r esi st ances
8. Pl at e l oad t est s
 S a nd

i
M os t Des ira bl e Size Range
(Vibroflotation)
U. 40
Thorburn (1975)

5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.005

P a rtic le Size - mm

Fi g. 1 Range of Par t i cl e Si ze Di st r i but i ons Sui t abl e f or Densi f i cat i on by Vi br ocompact i on

9. Down- hol e densi t y met er s.
Set t l ement measur ement s and SPT, CPT, or PMT ar e
t he most commonl y used met hods. The CPT i s
par t i cul ar l y usef ul because i t pr ovi des a con­
t i nuous r ecor d of penet r at i on r esi st ance wi t h
dept h, i t i s f ast , and i t i s wel l - sui t ed f or use
i n sands. Penet r at i on t est s f or eval uat i on of
i mpr oved gr ound ar e usual l y done at l ocat i ons
i nt er medi at e bet ween pr obe poi nt s i n or der t o
pr ovi de t he most conser vat i ve est i mat e of
i mpr ovement .
Penet r at i on r esi st ance val ues, bot h bef or e and
af t er gr ound i mpr ovement , ar e of t en conver t ed
t o r el at i ve densi t i es usi ng one or mor e of
sever al cor r el at i ons t hat have been devel oped
f or par t i cul ar condi t i ons. Desi gn cr i t er i a and
speci f i cat i ons ar e many t i mes devel oped i n t er ms
of r el at i ve densi t y. A di r ect conver si on of a
penet r at i on r esi st ance t o r el at i ve densi t y i s
uncer t ai n, however , because penet r at i on r esi s­
t ance depends on f act or s ot her t han densi t y.
The cor r el at i ons ar e not i ndependent of soi l
t ype. I ncr eased l at er al pr essur e, i ncr eased
t i me under pr essur e, i ncr eased st abi l i t y of
st r uct ur e, and pr i or sei smi c st r ai ns l ead t o
i ncr eased penet r at i on r esi st ance ( Seed, 1979) .
For t unat el y, t hese l at t er f act or s al so l ead t o
cor r espondi ng i ncr eases i n r esi st ance t o set t l e­
ment and l i quef act i on, and i t i s t he penet r at i on
r esi st ance val ues t hemsel ves t hat ar e i mpor t ant ,
not t he act ual r el at i ve densi t y. I t has been
f ound conveni ent f or some appl i cat i ons, however ,
t o wor k wi t h an " equi val ent r el at i ve densi t y"
whi ch i s t he t r ue r el at i ve densi t y a sand deposi t
woul d have t o possess t o exhi bi t t he measur ed
penet r at i on r esi st ance i f i t wer e f r eshl y
deposi t ed and nor mal l y consol i dat ed.
Appr oxi mat e cor r el at i ons bet ween equi val ent
penet r at i on r esi st ance, sand densi t y and pr oper ­
t i es per t i nent t o t he assessment of f oundat i on
st abi l i t y ar e gi ven i n Tabl e I .
I n a f ew cases i nst r ument at i on has been used t o
moni t or condi t i ons dur i ng densi f i cat i on. Tot al
pr essur e cel l s and pi ezomet er s have pr ovi ded dat a
usef ul f or devel opi ng i mpr oved under st andi ng of
t he densi f i cat i on and pr oper t y i mpr ovement
pr ocess.
Bl ast i ng
Deep compact i on by det onat i on of bur i ed expl o­
si ves can pr ovi de a r api d, l ow cost means f or
soi l i mpr ovement i n some cases. The gener al
pr ocedur e consi st s of :
1. I nst al l at i on of pi pe by j et t i ng, vi br at i on,
or ot her means t o desi r ed dept h of char ge
pl acement
2. Pl acement of char ge i n pi pe
3. Backf i l l i ng t he hol e
4. Det onat i on of char ges accor di ng t o a pr e-
est abl i shed pat t er n.
I n some cases t he pi pe i s wi t hdr awn pr i or t o
det onat i on of t he char ges. I n ot her s i t i s
r ecl ai med af t er t he bl ast , a new sect i on i s
wel ded t o t he bot t om, and i t can be used agai n.
The expl osi ves used i ncl ude dynami t e, TNT, and
ammoni t e. Det ai l ed descr i pt i ons of bl ast i ng ar e
gi ven by Pr ugh ( 1963) , I vanov ( 1967) , Mi t chel l
( 1970) , Li t vi nov ( 1973, 1976) , Dami t i o ( 1970-
72) , Donchev ( 1980), and ot her s.

511
 TABLE I

Penetration Resistance and Sand Properties

Ver y Loose Medi um Dense Ver y

Loose Dense Dense

SPT N- val ue < 4 4- 10 10- 30 30- 35 > 50

( bl ows/ 0 . 3m) *
CPT cone r esi st ance <50 50- 100 100- 150 150- 200 >200
( kg/ cm2) *
Equi val ent Rel at i ve <15 15- 35 35- 65 65- 85 85- 100
Densi t y ( %) **
Dr y Uni t Wei ght <14 14- 16 16- 18 18- 20 > 20
( kN/ m3)
Fr i ct i on Angl e (° ) <30 30- 32 32- 35 35- 38 > 38
Cycl i c St r ess Rat i o
Causi ng Li quef act i on <0. 04 0. 04- 0. 10 0. 10- 0. 35 >0. 35
( T/ ao ' ) ***

* At an ef f ect i ve ver t i cal over bur den pr essur e of 100 kPa.

* * Fr eshl y deposi t ed, nor mal l y consol i dat ed sand.
* * * Fr om Seed ( 1979) , Fi g. 6( a) .

Sat ur at ed, cl ean sands ar e wel l - sui t ed f or den­
si f i cat i on by bl ast i ng. Success i n any case
depends on t he abi l i t y of t he shock wave gene­
r at ed by t he bl ast t o br eak down t he i ni t i al
st r uct ur e, and cr eat e a l i quef act i on condi t i on
f or a suf f i ci ent per i od t o enabl e par t i cl es t o
r ear r ange t hemsel ves i n a denser packi ng. It
f ol l ows, t her ef or e, t hat t he st r onger t he sand
i ni t i al l y, t he l ar ger t he char ges t hat wi l l be
r equi r ed f or ef f ect i ve densi f i cat i on. Thus, t he
gr eat er t he dept h t o whi ch densi f i cat i on i s
needed and t he hi gher t he i ni t i al equi val ent
r el at i ve densi t y, t he gr eat er t he expl osi ve
ener gy r equi r ed.
Ther e appear t o be no gener al l y accept ed t heo­
r et i cal desi gn pr ocedur es f or densi f i cat i on by
bl ast i ng, and f i el d t r i al s ar e usual l y used
pr i or t o pr oduct i on bl ast i ng. A number of f i el d
cases have been summar i zed by I vanov ( 1967) i n­
vol vi ng t r eat ment dept hs up t o 20 m. Fr om t hese
exper i ences t he f ol l owi ng gener al gui del i nes
emer ge :
1. Char ge si ze: <1 t o 12 kg
2. Dept h of bur i al : >1/ 4 dept h t o bot t om
of l ayer t o be t r eat ed; 1/ 2 t o 3/ 4 of
dept h common
3. Char ge spaci ng i n pl an: 5- 15 m
4. Number of cover ages: 1- 5 wi t h 2- 3 usual .
Each cover age consi st s of a number of
i ndi vi dual char ges. Successi ve cover ages
ar e usual l y separ at ed by hour s or days.
5. Tot al expl osi ve use:
30 gm/ m3 t ypi cal
8- 150 gm/ m3, 10-
6. Sur f ace set t l ement : 2 t o 10% of l ayer
t hi ckness.
The maxi mum dept h t o whi ch bl ast i ng can be used
successf ul l y f or soi l compact i on i s not known.
The aut hor i s cur r ent l y associ at ed wi t h a
pr oj ect i n whi ch char ges of up t o 30 kg have
been det onat ed at dept hs mor e t han 40 m bel ow
gr ound sur f ace. Si gni f i cant sur f ace set t l ement s
and i mpr ovement i n t he equi val ent r el at i ve
densi t y of l oose zones at dept hs gr eat er t han
30 m have been achi eved. An i nt er est i ng f eat ur e
of t hi s wor k i s t he obser vat i on t hat al t hough
sur f ace set t l ement i s i mmedi at e, whi ch means
t hat densi f i cat i on i s al so essent i al l y i mmedi at e,
r esul t s of cone penet r at i on t est s do not i ndi ­
cat e an i ncr ease i n equi val ent r el at i ve densi t y
t o t he r equi r ed val ue f or sever al weeks, r ef l ec­
t i ng an agi ng or heal i ng ef f ect f ol l owi ng di s­
r upt i on of t he i ni t i al st r uct ur e and f or mat i on
of a new one.
I t woul d be expect ed t hat t he maxi mum dept h f or
ef f ect i ve t r eat ment wi l l be l i mi t ed by t he pr ac­
t i cal di f f i cul t y of pl aci ng concent r at ed char ges
of suf f i ci ent magni t ude t o cr eat e a shock wave
gr eat enough t o l i quef y t he i ni t i al soi l st r uc­
t ur e. As t he dept h i ncr eases, so do t he ef f ec­
t i ve st r esses and st r engt h. Accor di ngl y, t he
r equi r ed di sr upt i ve st r ess wi l l i ncr ease, and
t he ef f ect i ve r adi us of i nf l uence wi l l decr ease.
The magni t udes of t he shock wave pr essur e, Pmax
i n kg/ cm2 , and t he i mpul se per uni t ar ea, I , i n
kg- sec/ cm2 , ar e gi ven by I vanov ( 1967) as f ol l ows
hC/171
- k- I J S I 111

512
 1 =k2(iF)(3liF)U
2 (2>
i n whi ch C = si ze of char ge ( kg of TNT)
R = di st ance f r om cent er of
char ge (m)
y , U = empi r i cal coef f i ci ent s f r om
Tabl e I I .
These r el at i onshi ps can be used f or compar at i ve
st udi es of t he pr obabl e i nf l uences of char ge
si ze, char ge spaci ng, and sand sat ur at i on. It
may be seen t hat t he pr esence of even smal l
amount s of gas l eads t o si gni f i cant dampi ng of
t he P- wave pr essur e.
I t has been possi bl e by bl ast i ng t o densi f y
sands t o equi val ent r el at i ve densi t i es of 75 t o
80 per cent . I n some cases, however , t he r esul t s
may be er r at i c, i ni t i al l y dense zones may be
l oosened, and t he met hod i s not l i kel y t o be
ef f ect i ve i n t he upper one or t wo met er s bel ow
t he gr ound sur f ace. Typi cal behavi or may be
summar i zed as f ol l ows.
1. Al most i mmedi at e set t l ement of t he gr ound
sur f ace, wi t h l i t t l e f ur t her set t l ement
wi t h t i me.
2. I ni t i al l y l oose zones show l i t t l e i mmedi at e
change i n penet r at i on r esi st ance. Penet r a­
t i on r esi st ance i ncr eases sl owl y wi t h t i me
unt i l af t er sever al weeks t he mat er i al
i ndi cat es a mar ked i mpr ovement i n pr oper t i es
compar ed t o i t s i ni t i al condi t i on.
3. Zones whi ch ar e i ni t i al l y ver y dense may be
per manent l y l oosened or weakened by t he
bl ast ; however , t he r esul t ant condi t i on i s
st i l l l i kel y t o be sat i sf act or y.
4. Ul t i mat el y, an ef f ect i ve bl ast i ng pr ogr am
r esul t s i n a deposi t i n whi ch al l t he i ni t ­
i al l y l oose zones have been sui t abl y
i mpr oved.
When a ser i es of cover ages i s used, t he sur f ace
set t l ement accompanyi ng each cover age i s usual l y
l ess t han t he one pr ecedi ng.
At t empt s have been made t o compact usi ng sur f ace
expl osi ons, because of si mpl i ci t y, l ow cost , and
speed. Because of ener gy l oss above gr ound,
l ack of conf i nement , and t he f or mat i on of sur f ace
depr essi ons, however , t hi s met hod has been of
l i mi t ed ef f ect i veness.
A hydr o- bl ast i ng t echni que has been used ver y
successf ul l y and economi cal l y f or compact i on of
col l apsi bl e l oess deposi t s ( Li t vi nov, 1973, 1976;
Donchev, 1980) . Al t hough col l apse of t he l oess
can of t en be accompl i shed by f l oodi ng al one, i t
has been f ound t hat mor e uni f or m r esul t s can be
achi eved mor e qui ckl y and economi cal l y by t hi s
met hod. The pr ocedur e, whi ch i s i l l ust r at ed i n
Fi g. 2, consi st s of f i r st cut t i ng a cont our
t r ench 0. 2 m t o 0. 4 m wi de and sever al met er s
deep ar ound t he per i met er of t he ar ea t o be
densi f i ed. Bor ehol es spaced a f ew met er s apar t
i n a gr i d pat t er n ar e t hen used t o pump wat er
i nt o t he l oess, over a per i od of sever al days,
i deal l y unt i l t he wat er cont ent i s i ncr eased t o
above t he l i qui d l i mi t . Sl ur r y wal l s or pl ast i c
membr anes can be i nst al l ed t o pr event l at er al
mi gr at i on of t he wat er and sof t eni ng of adj acent
gr ound.
Expl osi ve char ges of about 5 kg each ar e t hen
i nser t ed down t ubes i nst al l ed at spaci ngs of
t hr ee t o si x met er s i n gr i d pat t er ns and det on­
at ed. Sur f ace set t l ement s of up t o 10 per cent
of t he l ayer t hi ckness and r educt i on i n por osi t y
of sever al per cent age poi nt s ar e not uncommon.
Ar eas of 1000 m2 t o 10, 000 m2 i nvol vi ng 10, 000-
100, 000 m3 of l oess can be t r eat ed at one t i me.
Successf ul compact i on of sat ur at ed sand and
col l apsi bl e l oess has been accompl i shed i n t he
USSR usi ng hi gh ener gy, hi gh vol t age el ect r i cal
di schar ges f r om pr obes i nser t ed i n t he gr ound
( Lomi ze et al . , 1963, 1973) . Each di schar ge,
whi ch may r el ease 50 t o 100 kj of ener gy, has an
ef f ect si mi l ar t o t hat of an expl osi on of com­
par abl e magni t ude. A number of di schar ges ar e
r el eased spaced at i nt er val s of sever al seconds
at each l evel as t he pr obe i s moved upwar ds f r om
t he bot t om. I t appear s t hat use of t hi s met hod
has not yet been wi del y adopt ed.

TABLE I I
Par amet er s f or Est i mat i ng Bl ast Pr essur es and I mpul se Val ues
( f r om I vanov, 1967)

Gas Cont ent

(%) kl yl k2 y2

Sand bel ow wat er t abl e 0 600 1. 05 0. 080 1. 05

0. 05 450 1. 5 0. 075 1. 10
1 250 2. 0 0. 045 1. 25
4 45 2. 5 0. 040 1. 40
Moi st sand ( 8- 10% wat er ) - 7. 5 3. 0 0. 035 1. 50
( 2- 4% wat er ) - 3. 5 3. 3 0. 032 1. 50

34. V o ly m e 4 513
 15 Hz and a ver t i cal ampl i t ude of 10- 25 mm.
About 15 pr obes per hour can be done at
spaci ngs of 1 t o 3 m. I t i s of mar gi nal
ef f ect i veness i n t he upper 3 t o 4 m of t he
zone t o be densi f i ed.
Vi br o- r ods devel oped by Sai t o ( 1977) , Fi g. 3,
ar e al so dr i ven usi ng a vi br at or y pi l e dr i v­
i ng hammer . Sever al cycl es of i nser t i on and
wi t hdr awal ar e used i n t he densi f i cat i on
pr ocess.
I 300 |

Uncom pacted Uncompacted

Soils Compacted Area Soils

Section A-A

Fi g. 2 Loess Compact i on by Hydr o- Bl ast i ng

Vi br ocompact i on and Compact i on Pi l es

These met hods f or deep compact i on of cohesi on-
l ess soi l s ar e char act er i zed by t he i nser t i on
of a cyl i ndr i cal or t or pedo- shaped pr obe i nt o
t he gr ound f ol l owed by compact i on by vi br at i on
dur i ng wi t hdr awal . I n a number of t he met hods
a gr anul ar backf i l l i s added so t hat a compact ed
sand or gr avel col umn i s l ef t behi nd wi t hi n a
vol ume of sand compact ed by vi br at i on. Si nki ng
of t he pr obe t o t he desi r ed t r eat ment dept h i s
usual l y accompl i shed usi ng vi br at or y met hods,
of t en suppl ement ed by wat er j et s at t he t i p.
I nj ect i on of ai r at t he same t i me has been f ound
t o f aci l i t at e penet r at i on t o l ar ge dept hs. Up­
war d di r ect ed wat er j et s al ong t he si des has
al so been f ound hel pf ul i n some cases. Soi l
gr adat i ons sui t abl e f or densi f i cat i on by vi br o­
compact i on ar e i ndi cat ed i n Fi g. 1. Compact i on
pi l es of sand and gr avel f or med by t hese met hods ( a ) D o u b le T u b e R od (b ) R o d W ith P r o je c t iv e s
ar e al so used i n sof t cohesi ve soi l s, i n whi ch
case t hey f unct i on as compr essi on and shear
r ei nf or cement , as di scussed i n a l at er sect i on
of t hi s r epor t . Gr ound t r eat ment dept hs of 20 m Fi g. 3 Vi br o- Rods Used f or Sand Densi f i cat i on
can be achi eved r out i nel y by t hese met hods. ( f r om Sai t o, 1977)
Dept hs i n excess of 30 m can be at t ai ned i n some
cases.
A br i ef descr i pt i on of some of t he mor e ext en­ 2. Vi br of l ot at i on
si vel y used vi br o- compact i on met hods i s gi ven
bel ow. Thi s met hod was devel oped i n Ger many al most
50 year s ago, and i t s devel opment has con­
1. Vi br at i ng Pr obes t i nued t her e and i n t he U. S. A. wher e i t was
i nt r oduced i n t he 1940' s. The equi pment
The Ter r apr obe met hod, devel oped i n t he consi st s of t hr ee mai n par t s: t he Vi br at or ,
U. S. A. ( Ander son, 1974) , uses a Fost er Vi br o- ext ensi on t ubes, and a suppor t i ng cr ane. A
dr i ver pi l e hammer on t op of a 0. 76 m di a. schemat i c di agr am of t he equi pment and
open t ubul ar pr obe ( pi pe pi l e) t hat i s 3 t o pr ocess i s gi ven i n Fi g. 4. The vi br at or i s
5 m l onger t han t he desi r ed penet r at i on a hol l ow st eel t ube cont ai ni ng an eccent r i c
dept h. The uni t oper at es at a f r equency of wei ght mount ed on a ver t i cal axi s i n t he

514
 M o to r
V ib r a to r

E X T E N S IO t

T U B E S

Su PPi r OP B
G R AN U LA R
C a s in g
pi pe
L S O IL M A T E R IA .

Z^W/ T"
c o mp a c t e d
W A T E R
. 4 ZO N E
S U P P LY

W A T E R SU PPLY

C O H E S IO N L E S S S O IL

Fi g. 5 Const r uct i on of Compact i on Pi l es by

l ower par t so as t o gi ve a hor i zont al t he Compozer Syst em
vi br at i on. Vi br at or di amet er s ar e i n t he
r ange of 350 t o 450 mm and t he l engt h i s
about 5 m i ncl udi ng a speci al f l exi bl e ver t i cal vi br at i on of a vi br at or y dr i vi ng
coupl i ng. One vi br at or wei ghs about 20 k N. hammer and t he hor i zont al vi br at i on of a
Uni t s devel opi ng cent r i f ugal f or ces up t o Vi l ot dept h compact or . The Vi l ot i s a
160 kN and var i abl e vi br at i on ampl i t udes of speci al pr obe of about t he same si ze as
up t o 25 mm ar e avai l abl e. Most usual vi br of l ot uni t s. Sand backf i l l i s used, but
oper at i ng f r equenci es ar e 30 Hz and 50 Hz. wat er i s not used i n ei t her t he si nki ng or
The ext ensi on t ubes have a sl i ght l y smal l er compact i on pr ocess.
di amet er t han t he vi br at or and a l engt h
dependent on t he dept h of penet r at i on The gr adat i on of bot h t he i n- si t u soi l and t he
r equi r ed. backf i l l , whi ch may or may not be t he same
mat er i al , i nf l uence t he l evel of i mpr ovement t hat
Vi br of l ot si nki ng r at es of 1 t o 2 m/ mi n and may be obt ai ned. Coar se sands gi ve gr eat er
wi t hdr awal / compact i on r at es of about densi f i cat i on t han f i ne sands, evi dent l y because
0. 3 m/ mi n ar e t ypi cal . Wat er pr essur es of t he coar ser mat er i al i s bet t er abl e t o t r ansmi t
up t o 0. 8 MPa and f l ow r at es up t o 3, 000 vi br at i ons. Br own ( 1977) has def i ned a sui t ­
1/ mi n may be used t o f aci l i t at e penet r at i on. abi l i t y number f or vi br of l ot at i on backf i l l s t hat
Sand backf i l l i s consumed at a r at e of up t o i s gi ven by
1. 5 m3/ m dur i ng t he compact i on pr ocess. The
zone of i mpr oved soi l ext ends f r om 1. 5 m t o Sui t abi l i t y 1. 7 (3)
4 m f r om t he vi br at or , dependi ng upon soi l Number (D2 0 <D io)2
t ype and vi br of l ot power . Addi t i onal det ai l s '

ar e pr esent ed by Baumann and Bauer ( 1974) ,

Bel l ( 1975) , and Br own ( 1977) , among ot her s. i n whi ch D^g, D20 » and ar e t he 50, 20, and 10
per cent si ze gr ai n di amet er s i n mm. Cor r espond­
3. Vi br o- Compozer Met hod i ng sui t abi l i t y number s and backf i l l r at i ngs ar e
Thi s sand compact i on pi l e met hod was deve­ 0 - 10 Excel l ent
l oped by Mur ayama i n Japan i n 1958 ( Mur ayama, 10 - 20 Good
1958) . The appar at us and pr ocedur e used i n 20 - 30 Fai r
t he compozer syst em ar e shown schemat i cal l y 30 - 50 Poor
i n Fi g. 5. A casi ng pi pe i s dr i ven t o t he > 50 Unsui t abl e
desi r ed dept h by a vi br at or at t he t op. A
sand char ge i s t hen i nt r oduced i nt o t he The l ower t he sui t abi l i t y number t he f ast er t he
pi pe, t he pi pe i s wi t hdr awn par t way whi l e vi br of l ot can be wi t hdr awn whi l e st i l l achi evi ng
compr essed ai r i s bl own down i nsi de t he accept abl e compact i on.
casi ng t o hol d t he sand i n pl ace. The pi pe
i s vi br at ed down t o compact t he sand pi l e The i nf l uence of f i nes on t he l evel of i mpr ove­
and enl ar ge i t s di amet er . The pr ocess i s ment t hat can be obt ai ned by vi br ocompact i on i s
r epeat ed unt i l t he pi pe r eaches t he gr ound shown cl ear l y by t he dat a i n Fi g. 6 ( Sai t o,
sur f ace. The r esul t i ng pi l e i s usual l y 600 1977) . The dat a pr ovi de excel l ent suppor t f or
t o 800 mm i n di amet er . The act ual di amet er t he r ul e of t humb t hat vi br ocompact i on i s i n­
can be est i mat ed f r om t he sand vol ume di s­ ef f ect i ve i n soi l s cont ai ni ng mor e t han 20 per ­
char ged i nt o t he gr ound. cent f i nes. Bhandar i ( 1977) descr i bes a case i n
whi ch compact i on pi l es l ed t o soi l densi f i cat i on
4. Soi l Vi br at or y St abi l i zi ng Met hod onl y i n zones wher e t he f i nes cont ent was l ess
t han 20 per cent .
Thi s met hod, t er med bot h t he SVS met hod and
t he Toyomenka met hod, combi nes bot h t he

515
 1/ 2
40 it ( 1 + e )
o
S = 1. 08 ( 5)

• f o r p i l e s i n a t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n , Fi g. 7 ( b ) , i n
wh i c h d i s t h e s a n d p i l e d i a me t e r ( up t o 8 0 0 mm) .

<?
a ro v e m e n t

-t
>

3
An i n f l u e n c e c u r v e me t h o d t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o

\
<D 30
e s t i ma t e v i b r o f l o t a t i o n p r o b e s p a c i n g s t o g i v e
A3 • \ / a s p e c i f i e d mi n i mu m r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y i s g i v e n b y
>
\ * • Br o wn ( 19 77) . Br o wn ' s c u r v e s a r e b a s e d o n t h e
p r o c e d u r e d e v e l o p e d b y D' Ap p o l o n i a ( 1953) .
• • y *
4in
—■ 20
c
3
O
O
£
o
25
. * .
10 V * •

------------- ft
T " * - (b ) T r ia n g u la r P a tte rn
B e f o r e irr p r o v e m e n t
. ...

10 20 30
Fi g. 7 Us u a l Vi b r o c o mp a c t i o n a n d
%
F in e r f r a c t i o n : < 7 4 /* Co mp a c t i o n Pi l e Pa t t e r n s

Fi g . 6 Ef f e c t o f Fi n e s Co n t e n t o n I n c r e a s e Emp i r i c a l d e s i g n c u r v e s f o r v i b r o c o mp a c t i o n h a v e
i n Pe n e t r a t i o n Re s i s t a n c e b y Vi b r o ­ b e e n d e v e l o p e d by Th o r b u r n ( 1975) . Fi g . 8 i s a
c o mp a c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o f a
( f r o m Sa i t o , 1977)

I n s o me i n s t a n c e s p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e s a r e s o
h i g h f o l l o wi n g d e n s i f i c a t i o n b y v i b r o c o mp a c t i o n
t h a t r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s g r e a t e r t h a n 100 p e r c e n t
ar e i ndi c at ed ac c or di ng t o c onv ent i onal c or r e­
l at i ons . I n r e a l i t y , h o we v e r , t h i s r e s u l t i s i n
mo s t i n s t a n c e s c a u s e d b y t h e i n c r e a s e d l a t e r a l
pr es s ur e i nduc ed by t he v i br at i on p r o c e s s .
I n - s i t u l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e me a s u r e me n t s r e p o r t e d
b y Sa i t o ( 1977) y i e l d e d v a l u e s o f Kq a s h i g h as
6 i n s o me z o n e s a f t e r d e n s i f i c a t i o n .

Vi b r o c o mp a c t i o n o f l a r g e a r e a s i s d o n e i n a g r i d
p a t t e r n , e i t h e r t r i a n g u l a r or r e c t a n g u l a r , wi t h
pr o b e s p a c i n g s u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e of 1. 5 m t o
3 m on c ent er s . Th e a c t u a l s p a c i n g s d e p e n d o n
t he s oi l an d b a c k f i l l t y pes , pr o b e t y pe and
e n e r g y , a n d l e v e l o f i mp r o v e me n t r e q u i r e d .
Al t h o u g h f i e l d t e s t s a r e u s u a l l y d o n e t o f i n a ­
l i z e d e s i g n s , t h e r e a r e s o me g u i d e l i n e s t h a t c a n
b e u s e f u l i n p r e l i mi n a r y s t u d i e s .

If i t i s des i r ed t o i nc r eas e t he av er age dens i t y

of l oos e s and f r om an i n i t i al v o i d r a t i o e 0 t o a
v oi d r a t i o e, a n d i f i t i s a s s u me d t h a t i n s t a l ­
l at i o n o f a s a n d p i l e c a u s e s c o mp a c t i o n o n l y i n
a l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n , t h e p i l e s p a c i n g s ma y b e
det e r mi n e d u s i n g

1/2
( 4)

S p o c in g s o f C e n te rs o f V i b r a t i o n - m

Fi g . 8 Re l a t i v e De n s i t y o f Cl e a n Sa n d at Po i n t s
f or s and pi l es i n a s quar e pat t er n. Fi g . 7( a) ,
Mi d wa y Be t we e n Ce n t e r s o f Vi b r a t i o n as a
and
F u n c t i o n o f Pr o b e Sp a c i n g ( Th o r b u r n , 1975)

516
c l e a n s a n d a t p o i n t s mi d wa y b e t we e n t h e c e n t e r s
of pr obe poi n t s and pr o b e s pac i ng. An y r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p s u c h a s t h i s wi l l d e p e n d t o s o me e x t e n t o n
s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y p a r t i c l e s i z e,
wa t e r t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h e a mp l i t u d e a n d
f r equenc y of t he v i br at or . A r el at i ons hi p
b e t we e n a l l o wa b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e t o l i mi t
s e t t l e me n t s t o 25 mm a n d p r o b e s p a c i n g i s g i v e n
i n Fi g. 9. He r e a g a i n i t mu s t b e r e a l i z e d t h a t
f o r t h e s a me r e a s o n s s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
s u i t a b l e o n l y f o r p r e l i mi n a r y d e s i g n .
S p a c in g s o f C e n te r s o f V i b r a t io n - m
Fi g . 9 Al l o wa b l e Be a r i n g Pr e s s u r e as a
Fu n c t i o n o f Pr o b e Sp a c i n g f or
Fo o t i n g s Ha v i n g Wi d t h s Va r y i n g
f r o m On e t o Th r e e Me t e r s
( Th o r b u r n , 1975)
L i k e b l a s t i n g , v i b r o c o mp a c t i o n c a n l o o s e n v e r y
d e n s e z o n e s a n d b r e a k u p we a k l y c e me n t e d l a y e r s .
Al t h o u g h t h e s t r e n g t h o f s u c h z o n e s wi l l t h e r e ­
f o r e b e d e c r e a s e d , t h e y wi l l u s u a l l y s t i l l be
s u f f i c i e n t l y d e n s e a n d s t r o n g f o r t h e p r o j e c t at
hand. Al s o , as o b s e r v e d f o r s a n d s d e n s i f i e d b y
b l a s t i n g a n d b y h e a v y t a mp i n g , t h e p e n e t r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e ma y i n c r e a s e wi t h t i me a f t e r t r e a t ­
me n t , e v e n t h o u g h d e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d s u r f a c e s e t ­
t l e me n t a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o mp l e t e a t t h e e n d o f
t r e a t me n t . Ex p e r i e n c e a t t h e Kwi n a n a Te r mi n a l i n
We s t e r n Au s t r a l i a ( Co n t r a c t i n g a n d Co n s t r u c t i o n
En g i n e e r , 1974) i s a g o o d c a s e i n p o i n t . At
t h i s s i t e 1 2 , 5 0 0 v i b r o f l o t a t i o n p r o b e s we r e
ma d e f u l l d e p t h i n t o a s a n d d e p o s i t a b o u t 25 m
t hi c k . Co n e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s
i n c r e a s e d b y 10 t o 15 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e t h r e e
we e k s f o l l o wi n g t r e a t me n t .
Wh e n c o a r s e s a n d s o r g r a v e l s a r e u s e d a s b a c k ­
f i l l ma t e r i a l s f o r v i b r o c o mp a c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t i n g
p i l e s c a n a c t as d r a i n s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h i g h
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y r e l a t i v e t o t he s u r ­
r o u n d i n g s and. As s u c h , t h e y ma y s e r v e t o d i s ­
s i pat e por e pr es s ur es f r om pot ent i al l y l i que-
f i abl e depos i t s and t her eby pr ev ent l i quef ac t i on.
A me t h o d f o r d e s i g n i n g g r a v e l d r a i n s y s t e ms f o r
t h i s p u r p o s e i s g i v e n b y Se e d a n d Bo o k e r ( 1977) .
I t i s i mp o r t a n t t o n o t e i n s u c h s y s t e ms t h a t t h e
us e of d r a i n s t o p r e v e n t l i q u e f a c t i o n under
s e i s mi c l o a d i n g d o e s n o t e l i mi n a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r s e t t l e me n t .
He a v y T a mp i n g
So i l c o mp a c t i o n b y h e a v y t a mp i n g i n v o l v e s
r e p e a t e d d r o p p i n g o f h e a v y we i g h t s o n t o t h e
gr ound s ur f ac e. Th e me t h o d i s a l s o t e r me d
d y n a mi c c o mp a c t i o n , d y n a mi c c o n s o l i d a t i o n , or
poundi ng. Th e t e c h n i q u e as d e v e l o p e d i n i t s
p r e s e n t f o r m f o r i mp r o v e me n t o f l a r g e a r e a s t o
d e p t h s o f u p t o 30 m wa s p i o n e e r e d b y Me n a r d
( Menar d, 1 9 7 4 ; Me n a r d a n d Br o i s e , 1 9 7 5 ) . Wh e n
ap p l i e d t o p a r t l y s a t u r a t e d s oi l s , t he d e n s i f i ­
c a t i o n p r o c e s s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a me a s t h a t
f o r i mp a c t ( Pr o c t o r ) c o mp a c t i o n i n t h e l a b o r a ­
t or y . I n t he c as e of s a t u r a t e d c o h e s i o n l e s s
s oi l s l i q u e f a c t i o n c a n be i nduc ed, an d t he
d e n s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s i s s i mi l a r t o t h a t
a c c o mp a n y i n g b l a s t i n g a n d v i b r o c o mp a c t i o n . Th e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e me t h o d i n s a t u r a t e d , f i n e ­
g r a i n e d s oi l s i s unc er t ai n; b ot h s uc c e s s e s and
f ai l ur es hav e been r epor t ed. I t wo u l d a p p e a r
t h a t i n s u c h ma t e r i a l s a b r e a k d o wn i n t h e s o i l
s t r u c t u r e , t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f e x c e s s p o r e wa t e r
p r e s s u r e s , a n d t h e f o r ma t i o n o f d r a i n a g e
c h a n n e l s b y f i s s u r i n g ma y b e r e q u i r e d . He a v y
t a mp i n g h a s b e e n e s p e c i a l l y e f f e c t i v e f o r c o m­
p a c t i o n o f wa s t e a n d r u b b l e f i l l s . Amo n g
r e c e n t r e f e r e n c e s wh i c h p r o v i d e d e t a i l s o f t h e
me t h o d a n d c a s e h i s t o r i e s a r e Bh a n d a r i ( 1977) ,
Bo z k o e t al . ( 1 976) , Ch a r l e s ( 1981) , Ha n s b o
( 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ) , Kr u t o v e t al . ( 1978) , L e o n a r d s
e t al . ( 1980) , L u k a s ( 1980) , Mé n a r d ( 1974) ,
Me n a r d a n d Br o i s e ( 1975) , Mi n k o v e t al . ( 1980) ,
Zh e n g e t al . ( 1980) .
Th e p o u n d e r s u s e d f o r h e a v y t a mp i n g ma y be
c onc r et e bl oc k s , s t eel pl at es , or t hi c k s t eel
s h e l l s f i l l e d wi t h c o n c r e t e o r s a n d a n d ma y
r a n g e f r o m o n e o r t wo u p t o 2 0 0 t o n s i n we i g h t .
Dr o p h e i g h t s u p t o 4 0 m h a v e b e e n u s e d . Th e
pounder s ar e us ual l y s quar e or c i r c ul ar i n pl an
a n d h a v e d i me n s i o n s o f u p t o a f e w me t e r s
d e p e n d i n g o n we i g h t r e q u i r e d , ma t e r i a l , and t he
d y n a mi c b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y a t t h e s u r f a c e of t he
g r ound t o be t r eat ed. Mo r e s t r e a ml i n e d s hapes
h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r u n d e r wa t e r t a mp i n g .
Fo r l a r g e a r e a c o mp a c t i o n s e v e r a l r e p e t i t i o n s at
p o i n t s s p a c e d s e v e r a l me t e r s a p a r t i n a g r i d
p at t er n ar e appl i ed. A t y p i c a l t r e a t me n t wi l l
r e s u l t i n a n a v e r a g e o f 2 t o 3 b l o ws / m2 . An
i l l u s t r a t i o n of a t y pi c al gr i d pat t e r n and
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e q u i p me n t i s s h o wn i n Fi g . 10.
T wo o r t h r e e c o v e r a g e s o f a n a r e a ma y be
r e q u i r e d , s e p a r a t e d b y t i me i n t e r v a l s d e p e n d e n t
o n t h e r a t e o f d i s s i p a t i o n o f e x c e s s p o r e wa t e r
pr es s ur e and s t r engt h r egai n. Th e g e n e r a l
r e s p o n s e o f t h e g r o u n d as a f u n c t i o n o f t i me
a f t e r a c o v e r a g e i s s h o wn i n Fi g . 11. T h e t i me
i n t e r v a l r e q u i r e d b e t we e n c o v e r a g e s ma y r a n g e
517
 (Î ) Ap p l i e d e n e r g y i n t m/ m2
( 2) Vo l u me v a r i a t i o n wi t h t i me
( 3) Ra t i o o f p o r e - p r e s s u r e t o i n i t i a l
ef f ec t i v e s t r es s
Fi g . 10 I l l u s t r a t i o n of He a v y T a mp i n g
@ Va r i a t i o n o f bear i ng c apac i t y

T i me b e t we e n p a s s e s v a r i e s f r o m o n e t o f o u r we e k s
f r o m day s f or f r eel y d r a i n i n g c oa r s e s ands t o a c c o r d i n g t o t he s oi l t y pe.
we e k s f or f i n e r - g r a i n e d s o i l s . Th e g r o u n d s u r ­
f a c e i s u s u a l l y l e v e l l e d b e t we e n c o v e r a g e s . To Fi g. 11 Gr o u n d Re s p o n s e wi t h Ti me Af t e r
i n s u r e u n i f o r mi t y a n d h i g h d e n s i t y i n t h e n e a r Su c c e s s i v e Co v e r a g e s o f Dy n a mi c
s u r f a c e z one, s u r f a c e " i r on i n g " i s us ed. Sma l l Co n s o l i d a t i o n
i mp a c t s b y t h e p o u n d e r a r e ma d e o v e r t h e e n t i r e
s ur f ac e. Su r f a c e s e t t l e me n t s ma y b e f r o m t wo t o ( Me n a r d a n d Br o i s e , 1975)
f i v e p e r c e n t of t he t hi c k n e s s of t he z one bei ng
dens i f i ed per c ov er age.
ac hi ev ed. Me n a r d a n d Br o i s e ( 1975) pr opos ed
Zh e n g e t al . ( 1980) d e t e r mi n e d t h e " e f f e c t i v e t hat
d e f o r ma t i o n , " d e f i n e d as t h e v o l u me of c r a t e r
l e s s t h e v o l u me o f a d j a c e n t h e a v e f r o m d i s ­ D = / WH- ( 6)
p l a c e d s o i l , f o r s u c c e s s f u l d y n a mi c c o n s o l i d a ­
t i o n of a s o f t t o me d i u m s t i f f c l a y a n d a u n i ­ wh e r e D = ma x i mu m d e p t h o f i n f l u e n c e , m
f or m f i ne s and. I n t h e c l a y t h e d e f o r ma t i o n wa s W = f a l l i n g we i g h t , me t r i c t o n s
30 p e r c e n t e f f e c t i v e , a n d i n t h e s a n d i t wa s H = h e i g h t of d r o p , m.
62 p e r c e n t e f f e c t i v e .
Leonar ds et al . ( 1980) anal y z ed s ev en c as es and
Wh e n h e a v y t a mp i n g i s u s e d t o p r e p a r e g r o u n d f o r c onc l uded
s u p p o r t o f r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t ( l ow r i s e) s t r u c ­
t u r e s o n s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s , t r e a t me n t i s s o me ­ D = 1/ 2 / WÌ T ( 7)
t i me s ma d e o n l y a t f o o t i n g l o c a t i o n s . Th i s c a n
b e a n e c o n o mi c a l a n d e f f e c t i v e me a n s f o r mi n i ­ wa s mo r e appr opr i at e, and L u k a s ( 1980) c onc l uded
mi z i n g t o t a l a n d d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e me n t s . t hat

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t wh e n t h i s me t h o d i s b e i n g D = ( 0. 65 t o 0. 80) / WÌ T ( 8)
c o n s i d e r e d ar e t he d e p t h of i n f l u e n c e and t he
l e v e l o f p r o p e r t y i mp r o v e me n t t h a t ma y b e

518
wa s b e s t s ui t ed f or t he ei ght c as es
hi m.
Cl e a r l y , t h e d e p t h o f i n f l u e n c e s h o u l d d e p e n d o n
f a c t o r s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i mp a c t e n e r g y . So i l
t y p e mi g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o b e t h e mo s t i mp o r t a n t .
A c r ane d r o p i s l es s e f f i c i e n t t han a f r ee dr op.
Th e p r e s e n c e o f s o f t l a y e r s h a s a d a mp i n g i n ­
f l u e n c e o n t h e d y n a mi c f o r c e s . De f i n i t i o n o f
dept h of i nf l uenc e i s i t s el f s ubj ec t i v e and
d e p e n d s b o t h o n t h e me t h o d o f me a s u r e me n t a n d
t h e e n g i n e e r ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f wh a t c o n s t i t u t e s a
me a s u r a b l e g r o u n d i mp r o v e me n t . Wi t h i n a h o mo ­
g e n e o u s s o i l l a y e r t h e a mo u n t o f g r o u n d i mp r o v e ­
me n t d e c r e a s e s wi t h d e p t h as s h o wn , f o r e x a mp l e ,
b y Fi g . 12.
FR E N C H R IV E R A A IR P O R T IN N IC E
IM P R O V E M E N T O F T H E R E C L A IM E D L A N D
THE P R O P O S E D N EW R U N -W A Y
o B e fo re d y n a m ic c o n s o lid a t io n
• A f t e r 3 p a s s e s o f d y n a m ic c o n s o lid a t io n
(e a c h p a s s c o n s is ts o f 6 b lo w s o f a
1 70 to n h a m m e r f a llin g f r o m 2 3 m )
Fi g . 12 Va r i a t i o n i n Pr e s s u r e me t e r Mo d u l u s a n d
L i mi t Pr e s s u r e wi t h De p t h a t Ni c e
Ai r p o r t
( Co u r t e s y M. Ga mb i n ,
T e c h n i q u e s L o u i s Me n a r d )
A n u mb e r o f f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e b e e n s u mma ­
r i z e d i n Fi g . 13. Be c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l e j u d g me n t
wa s r e q u i r e d i n a s s e s s i n g t h e d e p t h o f g r o u n d
i mp r o v e me n t i n a n u mb e r o f c a s e s a n d b e c a u s e
d i f f e r e n t me t h o d s f o r e v a l u a t i n g i mp r o v e me n t
we r e u s e d o n d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s , t h e d a t a i n
Fi g . 13 a r e n o t p r e c i s e . No n e t h e l e s s , t h e t r e n d
i s c l ear . Th e p l o t t e d p o i n t s r e p r e s e n t t he
s t u d i e d by r e s u l t s o f h e a v y t a mp i n g o n s o i l s r a n g i n g f r o m
s i l t s t o c l ean s ands t o r ubbl e f i l l s . Th e
p o i n t r e f e r e n c e d t o Gu y o t a n d Va r a k s i n ( 1980) i s
f o r a s t r i p mi n e d wa s t e p i l e o f c l a y , s i l t y
c l a y , s a n d y c l a y , a n d b o u l d e r s o f l i me s t o n e a n d
s hal e. Fr o m t h e s e r e s u l t s i t a p p e a r s t h a t t he
u s e o f e q u a t i o n ( 7) wo u l d p r o v i d e a c o n s e r v a t i v e
e s t i ma t e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e d e p t h o f d y n a mi c c o m­
p a c t i o n a c h i e v e d , i n mo s t c a s e s .
Th e a mo u n t o f s o i l i mp r o v e me n t t h a t d e v e l o p s i n
a n y c a s e d e p e n d s o n s o i l t y p e , wa t e r c o n d i t i o n s ,
a nd i n p u t e n e r g y per u ni t ar ea. Fi n e r - g r a i n e d
s o i l s c a n n o t b e s t r e n g t h e n e d t o t h e s a me l e v e l
as c a n c o a r s e r ma t e r i a l s . So f t l a y e r s o f c l a y
a n d p e a t i n h i b i t h i g h c o mp a c t i o n o f a d j a c e n t
c o h e s i o n l e s s ma t e r i a l b e c a u s e o f t h e i r f l e x i ­
bi l i t y . A r e v i e w of a v a i l a b l e c as es s ug g e s t s
t h a t t h e r e ma y b e a d e f i n a b l e ma x i mu m l e v e l o f
i mp r o v e me n t . L e o n a r d s e t al . ( 1980) s u g g e s t
FOR
t h a t t h i s l e v e l ma y b e a c o n e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s ­
t a n c e o f a b o u t 1 5 0 k g / c m2 . A s t udy of t he dat a
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e c a s e s p l o t t e d i n Fi g. 13
s h o ws ma x i mu m v a l u e s o f c o n e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s ­
t a n c e o f 1 80 k g / c m2 , s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e o f 45 b l o ws / 0 . 3 m, p r e s s u r e me t e r
l i mi t p r e s s u r e o f 3 MPa , a n d p r e s s u r e me t e r
mo d u l u s o f 25 MPa f o r c l e a n s a n d s . Fi n e r -
g r a i n e d mo r e c o mp r e s s i b l e s o i l s ma y h a v e ma x i mu m
v a l u e s t hat ar e l es s t han h al f of t hes e. Va l u e s
d e c r e a s e f r o m a ma x i mu m n e a r t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e
t o t h e o r i g i n a l i n - s i t u v a l u e a t d e p t h D.
An a d d i t i o n a l c o n c e r n r e l a t i v e t o h e a v y t a mp i n g ,
a n d b l a s t i n g as we l l , i s wh e t h e r d a ma g e ma y
o c c u r t o f a c i l i t i es l oc at ed b e y o n d t he edges of
t he ar ea b e i n g d e n s i f i e d b e c a u s e of t he l ar ge
i mp a c t e n e r g i e s . Me a s u r e me n t s o f v i b r a t i o n
f r e q u e n c i e s h a v e g i v e n v a l u e s i n t he r a n g e of
2 - 2 0 Hz . Pa r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i s r e l a t e d t o s c a l e d
e n e r g y f a c t o r i n Fi g . 14. Th e l i n e s f o r we t
s a n d , d r y s a n d , a n d c l a y we r e g i v e n b y Wi s s
( 1967) f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t i e s
r es ul t i ng f r om pi l e dr i v i ng oper at i ons . Th e
l i ne f or b u i l d i n g r ubb l e ( c o n s t r uc t i on debr i s )
c o mp a c t i o n b y h e a v y t a mp i n g wa s d e v e l o p e d b y
L u k a s ( 1980) , a n d t h e a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s a r e f o r
h e a v y t a mp i n g o f s a n d . Th e s e l a t t e r p o i n t s p l o t
near t he l i ne f or r u bbl e a n d s ugges t t hat a
g i v e n s c a l e d e n e r g y p r o d u c e s a s o me wh a t l o we r
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y t h a n t h e s a me e n e r g y i n p u t b y
pi l e dr i v i ng. Fi g. 14 ma y b e u s e d t o e s t i ma t e
t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m p o i n t o f i mp a c t wh e r e d a ma g e
c o u l d oc c ur .
Pr o g r e s s i v e L i q u e f a c t i o n
I n ma n y c a s e s t h e v o l u me o f s o i l d e n s i f i e d b y
d e e p c o mp a c t i o n l i e s wi t h i n a p o t e n t i a l l y l i q u e -
f i a b l e d e p o s i t o f mu c h l a r g e r a r e a l e x t e n t . Th e
q u e s t i o n a r i s e s t h e n c o n c e r n i n g wh e t h e r , i f i n
an ear t hquak e t he s ur r oundi ng s oi l l i quef i es ,
t h e r e wi l l b e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l o s s o f s t a b i ­
l i t y i n t he d e n s i f i e d z one. Co n c e i v a b l y , t he
d e v e l o p me n t o f h i g h p o r e p r e s s u r e s i n t h e l i q u e ­
f i ed z one c oul d gener at e hi gher por e pr es s ur es
i n t h e d e n s i f i e d z o n e wi t h c o n s e q u e n t l o s s of
s t r engt h. To g u a r d a g a i n s t t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i t
s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t t o e x t e n d t he z one of s oi l
i mp r o v e me n t l a t e r a l l y o u t wa r d f r o m t h e r e q u i r e d
f oundat i on ar ea a di s t anc e equal t o t he t hi c k ­
nes s of t he l ay er b e i n g dens i f i ed. Mo r e p r e c i s e
e v a l u a t i o n s c a n b e ma d e u s i n g a c o mp u t e r
a n a l y s i s o f por e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t i o n f or t he
g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s as d e s c r i b e d b y Bo o k e r e t a l .
( 1976) . Al t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e me t h o d p r o p o s e d b y
519
 30 |_ ® P re d o m in o n tly c o h e s io n le s s s o il
O _ _ _ S i l t y s o il s , f i l l s , ru b b le /

f F u ll d e p t h o f im p r o v e d z o n e n o t d e t e r m i n e d

0)
O
c
Q) R e fe re n c e s
3
L e o n a rd s e t a l. ( 1 9 8 0 ) _

B h a n d a ri (1 9 7 7 )

G a m b in ( 1 9 7 9 )

CL G a m b in ( 1 9 7 9 ) - P e rs o n a l C om m
<D
O G u y o t a n d V a r a k s in ( 1 9 8 0 ) —
V a r a k s in (1 9 8 0 )

J u llié (1 9 7 8 )

M in k o v e t a l. ( 1 9 8 0 )
Lukas (1 9 8 0 )

60 80

v /E n e rg y /D ro p - ( t - m ) 1^

Fi g . 13 De p t h o f I n f l u e n c e as a Fu n c t i o n of I mp a c t En e r g y f or He a v y T a mp i n g

Na n d a k u ma r a n e t al . ( 1977) , wh i c h a p p e a r s qui t e c onc l ude t hat ev al uat i ons of t he gr ound s hor t l y

c o n s e r v a t i v e , mi g h t be c ons i der ed.
Ti me Ef f e c t s
Mo r e a n d mo r e e v i d e n c e i s b e c o mi n g a v a i l a b l e t o
i n d i c a t e t h a t i n ma n y s a n d s t i me - d e p e n d e n t i n ­
c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h a n d d e c r e a s e s i n c o mp r e s s i ­
b i l i t y d e v e l o p af t er d e n s i f i c a t i o n b y any of t he
d e e p c o mp a c t i o n me t h o d s . Be c a u s e t h e s e e f f e c t s
c o n t i n u e o v e r p e r i o d s o f ma n y we e k s o r mo n t h s ,
t h e y c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r ms o f p o r e p r e s ­
s u r e d i s s i p a t i o n , wh i c h c o n t i n u e s o n l y f o r p e r i ­
o d s o f s e v e r a l mi n u t e s a t t h e mo s t i n t h e c a s e
o f c l e a n s a n d . T h e a g i n g e f f e c t h a s b e e n s h o wn
t o gi v e s ubs t ant i al i nc r eas e i n t he s t r engt h of
s a n d s u n d e r c y c l i c l o a d i n g , as ma y b e s e e n i n
Fi g . 15.
Al t h o u g h a n u mb e r o f h y p o t h e s e s h a v e b e e n
ad v a n c e d t o e x p l a i n t hi s behav i or ; e. g. , t hi x o-
t r o p i c h a r d e n i n g , c h e mi c a l c e me n t a t i o n , t h e
e f f e c t s o f d i s s o l v e d g a s e s , t h e me c h a n i s m i s n o t
y e t c o mp l e t e l y c l e a r . Fr o m a p r a c t i c a l s t a n d ­
p o i n t , h o we v e r , i t wo u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o
a f t e r t h e c o mp l e t i o n o f d e e p d e n s i f i c a t i o n wi l l
gi v e c ons er v at i v e r es ul t s .
SOI L I MPROVEMENT BY PRECOMPRESSI ON
I nt r oduc t i on
T h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g a n d p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f we a k
a n d c o mp r e s s i b l e s o i l s b y p r e l o a d i n g p r i o r t o
c o n s t r u c t i o n i s o n e o f t h e o l d e s t a n d mo s t
wi d e l y u s e d me t h o d s f o r s o i l i mp r o v e me n t . It is
p a r t i c u l a r l y we l l - s u i t e d f o r u s e wi t h s o i l s t h a t
u n d e r g o l a r g e v o l u me d e c r e a s e s a n d s t r e n g t h
i n c r e a s e s u n d e r s u s t a i n e d s t a t i c l o a d s a n d wh e n
t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t t i me a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e r e ­
q u i r e d c o mp r e s s i o n s t o o c c u r . Su r c h a r g e l o a d s ;
i . e. , l oads i n e x c e s s of t h o s e t o be a p p l i e d by
a p e r ma n e n t f i l l o r s t r u c t u r e c a n b e u s e d t o
ac c el er at e t he pr oc es s . Wh e n t h e a n t i c i p a t e d
t i me f o r c o mp r e s s i o n i s e x c e s s i v e , v e r t i c a l
d r a i n s ma y b e u s e d t o s h o r t e n t h e t i me r e q u i r e d
p r o v i d e d t h e c o mp r e s s i o n i s o f t h e p r i ma r y c o n ­
s o l i d a t i o n t y pe. Th e s oi l t y p e s b e s t s u i t e d f or

520
 O G ig a n (1 9 7 7 ) f u l l y t o i mp r o v e t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o i l s f or b u i l d ­
i ngs , e mb a n k me n t s , h i g h wa y s , r u n wa y s , t ank s , and
a L e o n a rd s , e t a l. (1 9 8 0 ) • L u k a s (1 9 8 0 ) a b u t me n t s .
i— i i r i itr r
Se v e r a l r e c e n t c o mp r e h e n s i v e t r e a t me n t s o f p r e ­
c o mp r e s s i o n a n d t o p i c s r e l a t e d t o i t s a p p l i c a ­
P la s te r c ra c k s ( r e s id e n c e s ) t i o n , wi t h a n d wi t h o u t d r a i n s , a r e a v a i l a b l e ,
I i n c l u d i n g t h o s e b y J o h n s o n ( 1970a, 1 9 7 0 b ) ,
- R ecom m ended s a fe le v e l Bj e r r u m ( 1972) , U. S. Na v y ( 1971) , Pi l o t ( 1977) ,
( r e s id e n c e s ) Sc h l o s s e r a n d J u r a n ( 1979) , Ak a g i ( 1977, 1 9 7 9 ) ,
Ha n s b o ( 1979) . Th e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t b y Pi l o t
( 1977) i s e s p e c i a l l y c o mp l e t e a n d we 1 1 - d o c u me n t e d
and c ont ai ns an ex t ens i v e l i s t of c as e hi s t or i es .
D is tu r b in g . Be c a u s e o f t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s , d e t a i l e d t r e a t me n t
o f a l l t o p i c s i mp o r t a n t t o p r e c o mp r e s s i o n i s n o t
U n p le a s a n t gi v e n her e. Emp h a s i s i s o n r e c e n t d e v e l o p me n t s
i W e ll and pr ac t i c al c ons i der at i ons t hat i nf l uenc e
n o t ic e a b le d e s i g n a n d p e r f o r ma n c e o f p r e c o mp r e s s i o n s y s t e ms .
i ild i ng
1- - - - - - - - :
b le
P e r c e p t ib le : Ty p e s of Pr e l o a d s
Al t h o u g h e a r t h f i l l s a r e t h e mo s t c o mmo n l y u s e d
t y pe of pr el oad, any s y s t e m t hat l eads t o d r a i n ­
Im p e r c e p t ib le •
a g e o f p o r e wa t e r a n d c o mp r e s s i o n o f t h e s o i l
ma y b e s u i t a b l e . Wa t e r i n t a n k s h a s b e e n u s e d
0 .2 5 t o p r e l o a d s ma l l a r e a s , a n d wa t e r i n l i n e d p o n d s
c an be us ed t o p r e l o a d l ar ger ar eas . Va c u u m
p r e l o a d i n g b y p u mp i n g f r o m b e n e a t h a n i mp e r v i o u s
v /E n e r g y ( f t - l b s ) / D is ta n c e ( f t) me mb r a n e p l a c e d o v e r t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e c a n p r o ­
d u c e s u r c h a r g e l o a d s u p t o 60 t o 80 k Pa ( Hol t z
a n d Wa g e r , 1975; Pi l o t , 1 9 7 7 ) . An c h o r a n d j a c k
s y s t e ms c a n b e d e v i s e d f o r s p e c i a l c a s e s .
Fi g . 14 Pa r t i c l e Ve l o c i t y as a Fu n c t i o n of Gr o u n d wa t e r l o we r i n g p r o v i d e s a n i n c r e a s e i n
Sc a l e d En e r g y F a c t o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e e q u a l t o t h e u n i t we i g h t
o f wa t e r t i me s t h e d r a wd o wn d i s t a n c e . Co n s o l i d a ­
t i o n b y e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s i s t h e s a me i n ma n y
r e s p e c t s as c o n s o l i d a t i o n u n d e r e x t e r n a l l y
appl i ed s t r es s es , ex c ept t hat t he dr i v i ng f or c e
T im e a fte r D e p o s it io n - y e a r s f or d r a i n a g e i s i n d u c e d i n t e r n a l l y b y an e l e c t r i ­
10 100 1000 c al f i el d.
i ----------- r
Seed (1 9 7 9 )
• L a b o r a t o r y t e s t d a t a - M o n te r e y No. 0 s a n d
Pr e l o a d i n g b y v a c u u m, wa t e r t a b l e l o we r i n g , a n d
- A H y d r a u l i c s a n d f i l l f r o m L o w e r S an F e r n a n d o Dorn e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s o f f e r t h e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t t h e r e
O
□
H y d r a u lic s a n d f i l l fro m
S o u th T e x a s s a n d
U p p e r S an F e rn a n d o D am
a r e n o s t a b i l i t y p r o b l e ms , a n d l a r g e v o l u me s of
V S a n M a te o s o n d s u r c h a r g e f i l l ar e not r equi r ed. On t h e o t h e r
B a n e r je e e to l. (1 9 7 9 )
h a n d , t h e y a r e mo r e c o mp l e x i n e x e c u t i o n t h a n
( qt j Cs 14 k g /c m , K » I.O , 0 ^ = 8 7 % ) t h e o t h e r me t h o d s .
_Q I n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n in 10 c y c l e s
O ± 5 % a x ia l s t r a i n in 10 c y c l e s
Th e o r e t i c a l Ba s i s f or De s i g n
Th e us ual obj ec t i v e of d e s i g n of s u r c h a r ge l oads
and d u r a t i o n of t h e i r appl i c at i on i s t o r educ e
t he ma g n i t u d e o f s e t t l e me n t a f t e r c o n s t r uc t i on.
Se t t l e me n t a t a n y t i me ma y b e e x p r e s s e d as

s . + Us + ( 9)
i c ons

i n wh i c h s^ s e t t l e me n t at t i me t
o 0
0.1 10 10* 10° 10* 10°
T im e o f t e r D e p o s itio n - d a y s = i mme d i a t e s e t t l e me n t ( f r o m g a s
c o mp r e s s i o n , s h e a r d i s t o r t i o n )

= av er age degr ee of c ons ol i da­

Fi g . 15 I n f l u e n c e o f Pe r i o d o f Su s t a i n e d
t i on
Pr e s s u r e o n St r e s s Ra t i o Ca u s i n g
Pe a k Cy c l i c Po r e Pr e s s u r e Ra t i o
= f i nal c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e me n t
of 100% c ons
= s ec ondar y c o mp r e s s i o n s et t l e­
me n t .
i mp r o v e me n t b y p r e c o mp r e s s i o n a r e s a t u r a t e d s o f t
c l a y s , c o mp r e s s i b l e s i l t s , o r g a n i c c l a y s , a n d
peat s . Ve r t i c a l d r a i n s a r e o f g r e a t e s t Th e o b j e c t i v e ma y b e e i t h e r : ( 1) t o d e t e r mi n e
ef f ec t i v enes s i n i nor gani c c l ay s and s i l t s t hat t h e ma g n i t u d e o f s u r c h a r g e p r e s s u r e ( ps ) r e ­
e x h i b i t l i t t l e s e c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n . Pr e l o a d ­ q u i r e d t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e t o t a l s e t t l e me n t
i n g a n d p r e c o mp r e s s i o n h a v e b e e n u s e d s u c c e s s -
..................... ..... ' ' f>

521
b e c o mp l e t e i n a g i v e n l e n g t h o f t i me , o r ( 2) t o
d e t e r mi n e t h e l e n g t h o f t i me r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e
a g i v e n a mo u n t o f s e t t l e me n t u n d e r a g i v e n s u r ­
c h a r g e l oad.
I t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o c o n s i d e r p r i ma r y c o n s o l i d a ­
t i o n a n d s e c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n a s s e p a r a t e
p h a s e s , e v e n t h o u g h b o t h t y p e s o f v o l u me c h a n g e
ma y b e i n p r o g r e s s c o n c u r r e n t l y . I f t h e t i me o f
l oadi ng i s s hor t r el at i v e t o t he t ot al c o n s ol i da­
t i o n p e r i o d , t h e n t h e a s s u mp t i o n o f i n s t a n t a n ­
e o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l l o a d at t h e e n d o f
o n e h a l f t h e l o a d i n g p e r i o d wi l l n o t l e a d t o
s er i ous er r or . I f not , t h e n mo r e e x a c t a n a l y ­
s e s ma y b e ma d e .
Co n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e me n t e s t i ma t e s f or p e r ma n e n t
f i l l a n d s t r u c t u r e l o a d s a r e ma d e i n t he us ual
wa y . I n t h o s e c a s e s wh e r e s o i l p r o p e r t i es and/
o r s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s v a r y wi t h d e p t h , i t ma y b e
n e c e s s a r y t o a n a l y z e t h e p r o f i l e as a s e r i e s of
s ubl ay er s .
Th e t i me r a t e o f s e t t l e me n t f o r p r i ma r y c o n s o l i ­
d a t i o n i n o n e d i me n s i o n ma y b e d e t e r mi n e d u s i n g
t h e c l a s s i c a l Te r z a g h i t h e o r y . I n t hos e c as es
wh e r e t h e s t r a i n p r o f i l e wi t h d e p t h i s n o t
e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t , as a s s u me d i n t h e Te r z a g h i
s o l u t i o n , a n o n - l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n me t h o d ,
s u c h as t h a t p r e s e n t e d b y Du n c a n a n d Bu c h i g n a n i
( 1976) b a s e d o n J a n b u ( 1965) ma y g i v e b e t t e r
r es ul t s . Th e e f f e c t of d e c r e a s i n g v e r t i c a l
s t r a i n s wi t h d e p t h i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f
s e t t l e me n t c o mp a r e d t o t h e Te r z a g h i s o l u t i o n .
Th e s t r e s s v s . t i me a n d s e t t l e me n t v s . t i me
r e l a t i o n s h i p s f or a s oi l l ay er u n d e r s t r e s s i n ­
c r e a s e p f wo u l d b e as s h o wn i n Fi g . 16 i n t he
a b s e n c e o f s e c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n .
I f a s u r c h a r g e l o a d t h a t a p p l i e d an a d d i t i o n a l
s t r e s s p s we r e a l s o u s e d a n d l e f t i n p l a c e
Fig. 16 Co mp e n s a t i o n f o r Pr i ma r y Co mp r e s s i o n
Us i n g Su r c h a r g e L o a d i n g
522
i n d e f i n i t e l y , t h e n a t i me - s e t t l e me n t c u r v e c o u l d
b e o b t a i n e d i n t h e s a me wa y a n d p l o t t e d as s h o wn
b y t h e l o we r c u r v e i n Fi g . 16. I f t he s ur c har ge
we r e l e f t i n p l a c e u n t i l t i me t g R , t h e n t h e
l a y e r wi l l h a v e s e t t l e d a n a mo u n t e q u a l t o t h a t
t o b e e x p e c t e d u n d e r t h e p e r ma n e n t f i l l a l o n e ;
i . e . , s tR 3f . At t h i s t i me t h e l a y e r wi l l
h a v e r e a c h e d an a v e r a g e d e g r e e of c o n s o l i d a t i o n
ÛSR g i v e n b y
( 10)
USR s
f +s
As p o i n t e d o u t b y Al d r i c h ( 1965) a n d e x t e n d e d b y
J o h n s o n ( 1970a) t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of e f f e c t i v e
a n d e x c e s s p o r e wa t e r p r e s s u r e s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r
s u r c h a r g e r e mo v a l wi l l b e as s h o wn i n Fi g . 17
f or a c l a y l ay er d r a i n e d at b o t h b o u n d a r i e s .
Th u s , a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e l a y e r ma y
u n d e r g o f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n a f t e r r e mo v a l o f
t h e s u r c h a r g e l o a d , wh e r e a s t h e r e ma i n d e r wi l l
be unl oaded. Al t h o u g h t h e u n l o a d i n g o f t h e
z o n e s n e a r d r a i n a g e b o u n d a r i e s wi l l g e n e r a l l y
not l ead t o s i gni f i c ant heav e, t he addi t i onal
c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n ma y b e
i mp o r t a n t .
(1) P o r e p r e s s u r e d is t r i b u t i o n o t t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o U SR
(2 ) Por e p re s s u re d is tr ib u tio n re q u ire d to p r e v e n t
f u r t h e r s e t t l e m e n t i f ps r e m o v e d
Fi g . 17 Po r e Pr e s s u r e Di s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r
Re mo v a l o f Su r c h a r g e L o a d a t Ti me
fcSR
To e l i mi n a t e f u r t h e r p r i ma r y c o n s o l i d a t i o n
f o l l o wi n g t h e r e mo v a l of t h e s u r c h a r g e , t h e
s u r c h a r g e s hou l d be l ef t i n p l a c e unt i l t he por e
p r e s s u r e a t t h e mo s t c r i t i c a l p o i n t ; i . e . , t h e
poi nt t hat i s l as t t o c ons ol i dat e, has i t s el f
r e a c h e d a c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t i o Uz g i v e n b y
( 11)
< v
f+s >f + Ps
Ti me s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o USR a n d Uz a r e f o u n d
u s i n g t h e Te r z a g h i t h e o r y a n d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
c ons ol i dat i on c^ ac c or di ng t o
wh e r e T i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e o f d i me n s i o n -
l e s s t i me f a c t o r .
Be c a u s e t h i s a p p r o a c h r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s u r ­
c h a r g e be l ef t i n p l a c e unt i l al l p o i n t s ar e
f u l l y c o n s o l i d a t e d u n d e r p^ , o v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n
wi l l d e v e l o p i n mo s t o f t h e s o i l l a y e r . Th u s
i t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e , a n d t h e a c t u a l p r e c o mp r e s ­
s i o n s e t t l e me n t wi l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r
t h a n Sj . A f u r t h e r c o mp l i c a t i n g f a c t o r a r i s e s
i n t h a t e q u a t i o n ( 11) i s s t r e s s - b a s e d ; wh e r e a s
c v i s u s u a l l y d e t e r mi n e d u s i n g a s t r a i n - b a s e d
pr oc edur e. As t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n b e h a v i o r o f t h e
s o i l i s n o n - l i n e a r , t h e r e i s s o me u n c e r t a i n t y i n
t h e p r e d i c t e d t i me s a n d s u r c h a r g e l o a d s r e q u i r e d .
Th i s p r o b l e m i s p r e s e n t l y u n d e r s t u d y a t t h e
Un i v e r s i t y o f Ca l i f o r n i a , Be r k e l e y , a n d p r e l i ­
mi n a r y i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t i n i t s p r e s e n t f o r m
t h e me t h o d g i v e s c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s ; i . e. ,
h i g h e r v a l u e s o f p g o r t i me o f s u r c h a r g i n g a r e
pr edi c t ed t han ac t ual l y r equi r ed.
Se c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n ma y r e p r e s e n t a v e r y s i g n i ­
f i c a n t p o r t i o n or t h e t o t a l c o mp r e s s i o n o f s o me
s oi l s , e s p e c i a l l y or g a n i c c l ay s a n d peat s . Pr e ­
c o mp r e s s i o n u s i n g s u r c h a r g e l o a d i n g s ma y b e
e f f e c t i v e f o r mi n i mi z i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f s u b s e ­
q u e n t s e c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n u n d e r p e r ma n e n t
l oads . Th e c o n c e p t i s t o e s t i ma t e t h e t o t a l
s e t t l e me n t u n d e r p j a s t h e s u m o f t h a t d u e t o
p r i ma r y c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n d t h a t d u e t o s e c o n d a r y
c o mp r e s s i o n , s s e c , a n t i c i p a t e d t o o c c u r d u r i n g
t he l i f e of t he s t r uc t ur e. s s e c i s d e t e r mi n e d
ac c or di ng t o
C H l og (t/t ) (t > t p ) ( 13)
a p ^ p
i n wh i c h Ca i s t he v e r t i c a l s t r a i n per l og c y c l e
i nc r eas e i n t i me s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e e n d o f p r i ­
ma r y c o n s o l i d a t i o n a t t p, a n d Hp i s t h e l a y e r
t hi c k nes s at t i me t D . Th e a n a l o g o u s e q u a t i o n
t o ( 11) f o r t he c r i t i c a l p o i n t f or t hi s c as e i s
s f + Ca HP l o 9 ( t / y
( 14)
( Uz W
s f +s
T h e n a t u r e o f s e c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n i s s u c h t h a t
s o me t i me a f t e r s u r c h a r g e p s i s r e mo v e d , s e c o n ­
d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n wi l l r e a p p e a r u n d e r Pf . Th i s
e f f e c t i s s ma l l , h o we v e r , a n d c a n u s u a l l y be
n e g l e c t e d ( J ohns on, 1 9 7 0 a ) .
Th e i n c r e a s e i n u n d r a i n e d s h e a r s t r e n g t h wh i c h
a c c o mp a n i e s p r e l o a d i n g ma y b e t h e mo s t i mp o r t a n t
e f f e c t i n ma n y c a s e s . Th e u n d r a i n e d s t r e n g t h
a f t e r a g i v e n d u r a t i o n o f p r e l o a d i n g ma y b e e s t i ­
ma t e d u s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e SHANSEP p r o ­
c e d u r e ( L a d d a n d Fo o t t , 1974) t o g e t h e r wi t h a n
a n a l y s i s t o e s t i ma t e t h e i n c r e a s e i n e f f e c t i v e
c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e s wi t h i n t h e p r e l o a d e d
l ay er s .
Vertical Drains
of
I n ma n y c a s e s t h e t i me r e q u i r e d f o r s u r c h a r g i n g
i s e x c e s s i v e, t he s u r c h a r g e r e q u i r e d f or t he
t i me a v a i l a b l e i s t o o g r e a t , o r t h e r a t e of
s t r e n g t h g a i n i s t o o s l o w t o p e r mi t r a p i d f i l l
p l a c e me n t . Fo r s o i l s wh o s e c o mp r e s s i o n i s d o mi ­
n a t e d b y p r i ma r y c o n s o l i d a t i o n , v e r t i c a l d r a i n s
ma y b e u s e d t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e r a t e o f s e t t l e me n t ,
b e c a u s e c o n s o l i d a t i o n t i me s v a r y a s t h e s q u a r e
o f t h e d r a i n a g e p a t h l e n g t h , a n d b e c a u s e mo s t
d e p o s i t s h a v e g r e a t e r p e r me a b i l i t y i n t h e h o r i ­
z ont al t han i n t he v er t i c al di r ec t i on. A sc he­
ma t i c d i a g r a m o f a t y p i c a l v e r t i c a l d r a i n
i n s t a l l a t i o n i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 18. Ve r t i c a l
dr ai n s ar e i n e f f e c t i v e i n peat s , or g a n i c c l ay s ,
a n d o t h e r s o i l s wh o s e s e t t l e me n t b e h a v i o r i s
d o mi n a t e d b y s e c o n d a r y c o mp r e s s i o n .
ser r i cve* r ¿>i at c
Or
FILL
Of BUA\ i Hr f ui
' SA HO
r r r 0“ a Iy
SA/ VD D B A I N
Fi g. 18 Ty p i c a l Ve r t i c a l Dr a i n I ns t al l at i on
Th e t h e o r y f or c o n s o l i d a t i o n b y r a d i a l d r a i n a g e
a n d b y c o mb i n e d r a d i a l a n d v e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e i s
we l l d e v e l o p e d ( Ba r r o n , 1 9 4 8 ; Ca r i l l o , 1 9 4 2 ) .
Th e r e s u l t s a r e s u mma r i z e d i n Fi g s . 19 a n d 20.
I t i s i mp o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t d r a i n s p a c i n g i s a
f a r mo r e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r a me t e r i n t h e d e t e r mi n a ­
t i o n of c o n s o l i d a t i o n t i me t h a n i s d r a i n di amet er .
Ol s o n e t al . ( 1974) h a v e d e v e l o p e d a f i n i t e d i f ­
f e r e n c e c o mp u t e r p r o g r a m t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f t i me - d e p e n d e n t l o a d ­
i ng, v a r i a b l e c o n s o l i d a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , n o n ­
l i near s oi l s t r e s s - s t r a i n behav i or , t he i n ­
f l uenc es of l ar ge s t r ai ns , and t he i n s t a l l at i on
of d r a i n s a f t e r o n e - d i me n s i o n a l s e t t l e me n t h a s
begun.
Un t i l a f e w y e a r s a g o v e r t i c a l d r a i n s of s and,
t y p i c a l l y 200 t o 500 mm i n d i a me t e r a n d s p a c e d
a n y wh e r e f r o m 1 . 5 t o 6. 0 m o n c e n t e r s , we r e
wi d e l y u s e d . I n s t a l l a t i o n wa s a c c o mp l i s h e d u s i n g
a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s o f b o t h t h e d i s p l a c e me n t
a n d n o n - d i s p l a c e me n t t y p e . Di s p l a c e me n t d r a i n s ,
wh i l e g e n e r a l l y l e s s e x p e n s i v e a n d f a s t e r t o
523
 i ns t al l , c an d i s t u r b t he s u r r o u n d i n g s oi l s . Th e
r e s u l t i n g " s me a r " z o n e c a n i mp e d e d r a i n a g e , a n d
t h e d i s t u r b e d s o i l ma y b e we a k e n e d . Th e s e
e f f e c t s ma y n o t b e a s d e t r i me n t a l as e a r l i e r
b e l i e v e d , h o we v e r , o wi n g t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
( 1) r ec ons ol i dat i on t o a hi gher s t r engt h t han
t h e o r i g i n a l , a n d ( 2) t h e o p e n i n g o f c r a c k s a n d
f i s s u r e s t h a t f i l l wi t h s a n d d u r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n
an d t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e t he e f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e ar ea.
Ak a g i ( 1977, 1979) c onc l uded t hat r el i abl e dat a
a r e l a c k i n g t o e s t a b l i s h wh e t h e r n o n - d i s p l a c e me n t
d r a i n s a r e i n d e e d mo r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e d i s ­
p l a c e me n t t y pe.

Pr e s e n t i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l s a n d
d r a i n s i n s t a l l e d f or t he a c c e l e r a t i o n of c o n ­
s o l i d a t i o n ma y s o o n be t h i n g s o f t h e p a s t , a s a
v a r i e t y of p r e f a b r i c a t e d d r a i n s a r e c o mi n g i n t o
VERTICAL CONSOLIDATION: wi d e u s e. Ba n d - s h a p e d d r a i n s o f t h e o r d e r of
100 mm wi d e b y 1 t o 7 mm t h i c k a r e p r o d u c e d b y
k , 1 • e0i H 'T, t <m i s e v e r a l ma n u f a c t u r e r s . Th e s e d r a i n s c a n b e
OR I
r a p i d l y i n s t a l l e d t o d e p t h s u p t o 50 m b y
ma c h i n e s wi t h s p e c i a l ma n d r e l s . Dr a i n s p a c i n g s
of t he or d e r of 1 m ar e t y pi c al . Bo t h d y n a mi c
RADIAL CONSOLIDATION: a n d s t a t i c me t h o d s o f i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e u s e d .
Ci r c u l a r p r e f a b r i c a t e d d r a i n s o r wi c k s c o mp o s e d
V - ' o' deTh o f s a n d wi t h i n c y l i n d r i c a l f a b r i c c o n t a i n e r s a r e
OR I a l s o us ed. A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e n e w
av- vr K I
d r a i n s , t h e i r s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s , a n d me t h o d s o f
i n s t a l l a t i o n i s b e y o n d t he s c ope of t hi s r epor t .
COMBINED RADIAL AND VERTICAL FLOW Ha n s b o ( 1979) h a s p r e s e n t e d a c o mp r e h e n s i v e
o v e r v i e w of c o n s o l i d a t i o n u s i n g p r e f a b r i c a t e d
AT ANY TIME: band- s haped dr ai ns . On l y a f e w g e n e r a l c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c s a r e s u mma r i z e d h e r e .
AT A POINT
EXCESS PORE Kj e l l ma n ' s c a r d b o a r d wi c k , i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 937,
WATER PRESSURE ) wa s t h e f i r s t o f t h e p r e f a b r i c a t e d d r a i n s .
RATIOS Pr e s e n t l y t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s o n t h e ma r k e t
AVERAGE VALUES
u n d e r s u c h n a me s as Al i d r a i n , Ge o d r a i n , Ca s t l e
Bo a r d , Co l b o n d , Me b r a d r a i n , a n d PVC Dr a i n . Th e
dr ai n s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t of a c or e of p l a s t i c and
a f i l t e r s l e e v e o f p a p e r , f i b r o u s ma t e r i a l , o r
U■I AT A POINT
por ous pl as t i c . Th e c r o s s s e c t i o n d e s i g n p r o ­
DECREE OF v i d e s f o r a s y s t e m o f v e r t i c a l c h a n n e l s f or
CONSOLIDATION
U . 1 - — AVERAGE VALUE
wa t e r f l o w. Th e Co l b o n d Dr a i n d i f f e r s f r o m t h e
o t h e r s i n t h a t i t i s a n o n - wo v e n f a b r i c t h r o u g h ­
o u t , a n d i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y wi d e r ( 30 cm) t h a n
t he ot her s . Th e ma n d r e l s u s e d f o r d r a i n
Fi g. 19 Su mma r y o f Co n s o l i d a t i o n T h e o r y i n s t a l l a t i o n ar e of c r o s s s e c t i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y
f or Ve r t i c a l Dr a i n De s i g n l ar ger t han t he dr ai n i t s el f . Fi g. 21 i s a n
e x a mp l e . Th u s i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e d r a i n n e c e s ­
s a r i l y c a u s e s s o me d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e s u r r o u n d ­
i ng gr ound.

0. 01 0. 1 1. 0
Ti me Fact or , Tv and T r

Fi g. 20 Co n s o l i d a t i o n So l u t i o n f o r Ra d i a l Fl o w Fi g. 21 Cr o s s Se c t i o n o f a Pl a s t i c Dr a i n
a n d Eq u a l Ve r t i c a l St r a i n a t Gr o u n d a n d Ma n d r e l
Su r f a c e
( Bar r on, 1948)

524
Th e f i l t e r s l e e v e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p l a s t i c c or e
mu s t s a t i s f y s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a :
1. I t s p e r me a b i l i t y s h o u l d n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l e s s t h a n t h a t o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s oi l .
2. Fi n e s o i l p a r t i c l e s s h o u l d be r e t a i n e d t o
p r e v e n t c l o g g i n g of f l ow c h a n n e l s i n t he
cor e.
3. Th e f i l t e r s h o u l d b e s t i f f e n o u g h s o as
not t o be pr es s ed i nt o c or e c hannel s by
hi gh l at er al s oi l pr es s ur es and s t r ong
e n o u g h n o t t o b e d a ma g e d d u r i n g i n s t a l ­
l at i on.
4. Th e f i l t e r s h o u l d n o t u n d e r g o p h y s i c a l ,
c h e mi c a l , o r b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n
d u r i n g t he i n t ended l i f e of t he dr ai n.
Th e o r e t i c a l d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f r e q u i r e d d r a i n
s p a c i n g c a n b e ma d e i n t h e s a me wa y as f or s a n d
d r a i n s ; i . e . , wi t h t h e a i d o f Fi g s . 19 a n d 20.
Al t e r n a t i v e l y , i f c o n s o l i d a t i o n d u e t o v e r t i c a l
f l o w i s n e g l i g i b l e c o mp a r e d t o t h a t d u e t o
r a d i a l f l ow, wh i c h i s o f t e n t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e
t i me o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n t c a n b e d e t e r mi n e d
ac c or di ng t o
In
8c 1 - U.
v- h
wh e r e i s t he av er age degr ee of c ons ol i dat i on.
Th e p a r a me t e r p i s g i v e n , t o a g o o d a p p r o x i ma ­
t i o n , i n t e r ms o f n ( = d e / d w ) b y
y = I n ( n) - 0. 75
f or t h e v a l u e s o f n ( >12, e x c e p t f o r Co l b o n d ,
>8) a n d d r a i n s p a c i n g ( >0. 8 m) u s e d i n pr ac t i c e.
Th e e q u i v a l e n t d i a me t e r dw o f a b a n d - s haped
dr ai n o f wi d t h b a n d t h i c k n e s s t i s t a k e n as
2 (b + t)
d =
w
Bo t h we l l r e s i s t a n c e a n d d i s t u r b a n c e d u r i n g
i n s t a l l a t i o n ma y c a u s e t h e a c t u a l t i me s f o r c o n ­
s ol i dat i on t o be gr eat er t han pr edi c t ed by
Fi g . 20 o r Eq. ( 15) . Bo t h of t h e s e c o n s i d e r a ­
t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y Ha n s b o ( 1979) .
Pr e f a b r i c a t e d b a n d - s h a p e d d r a i n s c a n b e i n ­
s t al l ed at or i ent at i ons ot her t han v er t i c al ,
wh i c h e n a b l e s t h e i r u s e f o r s p e c i a l a p p l i c a ­
t i o n s s u c h as u n d e r - d r a i n a g e a n d o n s l o p e s .
Be c a u s e t h e y c a n t o l e r a t e s i g n i f i c a n t d i s p l a c e ­
me n t s wi t h o u t r u p t u r e , p r e f a b r i c a t e d d r a i n s a r e
not as s u s c e p t i b l e t o l os s of e f f e c t i v e n e s s due
t o s h e a r d i s p l a c e me n t s as c a n o c c u r i n t h e c a s e
of s an d dr ai ns .
So me Pr a c t i c a l Co n s i d e r a t i o n s
Fo r p r e c o mp r e s s i o n wi t h o u t v e r t i c a l d r a i n s t h e
r at e of c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by t he
c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r v e r t i c a l f l ow,
c v _v . Bo t h l a b o r a t o r y a n d f i e l d t e s t s ma y be
u s e d f o r i t s d e t e r mi n a t i o n , a n d t h e r e i s e x t e n ­
s i v e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e me t h o d s , t h e i r a c c u r a c y
a n d l i mi t a t i o n s .
Se t t l e me n t pr edi c t i ons f or t wo - and t hr ee-
d i me n s i o n a l d e f o r ma t i o n s a n d d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s
a r e mo r e c o mp l e x t h a n t h e o n e - d i me n s i o n a l p r o ­
c edur e des c r i bed her ei n. Co mp u t e r a n a l y s e s c a n
be d e v e l o p e d f or s pec i al c as es . So me s o l u t i o n s
a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f a p p r o x i ma t e
o r l i mi t i n g c a s e s .
I f t h e c o mp r e s s i b l e l a y e r t h i c k n e s s H i s l a r g e
r e l a t i v e t o t h e wi d t h o f t h e l o a d e d a r e a B, t h e n
t h e r e wi l l b e a n i mme d i a t e s e t t l e me n t s. i n
Eq u a t i o n ( 9) . I t s ma g n i t u d e c a n b e e s t i ma t e d
us i ng el as t i c t heor y . Th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e ­
me n t , s c o n s i n t h e s e c a s e s ma y b e r e d u c e d d e p e n d ­
i n g o n _ t h e ma g n i t u d e o f t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i ­
c i e n t A. Es t i ma t i o n o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e me n t s
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o c e d u r e o f Sk e mp t o n a n d
Bj e r r u m ( 1957) ma y b e a p p r o p r i a t e . Lat er al
d r a i n a g e b e c o me s i mp o r t a n t i n a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e
r a t e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n wh e n t h e v a l u e o f H/ B
e x c e e d s 0 . 2 5 t o 1. 0, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s h a p e of
l o a d e d a r e a a n d wh e t h e r t h e c o mp r e s s i b l e l a y e r
i s s i ngl y or doubl y dr ai ned. Th e r a t e o f s e t t l e ­
me n t wi l l be e v e n g r e a t e r i f t h e h o r i z o n t a l
p e r me a b i l i t y , a n d t h e r e f o r e c v _j j , i s g r e a t e r
t h a n t h e v e r t i c a l p e r me a b i l i t y a n d c v _ y . A
q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i ma t e o f b o t h o f t h e s e e f f e c t s
c a n b e ma d e u s i n g t h e s o l u t i o n s d e v e l o p e d b y
Da v i s a n d Po u l o s ( 1972) .
( 15)
Wh e n v e r t i c a l d r a i n s a r e u s e d , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
of v e r t i c a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n due t o h o r i z ont al
f l ow, c v _j j , c o n t r o l s t h e r a t e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n .
Bo t h s p e c i a l l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s o n l a r g e s a mp l e s ,
e . g . , Ha n s b o ( 1960) , Ro we ( 1964) , Be r r y a n d
Wi l k i n s o n ( 1969) , a n d Pa u t e ( 1973) , a n d i n - s i t u
t e s t s , s u mma r i z e d b y Mi t c h e l l a n d Ga r d n e r ( 1975) ,
( 16) h a v e b e e n u s e d t o d e t e r mi n e c . . A ma j o r d i f -
v —h
f i c u l t y i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g f o r d e t e r mi n a t i o n
o f c v _ ^ i s t h a t v e r y l a r g e s a mp l e s a r e r e q u i r e d
i n ma n y c a s e s i f r e s u l t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
t r ue i n - s i t u s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ar e t o be obt ai ned.
An a p p r o a c h t h a t h a s y i e l d e d r e a s o n a b l e r e s u l t s
i s t o me a s u r e k ^ i n t h e f i e l d a n d c o mp u t e c v _^
u s i n g a c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y v a l u e d e t e r mi n e d b y c o n ­
( 17) v ent i onal l abor at or y t es t s . A t y pi c al c ondi t i on
i s t hat c , / c = 2 t o 10.
v- h v- v
Pr e c o mp r e s s i o n b y El e c t r o - o s mo s i s
Be c a u s e wa t e r c a n b e ma d e t o f l o w t h r o u g h f i n e ­
gr ai ned s oi l s f r om anode t o c at hode i n a di r ec t
c u r r e n t e l e c t r i c a l f i el d; i . e. , by e l e c t r o ­
o s mo s i s , c o n s o l i d a t i o n wi l l r e s u l t i f wa t e r i s
r e mo v e d a t t h e c a t h o d e b u t n o t r e p l a c e d a t t h e
anode. Fo r c e r t a i n s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a n d l i mi t e d
s o i l v o l u me s , e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s ma y b e a n e c o n o mi ­
c a l a n d e f f e c t i v e me a n s f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n . If,
a t t h e s a me t i me as wa t e r i s b e i n g r e mo v e d at
t h e c a t h o d e , s t a b i l i z i n g c h e mi c a l s a r e i n j e c t e d
a t t h e a n o d e , s o i l i mp r o v e me n t b y e l e c t r o -
k i net i c i nj ec t i on c an be ac hi ev ed. El e c t r o -
k i n e t i c i n j e c t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n a l a t e r s ec t i on.
Th e me c h a n i s m o f e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s h a s b e e n e l a b o ­
r a t e d b y Gr a y a n d Mi t c h e l l ( 1967) . Th e t h e o r y
f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n b y e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s h a s b e e n
d e v e l o p e d b y Es r i g ( 1968) , Wa n a n d Mi t c h e l l
( 1976) , a n d Mi t c h e l l a n d Wa n ( 1977) . Re c e n t c as e
h i s t o r i e s a r e s u mma r i z e d b y Pi l o t ( 1977) .
Th e wa t e r f l o w r a t e , i n a o n e - d i me n s i o n a l
di r ec t c ur r ent f i el d i s i ni t i al l y
3, = k i A ( m/ s e c ) ( 18)
’h e e
525
wh e r e k g = 1 x 1 0 - 9 to 7 x 1 0 - 9 m/ s e c per v ol t / m where k^ = the hydraulic conductivity

i = el ec t r i c al pot ent i al gr adi ent ( v ol t / m) Yw = t h e u n i t we i g h t of wa t e r

A = c r os s - s ec t i onal ar ea ( m2 ) V = v ol t age ( a f unc t i on of pos i t i on)

Al t e r n a t i v e l y , t he f l ow r a t e c a n be e x p r e s s e d by Th e a mo u n t o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h i s
ef f ec t i v e s t r es s i nc r eas e i s obt ai ned f r om a
v oi d r at i o vs. ef f ec t i v e pr es s ur e r el at i ons hi p
q^ = k^ I ( m3/ s ec ) ( 19)
f or t h e s o i l d e t e r mi n e d i n t h e u s u a l ma n n e r .
St r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f e l e c t r o ­
wh e r e k. = wa t e r f l o w p e r uni t t i me p e r a mp e r e c h e mi c a l h a r d e n i n g e f f e c t s , c a n b e e s t i ma t e d i n
1 ( m3/ s e c / a mp ) t h e s a me wa y .

I = c ur r ent ( amps ) Th e r a t e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s g o v e r n e d b y t h e
s a me r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a p p l y t o c o n s o l i d a t i o n
Th e c o e f f i c i e n t s k e a n d k ^ a r e r e l a t e d b y t he under di r ec t l y appl i ed l oadi ng. T h e t i me t f o r
s p e c i f i c e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , a, a gi v en degr ee of c ons ol i dat i on i s

k. = k /a ( 20)
l e

Va l u e s o f o r a n g e f r o m a b o u t 0 . 0 2 mh o / m f o r l o w
s a l t c o n t e n t s o i l s t o 0 . 3 0 mh o / m f o r h i g h s a l t wh e r e T = t i me f a c t o r f o r t h e s p e c i f i e d d e g r e e
c ont ent s oi l s . Va l u e s o f k ^ f o r wa t e r c o n t e n t s of c ons ol i dat i on and boundar y c o n d i ­
i n t h e r a n g e o f 50 t o 1 0 0 p e r c e n t a r e g i v e n i n t i ons
Ta b l e I I I . T h e p o we r c o n s u mp t i o n P i s g i v e n b y
L = el ec t r ode s pac i ng
P = q h AV/ k i x l 0 - 3 ( k wh) ( 21) c = c oef f i c i ent of c ons ol i dat i on,
v
Va l u e s o f T f o r d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f c o n s o l i d a ­
wh e r e AV i s t h e v o l t a g e dr op. t i o n f or t he c as e of p a r a l l e l p l a t e e l e c t r o d e s
wi t h a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n i n v o l t a g e b e t we e n t h e m
a r e g i v e n i n Ta b l e I V. Me a s u r e me n t s b y J o h n s t o n
a n d Bu t t e r f i e l d ( 1977) i n d i c a t e t h a t r a t h e r t h a n
TABL E I I I a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n i n v o l t a g e b e t we e n e l e c t r o d e s ,
an i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y i n f i n i t e e l e c t r i c a l g r a d i e n t
Va l u e s o f El e c t r o - Os mo t i c Wa t e r d e v e l o p s a t t h e a n o d e i n i t i a l l y wh i c h d e c r e a s e s
Tr a n s p o r t Co e f f i c i e n t i n a c o n s i s t e n t wa y , t o a u n i f o r m g r a d i e n t at
( Wa t e r c o n t e n t r a n g e 5 0 - 1 0 0 %) t h e c o mp l e t i o n o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n . Va l u e s o f T f o r
t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a l s o l i s t e d i n Ta b l e I V. It
ma y b e s e e n t h a t c o n s o l i d a t i o n o c c u r s mo r e r a p ­
Po r e Wa t e r i d l y f or t he l a t t e r c as e.
So i l Ty p e Sa l t Co n c e n ­
m 3 / s ke ci / a mp
t r at i on ( N)

TABL E I V
Si l t y c l a y ,
10- 3 I x l 0- s - 5x l 0" 7
k aol i ni t e T i me F a c t o r f o r Va r i o u s De g r e e s o f
Co n s o l i d a t i o n b y El e c t r o - o s mo s i s
Si l t y c l ay , Be t we e n Pa r a l l e l Pl a t e El e c t r o d e s
N

5x l 0- 8- l x l 0- 7
1
1—1
o

k aol i ni t e

Cl a y
10 3 3 x i 0 " 8- 6 x l 0 " B De g r e e o f
( i l l i t i c) Ti me Fa c t o r , T
Co n s o l i d a t i o n
Cl a y
1

2x l 0- 8- 3x l 0- 8
1—1
o

( i l l i t i c) Li near V I nf i ni t e I ni t i al
D <%) Va r i a t i o n Gr a d i e n t

0 0 0
10 0 05 0 0 01
Du r i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n , t h e wa t e r f l o w r a t e d e ­
c r e a s e s wi t h t i me . I t c e a s e s wh e n a h y d r a u l i c 20 0 10 0. 0 07
g r a d i e n t , c a u s e d b y a d e c r e a s e i n p o r e wa t e r 30 0 16 0. 0 17
p r e s s u r e at t h e a n o d e r e l a t i v e t o t h a t at t he
c a t h o d e , c a u s i n g f l o w f r o m c a t h o d e t o wa r d s 40 0 22 0. 0 20
anode, e x a c t l y b a l a n c e s t he e l e c t r i c a l l y i n ­ 50 0 29 0 05
duc ed hy dr aul i c gr adi ent c aus i ng f l ow f r om anode
60 0 38 0. 07
t o wa r d s c a t h o d e . At t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e i n c r e a s e
i n e f f e c t i v e s t r es s , Aa ' , f r o m t h a t at t he 70 0 50 0 10
s t a r t o f t r e a t me n t i s
80 0 66 0. 14
Aa- = ( ke / k h ) y wV ( 22) 90 0 95 0. 20

526
Ac t u a l e l e c t r o d e a r r a n g e me n t s a r e a n a r r a y o f c ons ol i dat i on under a pr el oad or s ur c har ge f i l l .
r ods or pi pes , s p a c e d t y p i c a l l y at 2 t o 4 An a l y s i s me t h o d s f o r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e p r e ­
me t e r s i n p a t t e r n s , r a t h e r t h a n p a r a l l e l f l a t s e n t e d b y Wa n a n d Mi t c h e l l ( 1976) .
pl at es . I n addi t i on, v ar i at i ons i n pr oper t i es ,
es pec i al l y i n t he r at i o k g/ k ^ , t hat dev el op Re c e n t De v e l o p me n t s
d u r i ng c o n s o l i d a t i o n l ead t o d e v i a t i o n s f r om t he Se v e r a l r e c e n t s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d a t t h e
t h e o r y ( Mi t c h e l l a n d Wa n , 1 9 7 7 ) . Th u s t h e d e v e l o p me n t o f n e w a p p r o a c h e s t o a n d a p p l i c a ­
v a l u e s i n Ta b l e I V c a n b e u s e d o n l y as a n t i o n s f o r p r e c o mp r e s s i o n .
a p p r o x i ma t i o n f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n
t i me . An a l y s i s o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f l o ws f o r d i f ­ So me s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n ma d e ( L e o n g , 1977) o f
f e r e n t e l e c t r o d e a r r a n g e me n t s , Fi g . 22, s h o ws c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n d u c e d by i n f l a t a b l e c y l i n d r i c a l
t h a t a h e x a g o n a l a r r a n g e me n t i s e f f i c i e n t i n me mb r a n e s i n v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s . On e c a n i magi ne,
t e r ms o f ( 1) p o we r c o n s u mp t i o n , ( 2) a v e r a g e f o r e x a mp l e , a h e x a g o n a l p a t t e r n o f e x p a n d a b l e
v o l t a g e ( t he h i g h e r t h e a v e r a g e v o l t a g e t h e me mb r a n e s i n l i e u o f t h e a n o d e s i n Fi g . 22 wh i c h
g r e a t e r t h e a v e r a g e a mo u n t o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n t h a t i n d u c e an ex c e s s p r e s s u r e i n t he s u r r o u n d i n g
c an be obt ai ned f or a gi v en appl i ed v o l t a g e ) , s o i l a n d , h e n c e , wa t e r f l o w t o wa r d s d r a i n we l l s
a n d ( 3) a n o d e t o c a t h o d e r a t i o . a t p o s i t i o n s s h o wn b y c a t h o d e s i n t h e f i g u r e .
Th e ma g n i t u d e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n t h a t c a n b e p r o ­
d u c e d i s d e p e n d e n t o n t he ex c e s s p o r e p r e s s u r e
t h a t c a n b e i n d u c e d , wh i c h , i n t u r n , d e p e n d s o n
♦ ♦ O ♦ ♦ t h e i n f l a t a b l e me mb r a n e d i a me t e r , h o l e s p a c i n g
♦
a n d c onf i g u r a t i o n , s oi l s t r engt h, and s oi l
o

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♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ 0 * 0 + 0 ♦ -» o ♦ ♦ o ♦ ♦ O
O o o o o o ♦ o ♦ o ♦ o-* ^ ♦ s t r es s - s t r ai n pr oper t i es . Re c e n t s t u d i e s o f
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♦ ♦ ♦ r*1 ♦ c ons ol i dat i on us i ng bot h v er t i c al and r adi al

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SQoort Pa tte rn StrotgM SQuOft Pot tt rn Stoççe re d HtM ogonot Pot tt rn

De n s e l y p a c k e d q u i c k l i me p i l e s i n s o f t , s a t u ­
O Ca thode ♦ Anode r a t e d c l a y hav e b e e n us ed. Fo u r e f f e c t s a r e
Arto / Ba sic Unit ¿5 * 2 S2 2 .6 S 2
benef i c i al :
An o dt s/ Bo slc Uni! / / 2
Cot hodts/ Umt Arto 0 .5 / S 2 0 .5 / S * 038/ S 2 1. Wa t e r i s t ak en f r om t he s oi l t o hy dr at e t he
Ano d t s/ Un i! Art o 0 .5 / S 2 0 .5 / 5 2 0 .7 7 / S 2 l i me .
A v»r a g » Voltogè, V 0 .5 V 0 .5 V 074 V
Powe r/ Uni! Art o 0 .5 3 V ^ S 2 0 .6 0 V 2/ f i S 2 0 . 6 0 V 2/ p S 2
2. Hy d r a t i o n o f q u i c k l i me i s a c c o mp a n i e d b y a
(for some V )
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y d e c r e a s e f r o m 3. 3 t o 2. 2.
Powe r/ Un i! Art o ¿/ o vf ys *
Th i s l e a d s t o e x p a n s i o n a g a i n s t t h e b o r e ­
2 4 0 P 2/ / > S 2 / / O P 2/ e > S 2
(f o r so m t P;

V * App lit d Voila ge p • R tsist ivit y h o l e a n d d e v e l o p me n t o f p o r e p r e s s u r e i n

t he n a t i v e s oi l . Re c e n t e x p e r i me n t s b y
Ku r o d a e t al . ( 1980) s h o we d t h a t e x p a n s i o n
p r e s s u r e s i n e x c e s s o f 2 MPa c o u l d b e
Fi g . 22 Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Di f f e r e n t El e c t r o d e d e v e l o p e d f or c o n d i t i o n s of l ow p o r o s i t y and
Pa t t e r n s i n El e c t r o - o s mo s i s ‘ r es t r ai ned ex pans i on.
3. Th e h e a t of h y d r a t i o n h e l p s t o f ur t her r educ e
t h e wa t e r c o n t e n t .
I n c r e a s i n g t h e n u mb e r o f a n o d e s r e l a t i v e t o 4. Sl o w d i f f u s i o n o f l i me i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
c a t h o d e s i s g e n e r a l l y b e n e f i c i a l f o r t wo r e a s o n s . s o i l l e a d s t o c e me n t a t i o n a n d g r o u n d
We l l p o i n t s a r e o f t e n u s e d f o r c a t h o d e s , wh e r e ­ st r engt heni ng.
as , r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s o r a l u mi n u m r o d s a r e u s e d
as anod e s . He n c e , a n o d e s c o s t l e s s . I r on and Th e n e e d f o r d e n s i f i c a t i o n o f f i n e - g r a i n e d
a l u mi n u m a n o d e s d e c o mp o s e d u r i n g t r e a t me n t a n d s l u r r i e s , s l u d g e s , a n d s l i me s h a s b e c o me a ma j o r
p a r t i c i p a t e i n e l e c t r o - c h e mi c a l h a r d e n i n g r e ­ c o n c e r n i n t h e c o n t a i n me n t a n d s t o r a g e o f d i s ­
ac t i ons t hat gi v e s t r engt h i nc r eas es bey ond p o s a l ma t e r i a l s a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t u t i l i z a t i o n
t hos e at t r i but abl e s ol el y t o c ons ol i dat i on. of di s pos al s i t es . De wa t e r i n g a n d d e n s i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e s e ma t e r i a l s b y s p e c i a l d r a i n a g e a n d c o n ­
I n a p p l i c a t i o n i t i s k n o wn t h a t e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s s o l i d a t i o n s y s t e ms c a n b e a mo n g t h e mo s t e f f e c ­
ma y b e e f f e c t i v e a n d e c o n o mi c a l u n d e r t he t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a v a i l a b l e ( J o h n s o n e t al . , 1 9 7 7 ) .
f o l l o wi n g c o n d i t i o n s : Se e p a g e c o n s o l i d a t i o n ; i . e. , s u r f a c e p o n d i n g
wi t h o u t s u r f a c e me mb r a n e s b u t wi t h u n d e r d r a i n ­
1. Sa t u r a t e d si l t s or si l t y c l ay s oi l s age, c a n be e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l b e c a u s e of t he
2. No r ma l l y c ons ol i dat ed c ondi t i ons g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s t hat c a n be dev el oped.
Pr e f a b r i c a t e d d r a i n s c a n b e u t i l i z e d e f f e c t i v e l y
3. L o w p o r e wa t e r el ec t r ol y t e c onc ent r at i on. b o t h wi t h i n a n d b e n e a t h t h e ma t e r i a l s t o b e
dens i f i ed. Be c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e v o l u me c h a n g e s
Ga s g e n e r a t i o n a n d d r y i n g a n d f i s s u r i n g a t t h e and s t r ai ns i nv ol v ed, new c ons ol i dat i on t heor i es
e l e c t r o d e s c a n i mp a i r t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e ma t e ­
me t h o d a n d l i mi t t h e ma g n i t u d e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n r i al s . Th e wo r k o f I ma i ( 1978) a n d So mo g y i
pr es s ur es t hat dev el op. T r e a t me n t r e s u l t s i n e t al . ( 1981) i s u s e f u l i n t h i s r e g a r d .
n o n - u n i f o r m c h a n g e s i n p r o p e r t i e s b e t we e n
el ec t r odes , bec aus e t he i nduc ed c ons ol i dat i on Fi n a l l y , p r e c o mp r e s s i o n wi t h v e r t i c a l d r a i n s i s
depends on t he v ol t age, and t he v ol t age v ar i es n o w b e i n g u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h o t h e r me t h o d s
b e t we e n a n o d e a n d c a t h o d e . Th u s r e v e r s a l o f o f g r o u n d i mp r o v e me n t a n d r e i n f o r c e me n t . T wo
e l e c t r o d e p o l a r i t y ma y b e d e s i r a b l e t o a c h i e v e r e c e n t e x a mp l e s ma y b e c i t e d . At t h e Ch a n g i
a mo r e u n i f o r m s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n . El e c t r o ­ Ai r p o r t i n Si n g a p o r e a l o o s e s a n d f i l l wa s
o s mo s i s ma y a l s o b e u s e d t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e p l a c e d o v e r a t hi c k l ay er of s of t c l ay .

527
Pr e f a b r i c a t e d d r a i n s we r e i n s t a l l e d t o a d e p t h
o f 43 m t o a c c e l e r a t e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e c l a y .
He a v y t a mp i n g wa s t h e n u s e d t o d e n s i f y t h e s a n d
f i l l ( Ha n s b o , 1 9 7 8 ) .
At t h e s i t e of t h e e a s t a p p r o a c h e mb a n k me n t t o
t h e Du mb a r t o n Br i d g e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r c o n s t r u c ­
t i o n a c r o s s t he s o u t h e r n e n d o f ' t he
Sa n Fr a n c i s c o Bay , t h e s o f t mu d f o u n d a t i o n s o i l
has a s h e a r s t r e n g t h l es s t h a n 5 k Pa . Co n s o l i d a ­
t i o n u n d e r t h e p r o p o s e d e mb a n k me n t wo u l d h a v e
t a k e n 30 t o 40 y e a r s . Sp e c i a l me a s u r e s we r e
t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e e mb a n k me n t s u p p o r t
a n d t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e a n t i c i p a t e d s e t t l e me n t o f
2 m. T h e s o l u t i o n , s h o wn i n Fi g . 23, c o n s i s t e d
o f ( 1) a g e o t e x t i l e r e i n f o r c e me n t t o d i s t r i b u t e
e mb a n k me n t l o a d i n g a n d r e d u c e d i f f e r e n t i a l
s e t t l e me n t , ( 2) l i g h t we i g h t f i l l ( s a wd u s t ) t o
r e d u c e l oadi ng, ( 3) p r e f a b r i c a t e d v e r t i c a l
d r a i n s t o r e d u c e t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n t i me t o l e s s
t h a n o n e y e a r , a n d ( 4) a g e o t e x t i l e f i l t e r t o
p r e v e n t c o n t a mi n a t i o n o f a d r a i n a g e b l a n k e t .
I NJ ECTI ON AND GROUT I NG
I nt r oduc t i on
I n 1 8 0 2 F r e n c h e n g i n e e r Ch a r l e s Be r i g u y r e p a i r e d
a s c o u r i n g s l u i c e a t Di e p p e b y i n j e c t i n g a g r o u t
o f c l a y a n d h y d r a u l i c l i me b e n e a t h i t . Si n c e
t h e n i n j e c t i o n o f ma t e r i a l s i n t o t h e g r o u n d h a s
d e v e l o p e d i n t o a wi d e l y u s e d me t h o d f o r s o i l
s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d g r o u n d i mp r o v e me n t . Be c a u s e of
i t s h i g h c o s t , g r o u t i n g i s u s u a l l y l i mi t e d t o
z o n e s o f r e l a t i v e l y s ma l l v o l u me a n d t o s p e c i a l
p r o b l e ms t h a t c a n n o t b e s o l v e d b y o t h e r me t h o d s .
Mo s t o f t h e e a r l y a p p l i c a t i o n s o f g r o u t i n g we r e
f o r g r o u n d wa t e r c o n t r o l o r s h u t o f f , a n d t h e s e
c o n t i n u e t o b e v e r y i mp o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s t oday .
Mo r e r e c e n t l y i n j e c t i o n s h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r
g r o u n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g a n d g r o u n d mo v e me n t c o n t r o l ,
a n d i t i s t h e s e a p p l i c a t i o n s t h a t a r e o f p r i ma r y
c onc er n i n t hi s r epor t .
Th r e e mo d e s of i nj ec t i on ar e pos s i bl e, as s h o wn
i n Fi g . 24:

E l i s t i n g A l i g n m en t

. E rn b o n k m e n t S tru ts
M om E m bonkm ent
o s R e q u ir e d
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B oy M ud

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Fi g . 23 Ge n e r a l i z e d Cr o s s Se c t i o n Sh o wi n g St a b i l i z a t i o n Me a s u r e s at t h e Si t e o f t he
Du mb a r t o n Br i d g e Ap p r o a c h Fi l l
( Ha n n o n , 1980)

a ) P e r m e a tio n b ) D is p l a c e m e n t c) E n c a p s u la tio n

S a n d - 7* 1
P e rm e a te d s a n d C o m p a c t io n g ro u t

G r o u t f i l l s v o id s G r o u t b u lb d is p la c e s G ro u t f lu id s u rro u n d s
s u r r o u n d in g s o il i n t a c t c h u n k s o f s o il

Fig. 24 Types of Grouting

528
1. Pe r me a t i o n g r o u t i n g i n wh i c h t h e g r o u t f i l l s
s oi l por es . Th e r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y n o c h a n g e
i n t h e v o l u me o r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o r i g i n a l
gr ound. Th i s t y p e o f g r o u t i n g c a n g e n e r a l l y
o n l y b e a c c o mp l i s h e d i n s o i l s c o a r s e r t h a n
f i ne s ands and i n f i s s u r e d r oc k s .
2. Di s p l a c e me n t ^ g r Ou t i n g i n wh i c h a s t i f f
mi x t u r e f i l l s v o i d s a n d c o mp r e s s e s t h e s u r ­
r o u n d i n g s oi l .
3. En c a p s u l a t i o n i n wh i c h n a t u r a l l y f r a g me n t e d
gr ound or gr ound f r ac t ur ed hy dr aul i c al l y
under hi gh gr out f l ui d pr es s ur es i s i n­
j e c t e d b y g r o u t wh i c h c o a t s b u t d o e s n o t
p e r me a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h u n k s o f s o i l . A
l ens s t r u c t u r e i n t he f o r m of a c ar d h o u s e
i s f o r me d .
Re c e n t r e f e r e n c e s t h a t p r e s e n t c o mp r e h e n s i v e
r e v i e ws o f i n j e c t i o n a n d g r o u t i n g i n c l u d e ASCE
( 1980) , Bo we n ( 1975) , Ca mb e f o r t ( 1973) , Ca r o n
e t al . ( 1975) , He r n d o n a n d L e n a h a n ( 1976) ,
Ki r s c h a n d Sa mo l ( 1978) , a n d L e n z i n i a n d Br u s s
( 1975) . Al t h o u g h s u c c e s s f u l g r o u t i n g ma y be
c o mp l i c a t e d , i t i s mo r e t h a n a n a r t . So me
under l y i ng c onc ept s hav e been def i ned, and p r i n­
c i pl es gui di ng i t s s uc c es s hav e been es t ab­
l i s hed. I t i s t hes e t hat ar e t he f oc us of t hi s
sect i on.
Ap p l i c a t i o n s
A n u mb e r o f a p p l i c a t i o n s o f g r o u t i n g f o r s o i l
i mp r o v e me n t a p a r t f r o m s e e p a g e c o n t r o l ma y be
not ed, i nc l udi ng:
why other chemicals could not be used.
Pa r t i c u l a t e Gr o u t s
Ne a t c e me n t a n d s o i l - c e me n t g r o u t s a r e t h e mo s t
c o mmo n l y u s e d p a r t i c u l a t e g r o u t s , a l t h o u g h s o i l -
wa t e r g r o u t s h a v e b e e n u s e d i n s o me c a s e s . In
wa t e r - c e me n t g r o u t s wa t e r : c e me n t r a t i o s o f 0 . 5 : 1
t o 6: 1 h a v e b e e n us ed. Wi t h l o w wa t e r : c e me n t
r at i os t her e i s l es s s egr egat i on and f i l t er i ng,
a nd h i g h e r s t r e n g t h s ar e obt ai n e d , b u t t h e y ar e
h a r d e r t o i n j e c t t h a n g r o u t s wi t h a h i g h e r wa t e r
c ont ent . Ch e mi c a l a d d i t i v e s a r e s o me t i me s u s e d
t o f a c i l i t a t e p e n e t r a t i o n , t o p r e v e n t c e me n t
f l o c c u l a t i o n , a n d t o c o n t r o l s e t t i me s . Se t
t i me s c a n b e as s h o r t as 30 s e c o n d s o r v e r y l ong.
I n s o i l - c e me n t g r o u t s a s o i l v o l u me o f f o u r t o
s i x t i me s t h e l o o s e v o l u me o f c e me n t i s c o mmo n .
Wa t e r v o l u me s f r o m o n e t h i r d t o t wi c e t h e s o i l
v o l u me p e r b a g o f c e me n t a r e u s e d . Th e l o w wa t e r
c o n t e n t mi x e s a r e t y p i c a l o f h i g h v i s c o s i t y d i s ­
p l a c e me n t g r o u t s . Ze r o s l u mp c o mp a c t i o n g r o u t s
wi t h 30 t o 60 s e c o n d g e l t i me s c a n b e ma d e u s i n g
c e me n t , c l a y , a n d f l y a s h mi x e s wi t h a n a l k a l i n e
ac c el er at or . I f b e n t o n i t e i s us ed, e x p anded
p a r t i c l e s ma y c o l l a p s e i f t h e g r o u n d wa t e r h a s a
hi gh s al t c ont ent . Ca r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t h e
u s e o f c e me n t i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u l f a t e - b e a r i n g
s o i l s o r g r o u n d wa t e r .
Pa r t i c u l a t e g r o u t s c a n n o t b e i n j e c t e d as p e r me a ­
t i o n g r o u t s i n t o s o i l s f i n e r t h a n me d i u m t o
c o ar s e s ands . So me " g r o u t a b i l i t y r a t i o s " t h a t
hav e pr ov en us ef ul ar e

1. Vo i d f i l l i ng t o pr ev ent ex c es s i v e s e t t l e me n t .
^P 15^ s o i l
Fo r s oi l s : N =
2. Gr o u n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g u n d e r e x i s t i n g s t r u c ­
^° 85^ g r o u t
t u r e s t o p r e v e n t mo v e me n t s d u r i n g a d j a c e n t
e x c a v a t i o n , p i l e dr i v i n g , et c .
N > 24 : gr out i ng c ons i s t ent l y pos s i bl e
3. Gr o u n d mo v e me n t c o n t r o l d u r i n g t u n n e l i n g
N < 11 : gr out i ng not pos s i bl e
oper at i ons . Ta n a n d Cl o u g h ( 1980) p r e s e n t a
d e s i g n me t h o d f o r d e t e r mi n i n g t h e r e q u i r e d
s i z e an d s t r e n g t h of s t a b i l i z e d z ones ar o u n d
t u n n e l s f o r e f f e c t i v e g r o u n d mo v e me n t ^D1 0 ’ s o i l
cont r ol . NC = T D T - ----------------
95 g r o u t
4. So i l s t r e n g t h e n i n g t o r e d u c e l at er al s uppor t
r e q u i r e me n t s . li gr out i ng c ons i s t ent l y pos s i bl e

5. So i l s t r e n g t h e n i n g t o i n c r e a s e t he l at er al N < gr out i ng not pos s i bl e

c
l oad r e s i s t a n c e of pi l es .
6. St a b i l i z a t i o n o f l oos e s ands agai ns t l i que­
Wi d t h o f f i s s ur e
f ac t i on. Fo r r oc k :
( D9 5 ) g r o u t
7. Fo u n d a t i o n u n d e r p i n n i n g .
8. Sl o p e s t a b i l i z a t i o n . N > 5 : gr out i ng c ons i s t ent l y pos s i bl e
K
9. Vo l u me c h a n g e c o n t r o l o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l s NR < 2 : g r o u t i n g n o t p o s s i b l e
t h r o u g h p r e s s u r e i n j e c t i o n o f l i me s l u r r y .
Th i s t e c h n i q u e i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n d l i k e l y
t o be ef f ec t i v e onl y under s pec i al c ondi ­ Ad d i t i o n a l g u i d e l i n e s r e l a t i n g t o p a r t i c u l a t e
t i o n s ( I n g l e s a n d Ne i l , 1 970; Wr i g h t , 1973; g r o u t t y p e s a n d p a r t i c l e s i z e ar e:
Bl a c k l o c k , 1 9 7 5 ; Th o mp s o n a n d Ro b n e t t , 1 9 7 6 ) . Ty p e s I a n d I I Po r t l a n d c e me n t ar e s ui t abl e f or
s oi l s c o a r s e r t h a n 0 . 6 0 mm.
Gr o u t Ty p e s
Ty p e I I I Po r t l a n d c e me n t i s s ui t abl e f or s oi l s
Pe r me a t i o n g r o u t s a r e o f t wo t y p e s . Pa r t i c u l a t e c o a r s e r t h a n 0 . 4 2 mm.
g r o u t s a r e ma d e u p o f c e me n t , s o i l , o r c l a y a n d
mi x t u r e s o f t h e s e . Ch e mi c a l g r o u t s a r e c o mp o s e d Be n t o n i t e i s s ui t abl e f or s oi l s c oar s er t han
o f v a r i o u s ma t e r i a l s i n s o l u t i o n . Di s p l a c e me n t 0 . 2 5 mm.
o r c o mp a c t i o n g r o u t s a r e s t i f f , l o w s l u mp ( 0 t o
50 mm) mi x t u r e s o f c e me n t , s o i l , a n d / o r c l a y a n d Ch e mi c a l Gr o u t s
wa t e r . L i me s l u r r i e s a r e t h e mo s t c o mmo n l y u s e d
e n c a p s u l a t i o n - t y p e g r o u t s ; h o we v e r , t h e r e i s n o Ch e mi c a l g r o u t s o f f e r t h e a d v a n t a g e s o v e r p a r t i ­
i n h e r e n t r e a s o n , e x c e p t p e r h a p s f o r e c o n o mi c s . c u l a t e g r o u t s t h a t t h e y c a n p e n e t r a t e s ma l l e r

35. Volyme 4 529

p o r e s , as ma y b e s e e n i n Fi g. 25, t h e y h a v e a
l o we r v i s c o s i t y , a n d t h e r e i s a b e t t e r c o n t r o l
o f s e t t i me . On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e i r t e c h n o l o g y
i s mo r e c o mp l e x a n d c o s t s a r e h i g h . So i l s c o n ­
t a i n i n g l e s s t h a n 10 p e r c e n t f i n e s ( <74 y m p a r ­
t i c l e s ) c a n u s u a l l y b e p e r me a t i o n g r o u t e d wi t h
c h e mi c a l s . I f t he f i nes c o n t e n t i s g r e a t e r t han
15 p e r c e n t e f f e c t i v e c h e mi c a l g r o u t i n g ma y be
di f f i c ul t . Fo r f i n e s c o n t e n t g r e a t e r t h a n 20
p e r c e n t p e r me a t i o n g r o u t i n g wi l l n o t b e p o s s i b l e ,
b u t c h e mi c a l g r o u t s c a n b e d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g a n d
t hr ough hy dr aul i c f r ac t ur es .
s y s t e ms . Pr e mi x e d c o mb i n a t i o n s o f s o d i u m s i l i ­
c at e and appr opr i at e c at al y s t s and ac t i v at or s
a r e f o r mu l a t e d t o g i v e s p e c i f i e d d e s i g n s t r e n g t h
a n d s e t t i n g t i me s . A t wo - s h o t s i l i c a t e — CO2 g a s
s y s t e m has b een d e v e l o p e d an d i s u s e d i n t he
l o e s s s o i l s o f t h e USSR ( So k o l o v i c h , 1973) .
Ammo n i a g a s i n j e c t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n f o u n d e f f e c ­
t i v e i n l o e s s wh e r e i n o n l y mo d e s t s t r e n g t h e n i n g
i s r equi r ed t o pr ev ent c ol l aps e. Th e r e a c t i o n
i s t o r e p l a c e a d s o r b e d Ca + + b y NH^ +. Th e l i b e ­
r a t e d Ca + + c o mb i n e s wi t h wa t e r t o f o r m Ca f OH^ ,
wh i c h a c t s as a c e me n t i n g s t a b i l i z e r .

Th e mo s t c o mmo n c h e mi c a l g r o u t c l a s s e s a r e s i l i ­ Gr o u t s c o n t a i n i n g 25 t o 30 p e r c e n t s i l i c a t e a r e
c a t e s , l i g n i n s , r e s i n s , a c r y l a mi d e s , a n d t y p i c a l f o r wa t e r p r o o f i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . Wh e r e
ur et hanes . Hu n d r e d s o f d i f f e r e n t f o r mu l a t i o n s h i g h s t r e n g t h i s r e q u i r e d f or s t r u c t u r a l a p p l i ­
h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d wi t h i n t h e s e c l a s s e s . Of c a t i o n s , s i l i c a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 40 t o 60
t h e m, h o we v e r , t h e s i l i c a t e s a c c o u n t f o r mo r e p er c ent ar e us ed. Un i q u e l o c a l c h e mi c a l c o n d i ­
t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f p r e s e n t c h e mi c a l g r o u t us e, t i o n s ma y i n f l u e n c e r e a c t i v i t y . T e mp e r a t u r e
t h e o t h e r s b e i n g l i mi t e d f o r r e a s o n s o f c o s t and e f f e c t s , d i l u t i o n b y g r o u n d wa t e r , c a t a l y s t a d s o r ­
t ox i c i t y . p t i o n b y s a n d , a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ma y i n f l u e n c e
g e l t i me a n d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e r e s u l t a n t g r o u t .
" Two - s h o t " s i l i c at e s y s t e ms , i n wh i c h a f i r s t Ac c o r d i n g l y , p r e l i mi n a r y t e s t i n g i s d e s i r a b l e .
i nj ec t i on of s odi um s i l i c a t e i s f o l l o we d b y a
s ec ond i nj ec t i on of a ma t e r i a l s u c h a s Ca Cl 2 t o T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f c h e mi c a l l y g r o u t e d s a n d s c o v e r
c a u s e f o r ma t i on of i ns ol ubl e pr ec i pi t at ed s i l i c a a wi d e r a n g e . So me t y p i c a l v a l u e s o f v i s c o s i t y
g el , h a v e l a r gel y gi v e n wa y t o o n e - s h o t s i l i c a t e a n d c o mp r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h f o r d i f f e r e n t g r o u t

Grove / Sortd sat Cla y

1------------ 1 I I I I 1
(Conce ntra tion, %)

Po rt la n d Ce m e nt Vi sc o si t y, cps (wa t e r= !)

I Co m p re ssive S t re n gt h , k N / m 2]

S ilic a t e s (I O ) I 5 , (3 0 ) 15 [ < 3 0 0 -> 3 0 0 0 7

Re sin s (1 0 )1 .4 , (3 0 )3 .5 , ( 4 0 ) 9 , ( 5 0 ) 3 0 [> 3 0 0 0 ]

Li g n i n s (1 0 )1 .4 , (3 0 ) I I , [ < 3 0 0 ]

A c r yl a m i d e s (1 0 )1 .3 , (3 0 )1 .7 , (5 0 )2 . 5
[ 3 0 0 -3 0 0 0 ]

10 t.O 0. 1 O. OI O. OOl
S o il Pa rt icle Size -m m

Fi g. 25 So i l Pa r t i c l e Si z e s f or Di f f e r e n t Gr o u t Ty p e s a n d Gr o u t e d So i l Pr o p e r t i e s

530
t y p e s a n d t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e r a n g e f o r wh i c h t h e y
a r e s u i t e d a r e s h o wn i n Fi g . 25. Th e u n c o n f i n e d
c o mp r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f c h e mi c a l l y g r o u t e d s a n d
ma y r a n g e f r o m 0 . 3 t o mo r e t h a n 10 MPa . Th e
r e s u l t s o f t r i a x i a l t e s t s , e . g . , Pe r e z e t al .
( 1981) , i n d i c a t e t h a t g r o u t i n g p r o d u c e s a n i n ­
c r e a s e i n t he c o h e s i o n i n t e r c e p t b u t has l i t t l e
e f f e c t on t he f r i c t i o n angl e.

Th e s t i f f n e s s o f s i l i c a t e g r o u t e d s a n d i n c r e a s e s
wi t h c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e i n a b o u t t h e s a me wa y as
an u n g r o u t e d s and. St r e s s - s t r a i n b e h a v i o r i s
non- l i near . St r e n g t h a n d s t i f f n e s s d e c r e a s e as
l oadi ng r at e dec r eas es , c r eep oc c ur s under c o n ­
s t a n t l oad, a n d c r e e p r u p t u r e ma y d e v e l o p u n d e r
h i g h s t r es s l ev el s . Th e s e a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o r
a r e i mp o r t a n t wh e n g r o u t i n g i s u s e d i n u n d e r ­
pi nni ng, t unnel i ng, and open c ut c ons t r uc t i on.
Th e r e s u l t s o f r e c e n t s t u d i e s o n t h e s e a s p e c t s
o f g r o u t e d s o i l p r o p e r t i e s a r e g i v e n b y Cl o u g h
e t al . ( 1979) , Ga r t u n g a n d Ka n y ( 1975) , a n d
Pe r e z e t al . ( 1981) .

Sy n e r e s i s , i . e. , a t i me - d e p e n d e n t t i g h t e n i n g of
t h e g e l s t r u c t u r e r e s u l t i n g i n f i s s u r i n g , ma y
o c c u r i n s i l i c a t e - g r o u t e d s ands , a n d t he
s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e r e s u l t i n g p r o b l e ms i n c r e a s e s
wi t h i n c r e a s i n g s i l i c a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . In
c a s e s wh e r e s e a l i n g t h e s e c r a c k s , as we l l as
o t h e r s t h a t ma y h a v e f o r me d b y h y d r a u l i c f r a c ­
t ur i ng dur i ng t he i nj ec t i on pr oc es s , i s r equi r ed,
a s e c o n d i n j e c t i o n s t a g e u s i n g a c e me n t g r o u t
ma y b e n e e d e d . * t u b es a m an chet t es *

Eq u i p me n t a n d Te c h n i q u e s
Th e d e s i g n o f a s u c c e s s f u l g r o u t i n g p r o g r a m
r equi r es not onl y t he s el ec t i on of a s ui t abl e
g r o u t ma t e r i a l , b u t a l s o t h e c o r r e c t d r i l l i n g
e q u i p me n t , p r o c e d u r e s , a n d g r o u t h o l e p a t t e r n s .
I t i s es s ent i al t hat t he pi pes and i nj ec t i on
p o r t s b e i n t h e r i g h t p l a c e . I t i s mo r e i mp o r ­
t a n t t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e f u l l d e s i g n s o i l v o l u me
i s p e r me a t e d wi t h g r o u t wh e n t h e o b j e c t i v e i s
wa t e r c u t o f f t h a n wh e n t h e o b j e c t i v e i s t o
i mp r o v e me c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s .
Bo t h b a t c h a n d c o n t i n u o u s f l o w s y s t e ms c a n b e
us ed ef f ec t i v el y . Ba t c h s y s t e ms g i v e b e t t e r
mi x i n g o f c o mp o n e n t s , b u t r e q u i r e l o n g e r g e l
t i me s t h a n d o c o n t i n u o u s f l o w s y s t e ms . Ge l
t i me s o f 50 t o 90 mi n . a r e c o mmo n f o r b a t c h
s y s t e ms . Co n t i n u o u s f l o w s y s t e ms ma y g i v e
b e t t e r p l a c e me n t c o n t r o l b u t a r e mo r e c o mp l e x .
Ho l e s p a c i n g s o f a b o u t 1 . 3 m t o 2 . 5 m a r e t y p i ­
c al . Co s t s b e c o me e x c e s s i v e f o r s ma l l e r s p a c ­
i n g s , a n d g r o u t p l a c e me n t i n d e s i r e d l o c a t i o n s
c a n ' t be e n s u r e d i f l a r g e r s p a c i n g s ar e us ed.
Bo t h o p e n - p i p e a n d s l e e v e - p i p e ( t ube a ma n c h e t t e s )
i n j e c t i o n me t h o d s a r e u s e d , as s h o wn i n Fi g . 26.
Al t h o u g h t h e s l e e v e - p i p e me t h o d i s mo r e e x p e n ­
s i v e , i t i s b e c o mi n g wi d e l y u s e d b e c a u s e i t
g i v e s mu c h b e t t e r c o n t r o l o f g r o u t l o c a t i o n .
Th e r e c e n t t e s t p r o g r a m a t L o c k s a n d Da m No. 26
d e s c r i b e d b y Pe r e z e t al . ( 1981) i s a n e x c e l l e n t
c o mp a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e t wo me t h o d s . At t h i s
s i t e mu l t i p l e - s t a g e s l e e v e - p i p e g r o u t i n g wa s
mu c h mo r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n o p e n - b o t t o m p i p e
gr out i ng.
T h e u s e o f g e l t i me s l e s s t h a n t h e p u mp i n g t i me,
t e r me d f a s t g e l t i me s , h a s t h e a d v a nt ages of
g r o u t l o c a t i o n c o n t r o l i n f l o wi n g g r o u n d wa t e r
and i n s t r a t i f i e d s oi l s . I t al s o wi l l l i mi t
Fi g . 26 I n j e c t i o n Me t h o d s
( Ca r o n e t al . , 1975)
gr out t ak es i n v e r y p e r v i o u s ma t e r i a l s . Pu mp i n g
t i me t o g e l t i me r a t i o s o f 10 a r e c o mmo n . Th e
di s adv ant age o f f a s t g e l t i me s , o f c o u r s e , i s
t h a t h u ma n o r me c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e c a n l e a d t o
gr out s et up i n t h e e q u i p me n t .
A c o mmo n r u l e o f t h u mb f o r ma x i mu m i n j e c t i o n
p r e s s u r e f o r o p e n p i p e g r o u t i n g i s a b o u t 20 k Pa/ m;
i . e. , a v a l u e equal t o t he o v e r - b u r d e n p r e s s ur e,
unl es s gr out i ng under a heav y s t r uc t ur e or i n a
s i t u a t i o n wi t h g r e a t e r c o n f i n e me n t . Va l u e s t wo
t o t h r e e t i me s as g r e a t ma y b e u s e d wi t h f a s t g e l
t i me s y s t e ms . Be c a u s e o f t h e n e e d t o o p e n t h e
r u b b e r s l eev e and t o b r e a k t hr o u g h t he pl a s t i c
g r o u t s h e a t h wi t h t h e t u b e a ma c h e t t e me t h o d ,
h i g h p r e s s u r e s ma y b e r e q u i r e d i n i t i a l l y . Hi g h
i n i t i a l p r e s s u r e s ma y a l s o b e u s e f u l i f i t i s
d e s i r e d t o o p e n u p t h e f o r ma t i o n b y h y d r a u l i c
f r ac t ur i ng.
El e c t r o c h e mi c a l I nj ec t i on
J u s t as d i r e c t e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t c a n b e u s e d i n
l i eu of a phy s i c al l oadi ng t o c ons ol i dat e a
c o mp r e s s i b l e s o i l , i t c a n b e u s e d a l s o t o mo v e
s o l u t i o n s i n t o a n d t h r o u g h a p o r o u s ma t e r i a l i n
l i eu of a hy dr aul i c i nj ec t i on pr es s ur e. Be c a u s e
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f e l e c t r o - o s mo t i c p e r me a b i l i t y ,
k e , i s i ns ens i t i v e t o par t i c l e si ze and gener al ­
l y f a l l s wi t h i n a n a r r o w r a n g e o f a b o u t 1 x 1 0 - 5
t o 7 x 1 0 - 5 c m/ s e c / v o l t / c m, a u n i t e l e c t r i c a l
g r a d i e n t ( 1 v o l t / c m) c a n b e mo r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n
a u n i t h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t f or mo v i n g f l u i d s
t h r o u g h f i ner g r a i n e d s oi l s . He n c e , e l e c t r o -
k i n e t i c i n j e c t i o n mi g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r u s e i n

531
 s i l t y s o i l s wh i c h c a n n o t b e i n j e c t e d us i ng or di ­ Ba k e r , 1 9 8 0 ) . Gr o u t b u l b s we r e i n s e r t e d v i a
nar y gr out i ng t ec hni ques . El e c t r o - k i net i c 76 mm d i a me t e r p i p e s p l a c e d 3 m a p a r t t o p r o v i d e
i n j e c t i o n mi g h t b e u s e f u l a l s o wh e r e l ac k of s u p p o r t b e t we e n t h e t u n n e l c r o wn , a f t e r t h e
c o n f i n e me n t p r e v e n t s g r o u t i n g i n t h e u s u a l wa y . s hi el d pas s ed, and t he gr ound s ur f ac e. Th e
s c h e me i s s h o wn s c h e ma t i c a l l y i n Fi g . 27. Pu mp ­
Ch e mi c a l s t a b i l i z e r s a r e i n t r o d u c e d a t t h e a n o d e i n g p r e s s u r e s a v e r a g e d a b o u t 2 MPa, i n j e c t i o n
a n d c a r r i e d t o wa r d t h e c a t h o d e u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l d e p t h s we r e a b o u t 12 m b e l o w g r o u n d s u r f a c e , a n d
g r a d i e n t s o f t h e o r d e r o f 50 t o 1 0 0 v o l t s p e r wo r k wa s c a r r i e d o u t a b o u t 2 m b e h i n d t h e s h i e l d .
me t e r . Se v e r a l e x p e r i e n c e s wi t h e l e c t r o c h e mi c a l
i n j e c t i o n u p t o t h e mi d - 1 9 7 0 ' s a r e s u mma r i z e d b y
Pi l o t ( 1 977) . O' Ba n n o n e t al . ( 1976) d e s c r i b e
t h e e l e c t r o c h e mi c a l h a r d e n i n g o f e x p a n s i v e c l a y .
On c e s c u a n d Ba l l y ( 1977) u s e d a n e l e c t r o - k i n e t i c
i nj ec t i on of s o d i u m s i l i c a t e t o s t r e n g t h e n t he
l oes s under t he f o undat i ons of a t heat er .
" Pi l e s " o f t r e a t e d s o i l 3 t o 4 m l o n g a n d 1 . 6 t o
2. 2 m i n d i a me t e r we r e f o r me d .

Th e e l e c t r o - k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f a p o t e n ­
t i al l y l i que f i a b l e s and has bee n i n v e s t i g a t e d
b y Ya ma n o u c h i a n d Ma t s u d a ( 1975) . Th e c o n c e p t
wa s t o f i l l t h e v o i d s o f t h e l o o s e s a n d wi t h a
g e l o r c o l l o i d a l ma t e r i a l a n d t h u s p r e v e n t
c ol l aps e under c y c l i c l oadi ngs . Si l i c a t e s o l u ­
t i o n s , b e n t o n i t e , a n d a l u mi n u m h y d r o x i d e we r e
i n v e s t i g a t e d as i n j e c t i o n ma t e r i a l s . Th e b e n ­
t o n i t e a n d a l u mi n u m h y d r o x i d e , as n e g a t i v e l y
c h a r g e d c o l l o i d s , we r e i n j e c t e d a t t h e c a t h o d e
a n d mo v e d i n t o t h e p o r e s b y e l e c t r o - p h o r e s i s .
T h e r e s u l t s d e mo n s t r a t e d a ma r k e d i n c r e a s e i n
r e s i s t a n c e t o l i q u e f a c t i o n a f t e r t r e a t me n t .

Se g a l l e t al . ( 1980) r e p o r t t h e r e s u l t s o f a
l a r g e n u mb e r o f c h e mi c a l a n a l y s e s o n wa t e r
l eac hed bot h hy dr aul i c al l y and by e l ec t r o­
o s mo s i s f r o m d r e d g e d s o i l . I t wa s f o u n d t h a t
b e c a u s e o f t h e e l e c t r o c h e mi c a l r e a c t i o n s at
e l e c t r o d e s , t h e e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s wa t e r b e c a me v e r y
a l k a l i n e ( pH = 1 3 . 4 ) . As a r e s u l t o r g a n i c
ma t e r i a l s we n t i n t o s o l u t i o n . He a v y me t a l s we r e
d e s o r b e d a n d c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e c a t h o d e , as we r e
al s o pes t i c i des . De p o s i t s o f i r o n o x i d e , ma g ­
n e s i u m h y d r o x i d e , a n d c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e we r e
f o r me d i n t h e s o i l n e a r t h e a n o d e . Th e s e
r es ul t s s ugges t a pot ent i al l y us ef ul appr oac h t o
c l e a n i n g u p h a z a r d o u s wa s t e - c o n t a mi n a t e d s oi l .
Di s p l a c e me n t ( Co mp a c t i o n ) Gr o u t i n g
Hi g h l y v i s c o u s s o i l , c e me n t , a n d wa t e r d i s p l a c e ­
me n t o r c o mp a c t i o n g r o u t a c t s as a r a d i a l
h y d r a u l i c j a c k wh i c h c o mp r e s s e s t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
s oi l . Th e h a r d e n e d g r o u t mi x t u r e i s a b u l b of
s t r o n g , r e l a t i v e l y i n c o mp r e s s i b l e ma t e r i a l .
Di s p l a c e me n t g r o u t i n g c a n b e u s e d i n p a r t l y
s a t u r a t e d s o i l ma s s e s a n d l o o s e ma t e r i a l s c o n ­
t ai n i n g v o i d s pac es . I t i s us ed t o c or r ec t di f ­
f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e me n t s o r t o p r o v i d e u n d e r ­
pi n n i n g and g r o u n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g a d j a c e n t t o
o p e n e x c a v a t i o n or t u n n e l i n g a c t i v i t i es . Av a i l ­
a b l e e q u i p me n t c a n d e v e l o p u p t o 2. 5 t o 3. 0 MN/ m2
p u mp i n g p r e s s u r e , a n d z e r o s l u mp g r o u t c a n b e
p u mp e d d i s t a n c e s i n e x c e s s o f 30 m. To be
e f f e c t i v e , c o mp a c t i o n g r o u t i n g s h o u l d n o t be
u n d e r t a k e n at d e p t h s l es s t han 1 t o 2 m unl es s
t h e r e i s an o v e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e t o p r o v i d e c o n ­
f i n e me n t .
Co mp a c t i o n g r o u t i n g ma t e r i a l s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a r e
d e s c r i b e d b y Wa r n e r a n d Br o wn ( 1974) , Gr a f
( 1969) , a n d Wa r n e r ( 1978) , a mo n g o t h e r s . Re c e n t ­
l y , d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Ba l t i mo r e , Ma r y ­
l and, U. S. A. s u b wa y n e a r t h e Bo l t o n Hi l l St at i on,
t he p r o j e c t e d c os t of u n d e r p i n n i n g e x i s t i n g
s t r u c t u r e s wa s s o h i g h t h a t c o mp a c t i o n g r o u t i n g
wa s u s e d t o p r e v e n t s u r f a c e s u b s i d e n c e ( Ha y wa r d
Fi g . 27 Co mp a c t i o n Gr o u t i n g Du r i n g Tu n n e l i n g
t o Pr e v e n t Se t t l e me n t s
J et Gr o u t i n g
A n e w g r o u t i n g t e c h n i q u e t e r me d j e t g r o u t i n g wa s
i n t r o d u c e d i n J a p a n s e v e r a l y e a r s a g o ( Ya h i r o
a n d Yo s h i d a , 1 973; Mi k i , 1 973; Mi k i e t al . , 1980) .
Th e b a s i s f o r j e t g r o u t i n g i s a s p e c i a l h i g h
s p e e d wa t e r j e t a c t i n g u n d e r a n o z z l e p r e s s u r e
o f 15 t o 70 MPa . Th e n a t i v e s o i l ma y b e mi x e d
i n p l a c e wi t h a s u i t a b l e s t a b i l i z e r as s h o wn i n
Fi g . 28. Al t e r n a t i v e l y , p o o r s o i l s c a n b e r e ­
mo v e d b y i n - s i t u e x c a v a t i o n a n d r e p l a c e d b y a
mo r t a r g r o u t t o f o r m h a r d , i mp e r v i o u s c o l u mn s ,
p a n e l s o r s h e e t s , as s h o wn s c h e ma t i c a l l y i n
Fi g. 29. J e t g r o u t e d c o l u mn s u p t o 3 m i n d i a ­
me t e r a r e p o s s i b l e . Th e u s e o f a i r j e t t i n g i n
c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h g r o u t j e t t i n g c a n y i e l d d i a ­
me t e r s u p t o t wi c e a s g r e a t , f o r a g i v e n j et
p r e s s u r e , as t h e g r o u t j e t a l o n e .
Th e me t h o d o f f e r s t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f b o t h c l o s e
c ont r ol ov er t he z ones bei ng t r eat ed and a p p l i ­
c a b i l i t y t o c l a y s as we l l as s a n d s . Mi k i e t al .
( 1980) r e p o r t a n i n c r e a s e i n u n c o n f i n e d c o mp r e s ­
s i v e s t r e n g t h of an o r i g i n a l l y s o f t c l a y e y s oi l
t o 1 . 5 t o 4 MPa , s o me 30 t i me s t h e o r i g i n a l
s t r engt h. Th e s e c a n t mo d u l u s a t 50 p e r c e n t o f
t h e f a i l u r e s t r e s s wa s i n c r e a s e d b y a f a c t o r of
2 00 .
Ev a l u a t i o n o f Ef f e c t i v e n e s s
Pr e c i s e d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f e x a c t l y wh e r e a l l t h e
g r o u t we n t i n t h e g r o u n d i s u s u a l l y n o t p o s s i b l e .
As s e s s me n t o f g r o u t i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s u s u a l l y
ma d e o n t h e b a s i s o f g r o u t t a k e r e c o r d s a n d t h e
r e s u l t s of i n - s i t u t es t s and l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s on

532
 TABLE V
I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
R e v o lv in g Ma x i mu m Pr o p e r t y Va l u e s f o r Si l i c a t e
B e g in n in g a nd Gr o u t e d Sa n d
B e g in n in g End o f o f la te r a l d ra w in g up
( Da t a f r o m Pe r e z e t a l . , 1981;
o f d r illin g d r illin g je t t i n g o f je t t in g C o m p le tio n
ro d s ee t ex t f or det ai l s )

Un g r o u t e d Gr o u t e d
U l t r a h ig h
Pr o p e r t y Sa n d Sa n d
p re s s u re
p u ls e p u m p
SPT - N v a l u e
20 100 +
D r illin g
( b l o ws / 0 . 3 m)
m a c h in e CPT - q c ( k g / c m2 ) 125 500 +
Sh e a r wa v e v e l o c i t y
200 1000
( m/ s ec )
Co e f f . o f Ea r t h Pr e s ­
0. 4 5 3. 3
s u r e a t Re s t , Kq
Un e . Co mp . St r e n g t h ( kPa) — 1500

Fi g . 28 Mi x e d - i n - Pl a c e Co l u mn s Ma d e b y Co h e s i o n ( kPa) 0 580
J e t Gr o u t i n g Fr i c t i o n angl e (° ) 39. 5 39. 5
Pl a t e L o a d Te s t
14 1000
Mo d u l u s ( MPa)
r e c o v e r e d s a mp l e s . Amo n g t h e t e s t s t h a t h a v e
been us ed t o ev al uat e gr out i ng done f or gr ound Pr e s s u r e me t e r Mo d u l u s
13 150
s t r e n g t h e n i n g p u r p o s e s ar e t he c one p e n e t r a t i o n ( MPa)
t es t , t he s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t es t , t he p r e s - Ul t i ma t e St r e s s , Pl a t e
s u r e me t e r t e s t , p l a t e l o a d t e s t s , a n d c o mp r e s ­ 500 >1 8 0 0
L o a d Te s t ( kPa)
s i o n a n d s h e a r wa v e v e l o c i t y t e s t s . Ac o u s t i c
e mi s s i o n mo n i t o r i n g d u r i n g g r o u t i n g h a s b e e n Pr e s s u r e me t e r L i mi t
2. 5 10+
u s e d r e c e n t l y as a me a n s f o r d e t e c t i o n o f h y d r ­ Pr e s s u r e ( MPa)
a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a n d l o c a t i o n o f g r o u t f l ow. Co e f f i c i e n t o f Pe r me ­
2. 0 x 10- 3 8. 0 x 1 0 - 5
a b i l i t y ( c m/ s ec )
F r o m t h e t e s t p r o g r a m a t L o c k s a n d Da m No. 26
r e p o r t e d b y Pe r e z e t al . ( 1981) , t h e ma x i mu m
l e v e l s o f p r o p e r t y i mp r o v e me n t o b t a i n e d u s i n g
t h e mo s t e f f e c t i v e g r o u t i n g p r o c e d u r e ( mu l t i p l e
s t a g e s l e e v e pi pe) a n d a h i g h s t r e n g t h s i l i c a t e ADMI XT URE ST ABI L I ZATI ON
g r o u t a r e l i s t e d i n Ta b l e 5. Th e u n g r o u t e d
s a n d wa s f i n e - t o - me d i u mr - g r a i n e d wi t h l e s s t h a n I nt r oduc t i on
5 p e r c e n t f i nes . I t wa s me d i u m d e n s e a n d Of t h e ma n y me t h o d s o f g r o u n d i mp r o v e me n t , t h e
c o h e s i o n l e s s wi t h a c o e f f i c i e n t of p e r me a b i l i t y u s e o f a d mi x t u r e s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s i s t h e o l d e s t
o f 5 x l 0 - 3 t o 3 x 1 0 ' 2 c m/ s e c . Th e s e l e v e l s o f a n d mo s t wi d e s p r e a d . Ch e mi c a l a d mi x t u r e s , mo s t
i mp r o v e me n t a r e p r o b a b l y t h e ma x i mu m t h a t c a n b e c o mmo n l y l i me a n d c e me n t , h a v e b e e n u s e d t o
e x p e c t e d u s i n g c u r r e n t ma t e r i a l s a n d t e c h n o l o g y . i mp r o v e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f s oi l s , b y i o n e x c h a n g e

Execut ion plant

(1) Guide Hole Excavation (2) Monitor Setting (3) Jetting and Grouting (4) Execution
Dr i l l 3- i nch hol e t o bot t om of t r eat ment A moni t or i s l ower ed t o t he Si mul t aneousl y r ot at e and l i f t t he j et of next panel .
ar ea and pl ace concent r i c mor t ar t r emi e pr edet er mi ned dept h and nozzl e at t he speci f i ed speeds. The St eps ( 2) and ( 3)
and j et pi pes i n hol e. Jet t i ng di r ect i on i s set . soi l i s er oded by t he j et and r emoved ar e r epeat ed.
f r om t he bor ehol e i n t he r esul t i ng
f l ushi ng f oam.

Fig. 29 Cut-off Wall Construction by Jet Grouting

533
a n d c e me n t a t i o n r e a c t i o n s , f o r u s e i n p a v e me n t
s t r u c t u r e s f or c ent ur i es . Th e r e i s a v a s t b o d y
o f l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n e d wi t h c l a s s i c a l " s o i l
s t a b i l i z a t i o n ; " i . e. , t h e i mp r o v e me n t o f s u b ­
g r a d e a n d b a s e c o u r s e ma t e r i a l s . Be c a u s e o f t h e
r e a d y a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h i s i n f o r ma t i o n , i t wi l l
n o t b e s u mma r i z e d i n t h i s r e v i e w. Amo n g t h e
c o mp r e h e n s i v e r e c e n t r e f e r e n c e s a r e I n g l e s a n d
Me t c a l f ( 1973) , Ya ma n o u c h i ( 1975) , Wi n t e r k o r n
( 1975) , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Re s e a r c h Bo a r d ( 1975,
1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ) , Mi t c h e l l ( 1976) , Te r r e l e t a l .
( 1979) .
Du r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s s o i l - c e me n t b e c a me wi d e l y u s e d
i n h y d r a u l i c s t r uc t ur es , e s p e c i a l l y f or t he u p ­
s t r e a m s l o p e p r o t e c t i o n o f e a r t h d a ms ( Nu s s b a u m
a n d Co l l e y , 1971; Ho l t z a n d Ha n s e n , 1 9 7 6 ) . So i l -
c e me n t h a s b e e n u s e d f o r p o n d l i n i n g s a n d d i k e s ,
a n d s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n ma d e c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n ­
s t r u c t i o n o f c o mp l e t e d a ms o f s o i l - c e me n t
( Ra p h a e l , 1 9 7 6 , Ro b e r t s o n a n d Bl i g h t , 1 9 7 8 ) .
Ad v a n c e s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s i n s o i l i mp r o v e me n t
u s i n g a d mi x t u r e s h a v e i n c l u d e d b o t h t h e d e v e l o p ­
me n t o f n e w ma t e r i a l s a n d e x t e n d e d a p p l i c a t i o n s
o f c o n v e n t i o n a l ma t e r i a l s , mo s t n o t a b l y t he
u t i l i z a t i o n o f l i me a n d c e me n t i n s t r u c t u r a l
f i l l s a n d wi t h d e e p mi x i n g me t h o d s .
Principles of Admixture Stabilization
T h e g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e s o f mi x i n g c h e mi c a l a d d i ­
t i v e s wi t h s o i l a r e t o i mp r o v e o r c o n t r o l v o l u me
s t abi l i t y , s t r engt h and s t r e s s - s t r a i n pr oper t i es ,
p e r me a b i l i t y , a n d d u r a b i l i t y . Vo l u me s t a b i l i t y
( c o n t r o l o f s we l l i n g a n d s h r i n k a g e ) c a n b e i m­
p r o v e d b y r e p l a c e me n t o f h i g h h y d r a t i o n c a t i o n s
s u c h as s o d i u m b y l o w h y d r a t i o n c a t i o n s s u c h as
c a l c i u m, ma g n e s i u m, a l u mi n u m, o r i r on; b y
c e me n t a t i o n ; a n d b y wa t e r p r o o f i n g c h e mi c a l s .
Th e d e v e l o p me n t a n d ma i n t e n a n c e o f h i g h s t r e n g t h
a n d s t i f f n e s s i s a c h i e v e d b y e l i mi n a t i o n o f
l ar ge por es , by b o n d i n g p a r t i c l e s and agg r e g a t e s
t o g e t h e r , b y ma i n t e n a n c e o f f l o c c u l e n t p a r t i c l e
a r r a n g e me n t s , a n d b y p r e v e n t i o n o f s we l l i n g .
T h e p e r me a b i l i t y i s a l t e r e d b y mo d i f i c a t i o n of
por e s i z e and por e s i z e di s t r i but i on.
Th e a c t i o n s o f o r g a n i c a n d i n o r g a n i c s t a b i l i z e r s
ar e gener al l y qui t e di f f er ent . Th e o r g a n i c s a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r a p i d s t r e n g t h gai n, t hen
c o n s t a n t p r o p e r t i e s wi t h t i me . Of t h e ma n y
o r g a n i c ma t e r i a l s t h a t h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d f o r
u s e a s a d mi x t u r e s ; e . g . , a c r y l a mi d e s , r e s i n s ,
pol y ur et hanes , pol y es t er s , onl y as phal t has had
c ons i s t ent us e i n l ar ge quant i t i es . Ex c e p t f o r
s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s s u c h as g r o u t i n g , c o s t h a s
l i mi t e d t h e u s e o f t h e o t h e r s .
T h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n me c h a n i s ms o f l i me a n d Po r t ­
l a n d c e me n t , t h e t wo mo s t c o mmo n l y u s e d i n o r ­
g a n i c a d mi x t u r e s t a b i l i z e r s , a r e s i mi l a r . En d
p r o d u c t s ar e a s er i e s of c a l c i u m s i l i c a t e
h y d r a t e s ( CSH) . L i me a c q u i r e s s i l i c a f r o m c l a y s
o r o t h e r p o z z o l a n s i n t h e s o i l t o f o r m CSH gel .
Ce me n t c o n t a i n s s i l i c a i n i t i a l l y . Sh o r t t e r m
r e a c t i o n s wi t h c e me n t a n d l i me i n c l u d e r e p l a c e ­
me n t o f mo n o v a l e n t a d s o r b e d c a t i o n s b y Ca ++,
a d s o r p t i o n o f Ca ( 0 H >2 b y p a r t i c l e s , c e me n t a t i o n
a t i n t e r p a r t i c l e c o n t a c t s , a n d e s t a b l i s h me n t o f
a h i g h p H ( 12. 4) e n v i r o n me n t . I n t he l ong t er m
t h e p H c a u s e s a b r e a k d o wn o f t h e c r y s t a l l a t t i c e
o f c l a y a n d f o r ma t i o n o f c e me n t i t i o u s p r o d u c t s .
Th e s e r e a c t i o n s c a n c o n t i n u e f o r y e a r s .
L i me a n d c e me n t a r e e f f e c t i v e i n a wi d e r a n g e o f
s oi l t y pes . So me o r g a n i c c o mp o u n d s , h o we v e r , c a n
534
r et ar d or i nhi bi t r eac t i ons . I n addi t i on, i t i s
u s e f u l t o k e e p i n mi n d t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f f r e e
s u l f a t e s i n c l a y s o i l s c a n b e d e t r i me n t a l . As
f i r s t d e mo n s t r a t e d b y Sh e r wo o d ( 1962) a n d r e i t e ­
r a t e d b y I n g l e s a n d Me t c a l f ( 1973) , i n i t i a l s t a ­
b i l i z a t i o n ma y b e s a t i s f a c t o r y , b u t s u b s e q u e n t
we t t i n g c a n l e a d t o e x p a n s i o n a n d b r e a k d o wn o f
t h e c e me n t e d s t r u c t u r e .
Attainment of good mixing of stabilizers with
soil is the most important factor affecting the
quality of results. Both subdivision of the
soil and distribution of the additive are impor­
tant. Much of the success of the new deep mix­
ing methods discussed later must be attributed
to the development of equipment capable of mix­
ing admixtures with soft, heavy clays to a
reasonable degree of uniformity.
Properties of Lime-and Cement-Treated Soils
Th e s p e c i f i c v a l u e s o f a n y p r o p e r t y o f a n
a d mi x t u r e - s t a b i l i z e d s o i l c a n f a l l wi t h i n a wi d e
r a n g e d e p e n d i n g on s oi l t y pe, s t a b i l i z e r t y pe
a n d a mo u n t , c u r i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s .
Th e u n c o n f i n e d c o mp r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h i s a n e a s i l y -
me a s u r e d p r o p e r t y t h a t c a n o f t e n b e u s e d as a
b a s i s f o r e s t i ma t e s o f o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s . L i me
t r e a t me n t l e v e l s o f 3 p e r c e n t t o 8 p e r c e n t b y
we i g h t o f d r y s o i l a r e t y p i c a l f o r i mp r o v e me n t
of p l a s t i c an d e x p a n s i v e f i n e - g r a i n e d s oi l s .
Ap p r o x i ma t e v a l u e s f o r me c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f
we l l - mi x e d l i me - t r e a t e d s o i l a r e g i v e n i n Ta b l e
VI . Po r t l a n d c e me n t a t t r e a t me n t l e v e l s o f 3
t o 10 p e r c e n t b y d r y we i g h t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y we l l -
s u i t e d f or l o w p l a s t i c i t y s oi l s and s andy s oi l s .
Ra n g e s o f p r o p e r t i e s f o r g r a n u l a r a n d f i n e ­
g r a i n e d c e me n t - t r e a t e d s o i l s a r e l i s t e d i n
Ta b l e VI I . Th e v a l u e s i n T a b l e s VI a n d VI I a r e
f o r we l l - mi x e d t r e a t me n t s a n d c o mp a c t i o n a t
wa t e r c o n t e n t s n e a r o p t i mu m. T h e y ma y b e r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e f o r a d mi x t u r e - s t a b i l i z e d s o i l s u s e d as
s t r uc t ur al f i l l s. Th e y wi l l b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n
e x c e s s o f wh a t c a n b e e x p e c t e d f o r i n - p l a c e
t r e a t me n t s b y d e e p mi x i n g , b e c a u s e ( 1 ) t h e wa t e r
c o n t e n t s i n t h i s c a s e wi l l b e mu c h h i g h e r a n d
( 2 ) t h e mi x i n g wi l l n o t b e as g o o d .
Ne w St a b i l i z e r Ma t e r i a l s
Amo n g t h e r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d a d mi x t u r e s f o r s o i l
i mp r o v e me n t t wo d e s e r v e p a r t i c u l a r c o mme n t
bec aus e of t hei r uni quenes s and pot ent i al .
I n g l e s a n d L i m ( 198 0) d e s c r i b e a n e w a p p r o a c h t o
c l ay s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t he us e of i r on
ox i de. Th e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s h e a t i n g a f i n e ­
g r a i n e d s o i l t o a t e mp e r a t u r e h i g h e n o u g h t o
d e s t r o y i t s wa t e r s e n s i t i v i t y , a d d i n g f i n e l y
di v i ded i r on ox i de, and i nt r oduc i ng a s odi um
s i l i c at e s ol ut i on. Af t e r c o mp a c t i o n t h e mi x t u r e
s e t s i n t o a h a r d , d u r a b l e ma t e r i a l .
Re s e a r c h i n J a p a n ( Ar i i z u mi e t al . ) h a s l e d
t o d e v e l o p me n t of a ma t e r i a l s u i t a b l e f o r
s t r e n g t h e n i n g a n d d e t o x i f i c a t i o n o f h i g h wa t e r
c o n t e n t wa s t e s s u c h as d r e d g e d ma t e r i a l a n d
s l udge. A p r o d u c t t e r me d c e me n t b a c i l l u s ( 3 CA0 •
AI 2 O3 • 3 Ca S0 4 ■ 32 H 2 O) i s f o r me d b y a d d i n g al umi na,
l i me , a n d g y p s u m. Th e s e a d d i t i o n s ma y t h e ms e l v e s
b e wa s t e s f r o m a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s . Fo r
e x a mp l e , t h e ma t e r i a l s u s e d i n o n e c a s e we r e 40 k g
p a p e r s l a g , 30 k g s l a k e d l i me , a n d 30 k g f l u e
gas d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n per 1 m3 d r e d g e d " ooz e. "
Co mp r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h s o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 0 0 k Pa
d e v e l o p e d a f t e r 28 d a y s . Th e f i x a t i o n o f a l a r g e
a mo u n t o f wa t e r as wa t e r o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i s

Pr o p e r t i e s of
q = UNCONF I NED COMPRESSI VE STRENGTH,
COHESI ON ( c, k Pa) :
ANGL E OF I NTERNAL FRI CTI ON
COMPRESSI VE MODUL US
FL EXURAL MODUL US
MODUL US OF RUPTURE
SPL I T T ENSI L E ST RENGT H
POI SSON' S RATI O ( y) :
FOR L I ME MODI F I ED SOI L S
GENERAL I Z ED STRESS- ST RAI N CURVE:
TABLE VI At t h e Ca n t o n , I l l i n o i s Po we r Pl a n t i n t h e U. S. A.
a l o e s s s o i l wa s s t a b i l i z e d u s i n g 3 p e r c e n t
Co mp a c t e d L i me - St a b i l i z e d So i l h y d r a t e d l i me a n d 2- 5 p e r c e n t f l y a s h t o f o r m
s t a b i l i z e d l a y e r s u p t o 7. 6 m i n t h i c k n e s s . Co n ­
v e n t i o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n e q u i p me n t wa s u s e d , a n d
k Pa
c a r e f u l p u l v e r i z a t i o n , mi x i n g , a n d c o mp a c t i o n
c o n t r o l s we r e i mp l e me n t e d . Un c o n f i n e d c o mp r e s ­
c = 60 + 0 . 2 9 q u s i v e s t r e n g t h s o f 1. 0 t o 1 . 4 MPa we r e d e v e l o p e d
a f t e r 4 d a y s c u r i n g a t 3 8 ° C. A s o i l - c e me n t ma t
((|>) : 25° < 4> < 35° 3 . 6 6 m t h i c k wa s u s e d t o s u p p o r t a 3 8 - s t o r y
o f f i c e b u i l d i n g i n Ta mp a , F l o r i d a i n l i e u o f pi l e
( E , MPa AT 1 0 0 k Pa f o u n d a t i o n s , t h e mo r e u s u a l f o u n d a t i o n t y p e f o r
CONF I NI NG PRESSURE) t hat ar ea. Sa n d a n d c l a y we r e e x c a v a t e d t o
e x p o s e a l a y e r o f c a v e r n o u s l i me s t o n e wh i c h wa s
E c = 70 + 0 . 1 2 4 q u f i l l e d wi t h l e a n c e me n t a n d c o v e r e d b y t h e s o i l -
c e me n t .
( Ef , MPa)
E, = 4 . 6 f, - 950 A r e mo v e a n d r e p l a c e o p t i o n wa s u s e d t o e l i mi ­
f b nat e a l i quef ac t i on danger i n t he s ands un d e r ­
( f b , k Pa ) : l y i n g t h e Ko e b e r g Nu c l e a r Po we r Pl a n t i n
So u t h Af r i c a . An 8 m t h i c k l a y e r o f p o t e n t i a l l y
f. = 0. 25 q l i q u e f i a b l e s a n d wa s r e mo v e d a n d t r e a t e d wi t h
b
5 p e r c e n t s u l f a t e r e s i s t a n t c e me n t i n a c e n t r a l
( ST , k P a ) : mi x i n g p l a n t a n d r e c o mp a c t e d i n l i f t s u s i n g c o n ­
ST = 0 . 1 3 q u v e n t i o n a l e q u i p me n t . Th e t o t a l v o l u me of
t r e a t e d ma t e r i a l wa s 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 m 3 . A g r e a t d e a l of
U = 0. 1 d y n a mi c t e s t i n g wa s u n d e r t a k e n i n c o n n e c t i o n
wi t h t h i s p r o j e c t , a n d a s u mma r y o f t h e d y n a mi c
( qu < 70 k Pa ) : p r o p e r t i e s o f s a n d - c e me n t h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d b y
Du p a s a n d Pe c k e r ( 1979) .
CBR = ( 0. 2 t o 0. 25) q
So i l - c e me n t c u s h i o n s a r e wi d e l y u s e d i n Bu l g a r i a
f or t h e s u p p o r t o f s t r u c t u r e s o n c o l l a p s i b l e
l oes s depos i t s . Th e l o e s s i s t r e a t e d wi t h a b o u t
5 p e r c e n t c e me n t a n d c o mp a c t e d i n l a y e r s t o f o r m
ma t s u p t o s e v e r a l me t e r s t h i c k . I t has been
f o u n d t h a t t h e s e i s mi c s t a b i l i t y o f s t r u c t u r e s
f o u n d e d o n t h e s e c u s h i o n s i s g r e a t l y i mp r o v e d
( Mi n k o v e t a l . , 1 9 8 0 ) . L o e s s - c e me n t c u s h i o n s
h a v e b e e n u s e d a l s o i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h h e a v y
t a mp i n g . Th e s y s t e m a d o p t e d f o r a 1 8 0 m h i g h TV
t o we r f o u n d a t i o n e x e r t i n g a b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e o f
230 k Pa i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 30.

Deep Mixing Methods

The in-situ mixing of admixtures, usually lime or
Portland cement, with soft, fine-grained soils to
form columns, piers, and walls has been studied
and applied extensively in engineering practice
in the last several years (Broms and Bowman,
1976, 1 9 7 9 a , 1 9 7 9 b ; So k o l o v i c e t a l . , 1976;
Ok u mu r a a n d Te r a s h i , 1975; Pi l o t , 1977; Te r a s h i
Strain - % e t al . , 1 9 7 9 ) . Al t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t n a me s a r e
u s e d b y d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; e. g. , DCM, DCCM,
De mi c , POCOM i n J a p a n a n d l i me c o l u mn s i n Swe d e n ,
t h e c onc ept s , p r o c e d u r e s an d a p p l i c a t i o n s ar e
g e n e r a l l y s i mi l a r .
a n i mp o r t a n t f e a t u r e . Leac hi ng t es t s hav e
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t h e a v y me t a l s b e c o me t i e d u p b y Co l u mn s a r e p r o d u c e d b y f e e d i n g a me t e r e d q u a n ­
t h e c e me n t b a c i l l u s , t h u s ma k i n g p o s s i b l e s a f e t i t y o f s t a b i l i z e r i n t o a s o f t c l a y ma s s t h r o u g h
d i s p o s a l o f p o t e n t i a l l y t o x i c wa s t e s a s f i l l a r o t a r y d r i l l e q u i p p e d wi t h a s p e c i a l a u g e r b i t
ma t e r i a l s . Th e r e s u l t s o f s i mi l a r s t u d i e s a r e t o b o t h a d v a n c e t o t h e d e s i r e d d e p t h a n d t o mi x
r e p o r t e d b y Ku r o d a e t al . t h e s o i l a n d a d mi x t u r e t h o r o u g h l y d u r i n g wi t h ­
d r a wa l . Fi g. 31 i s a s c h e ma t i c d i a g r a m o f t h e
St r u c t u r a l Fi l l s p r o c e s s a s u s e d f or c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a l i me c ol umn.
Th e mi x i n g b i t s u s e d i n J a p a n a r e u s u a l l y s o me ­
Vi r t u a l l y a n y i n o r g a n i c s o i l c a n b e p r o c e s s e d
wh a t l a r g e r a n d mo r e c o mp l e x , as s h o wn b y t h e
an d t r e a t e d t o f or m an a c c e p t a b l e s t r u c t u r a l
p h o t o g r a p h i n Fi g . 32, i n c o mp a r i s o n t o t h e " e g g
f i l l ma t e r i a l . I n c r e a s i n g u s e i s b e i n g ma d e o f
b e a t e r " mi x i n g t o o l u s e d i n Swe d e n , Fi g. 31.
s u c h ma t e r i a l s f o r e mb a n k me n t s a n d s u p p o r t o f
Th e a b i l i t y o f t h e e q u i p me n t t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e
s t r uc t ur es . Se v e r a l c a s e s a r e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e
a d mi x t u r e t h o r o u g h l y f o r t h e f u l l r e q u i r e d d e p t h
Co mmi t t e e o n Pl a c e me n t a n d I mp r o v e me n t o f So i l s
a n d t o mi x i t u n i f o r ml y a c r o s s t h e c o l u mn i s
( 1978) . Bl i g h t e t al . ( 1977) d e s c r i b e t h e u s e
c r u c i a l t o s uc c es s .
o f c e me n t e d t a i l i n g s f o r t h e b a c k f i l l i n g o f mi n e
ex c av at i ons .

535
 TABLE VII

Properties of Compacted Cement-Stabilized Soil

PROPERTY GRANULAR SOILS FINE-GRAINED SOILS NOTES

Density 1.6 - 2.2 t/m3 1.4 - 2.0 t/irT May be higher or lower than
untreated soil. Delay
between mixing and compaction
causes density and strength
reductions.

Unconfined Compressive C = cement content,% ? UC in

UC = (500 to 1000) C UC = (300 to 600) C
Strength kPa
(UC) (UC) d + K log (x") (UC)d = UC strength at age
o a ° ^ dQ
of j jdays
d = age (days) (d > dQ )
K = 500 C K = 70 C

Cohesion To a few thousand kPa To a few thousand kPa Depends on C, d

c = 50 + 0.225 (UC) kN/m2

Friction Angle 40-45° 30-40° May decrease at high con­

fining pressures

Flexural and Tensile Flexural Strength = (-g- to ^) compressive Need 1-3% cement to develop
Strength
strength

CBR CBR = 0.0038 (UC)1'45 UC in kPa

Modulus Compression
7 x 103 - 35 x 103 MPA 7 x 1 0 s - 7 x 106 Mpa Depends on stress level
E^ = initial tangent modulus
Et = tangent modulus
0. 75 (l-sin<t>) (O’ —CT ) = confining pressure
pa = atmospheric pressure
2c cos(()+2CT^ sin1
in<p J i
n = 0.1 - 0.5
K = 1000 - 10, 000
E. = Kp
l i

Modulus-Tension and Same order of magnitude

E E^ (usually)
Flexure as in compression c t J

Poisson*s Ratio 0.1 - 0.2 0.15 - 0.35

Shrinkage A few tenths of one up to 1% Shrinkage cracks generally

percent inevitable in thin slab
construction.

Permeability k < 1 x 10-6 cm/sec k < 1 x 10”6 cm/sec k parallel to compaction

planes may be up to 20 times
greater than normal to them.

A l i me c o l u mn d i a me t e r o f 0 . 5 m i s s t a n d a r d i n
Swe d e n f o r c o l u mn s u p t o 10 m l o n g i n s t a l l e d
u s i n g l i g h t , mo b i l e e q u i p me n t . Di a me t e r s u p t o
1 . 7 5 m a n d d e p t h s t o 60 m h a v e b e e n u s e d i n
J apan. I n a d d i t i o n t o l i me a n d c e me n t , s p e c i a l
c h e mi c a l s a r e u s e d i n J a p a n t o f i x p o l l u t a n t s
wi t h i n t r e a t e d s l u d g e s o n h a r b o r b o t t o ms .
Swe d i s h p r a c t i c e a p p e a r s t h u s f a r t o h a v e b e e n
l i mi t e d t o i n l a n d p r o j e c t s i n s o f t , s e n s i t i v e
c l ay s . Mu c h o f t h e wo r k i n J a p a n h a s b e e n i n
wa t e r f r o n t a n d h a r b o r a r e a s a n d d o n e u s i n g
l a r g e , b a r g e - mo u n t e d p l a n t s . Sma l l d i a me t e r
l i me c o l u mn s ( 80 t o 5 0 0 mm) s p a c e d a t 0 . 5 m t o
3 m h a v e b e e n u s e d i n Au s t r i a f o r s l o p e s t a b i ­
l i z a t i o n a s s h o wn i n Fi g . 33 ( Br a n d t l , 1 9 73) .
Wh e n q u i c k l i me ( CaO) i s u s e d as t h e s t a b i l i z e r
t he h e a t of h y d r a t i o n c an b e s ubs t a n t i a l , an d
t he d r y i n g of t he s u r r o u n d i n g g r o u n d du e t o t hi s
a n d t o t h e c o n s u mp t i o n o f wa t e r b y h y d r a t i o n c a n
be s i gni f i c ant . Ad mi x t u r e c o n t e n t s a r e o f t h e
s a me o r d e r ( 5 t o 15 p e r c e n t b y d r y s o i l we i g h t )
as f o r mo r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l i me a n d c e me n t s t a b i l i ­
z at i on. Be c a u s e t h e s o i l s b e i n g t r e a t e d h a v e
s u c h h i g h wa t e r c o n t e n t s , t h e f i n a l s t r e n g t h s
a f t e r t r e a t me n t wi l l b e mu c h l e s s t h a n t h o s e f o r
l i me a n d c e me n t - t r e a t e d s o i l s l i s t e d i n Ta b l e s
VI a n d VI I . Th e y wi l l , n o n e t h e l e s s , b e ma n y
t i me s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e u n t r e a t e d s o i l .
Re l a t i o n s h i p s b e t we e n u n c o n f i n e d c o mp r e s s i v e
s t r e n g t h a n d wa t e r c o n t e n t f o r f o u r J a p a n e s e

536
 Fi g . 32 Ex a mp l e o f a De e p Mi x i n g Bi t
us ed i n J apan

Fi g . 30 I mp r o v e d F o u n d a t i o n So i l s f o r
L a r g e TV To we r • , . ,
( Mi n k o v e t a l . , 1980)

Fi g . 33 Sl o p e St a b i l i z a t i o n Us i n g L i me
Co l u mn s a n d Dr a i n a g e

s o i l s t r e a t e d wi t h 10 p e r c e n t c e me n t a r e s h o wn i n
Fi g . 34. Fo r a n o r ma l l y c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y f r o m
Swe d e n t h e s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e d f r o m 2 t o 7 t i me s
i mme d i a t e l y a f t e r mi x i n g wi t h 6 a n d 12 p e r c e n t
q u i c k l i me a n d i n c r e a s e d t o 13 t o 8 2 t i me s t h e
i n i t i a l s t r e n g t h o f a b o u t 10 k Pa a f t e r 1. 3
y ear s . T h e i n i t i a l wa t e r c o n t e n t wa s a b o u t 60
per c ent . St r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s o f 10 t o 20 t i me s
t he unt r eat ed v al ue ar e per haps t y pi c al . Co m­
p r e s s i b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s a c c o mp a n y t h e s t a b i l i z a ­
t i on. Th e r a t e o f h a r d e n i n g wi l l b e i n f l u e n c e d
b y g r o u n d t e mp e r a t u r e . Br o ms a n d Bo wma n ( 1979a)
n o t e t h a t t y p i c a l l y t h e c l a y i n l i me c o l u mn s i s
100 t o 100 0 t i me s mo r e p e r me a b l e t h a n i n t he
u n t r e a t e d s t at e. As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e c o l u mn s
c a n a c t as v e r t i c a l d r a i n s , t h u s a c c e l e r a t i n g
s e t t l e me n t s .

Me t h o d s f o r d e s i g n u s i n g l i me c o l u mn s h a v e b e e n
p r o p o s e d ( Br o ms a n d Bo wma n , 1 9 7 9 a , b) f o r s e t t l e ­
me n t a n a l y s i s a n d b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f f o u n d a ­
t i ons and f or t he d e s i g n of d e e p t r enc hes i n
i mp r o v e d g r o u n d .

T HERMAL ST ABI L I ZATI ON

I nt r oduc t i on
Bo t h h e a t i n g a n d f r e e z i n g c a n b e u s e d f o r s o i l
i mp r o v e me n t . He a t i n g f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s t o
Fi g . 31 Ma n u f a c t u r e o f a L i me Co l u mn Us i n g
mo d e r a t e t e mp e r a t u r e s ; e . g . , h i g h e r t h a n 100° C,
Swe d i s h Sy s t e m

537
 t i ons of heat f l o ws a n d d e s i g n o f h e a t i n g or
r ef r i ger at i on s y s t e ms a n d s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s e s
dependent on t h e s t r e n g t h a n d s t r e s s - s t r a i n - t i me
p r o p e r t i e s of t he t r e a t e d gr ound.

T h e r ma l An a l y s e s
Th e r ma l c o mp u t a t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r mi n e
h e a t i n g o r r e f r i g e r a t i o n r e q u i r e me n t s , z o n e s o f
i n f l u e n c e , t r e a t me n t t i me s , t e mp e r a t u r e d i s t r i ­
but i ons , et c . He a t f l o w a n a l y s e s c a n b e d o n e i n
mu c h t h e s a me wa y as c a n s e e p a g e a n d c o n s o l i d a ­
t i on anal y s es . I n t h e r ma l s t u d i e s , h o we v e r , t h e
b e h a v i o r ma y b e d o mi n a t e d b y t h e l a t e n t h e a t o f
f u s i o n o f wa t e r o n f r e e z i n g a n d t h e h e a t o f
v a p o r i z a t i o n o f wa t e r o n h e a t i n g a b o v e 100° C.
Gr o u n d wa t e r f l o w i n t o a n d o u t o f t h e z o n e b e i n g
t r e a t e d c a n h a v e a d o mi n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e .

An a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s a n d c o mp u t e r c o d e s a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e r ma l c o mp u t a t i o n s . Mo s t a p p e a r
t o hav e been dev el oped f or anal y s i s of gr ound
f r e e z i n g , b u t s h o u l d a t l e a s t a p p r o x i ma t e l y be
appl i c abl e t o heat i ng, pr ov i ded di s t i nc t i on i s
ma d e b e t we e n l a t e n t h e a t a n d h e a t o f v a p o r i z a ­
t i on. A c o mp l i c a t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e c a s e o f
h eat i ng i s v apor phas e t r ans por t of heat and
wa t e r a t t e mp e r a t u r e s a b o v e 100° C. Pr o c e d u r e s
f o r t h e r ma l a n a l y s e s f o r g r o u n d f r e e z i n g a r e
p r e s e n t e d b y Sa n g e r ( 1968) , Sh u s t e r ( 1972) ,
Ha s h e mi a n d Sl i e p c e v i c h ( 1973) , T s y t o v i c h ( 1975) ,
a n d Sa n g e r a n d Sa y l e s ( 19 79) .

T h e t h e r ma l p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r a n a l y s e s c a n
g e n e r a l l y b e e s t i ma t e d wi t h i n r a t h e r n a r r o w
l i mi t s f o r i n o r g a n i c s o i l s i f t h e wa t e r c o n t e n t
i s k n o wn . Th e t h e r ma l c o n d u c t i v i t y , k, i s
u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e o f 0 . 3 5 t o . 3. 5 W/ m • ° K.
Va l u e s f o r f r o z e n a n d u n f r o z e n s o i l c a n b e
o b t a i n e d f r o m Fi g . 35. Th e v o l u me t r i c h e a t s ;
i . e . , t h e h e a t c o n t e n t p e r u n i t v o l u me , c a n b e
d e t e r mi n e d f r o m t h e h e a t c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e
W a te r C o n te n t - % c o n s t i t u e n t s , wh i c h ar e:

He a t Ca p a c i t y
Fi g . 34 Un c o n f i n e d Co mp r e s s i v e St r e n g t h as a Ma t e r i a l ( J / k q ■ ° K)
Fu n c t i o n o f Wa t e r Co n t e n t f o r Fo u r
J a p a n e s e So i l s T r e a t e d wi t h Ce me n t Wa t e r , C, 4186
w
( Co u r t e s y o f H. Ho r i u c h i ) I c e, Ci 2093
So i l Mi n e r a l s , Cm 710

c an c aus e dr y i ng and s t r engt h i nc r eas e i f s ubs e­ ac c or di ng t o

q u e n t r e we t t i n g i s p r e v e n t e d . He a t i n g t o t e m­
p e r a t u r e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 600° C t o 1000° C c a n / C w \
p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t p e r ma n e n t p r o p e r t y i mp r o v e ­ C = Y -, ( 24)
me n t s , i n c l u d i n g d e c r e a s e i n wa t e r s e n s i t i v i t y , u Td ( = . ♦ * )
s we l l i n g , a n d c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y , a n d i n c r e a s e i n
s t r engt h. T r e a t me n t a t s t i l l h i g h e r t e mp e r a t u r e s f or unf r oz en s oi l and
c a n r e s u l t i n f u s i on of s oi l par t i c l es .
/ 'w \
Be c a u s e f r o z e n we t s o i l i s f a r s t r o n g e r a n d l e s s ( 25)
per v i ous t han unf r oz en gr ound, ar t i f i c i al gr ound V Cm + TÏ Ï Ô )
f r e e z i n g h a s a p p l i c a t i o n f o r t e mp o r a r y g r o u n d
s t r engt heni ng and s uppor t . Gr o u n d f r e e z i n g f or f or f r o z e n s oi l s , i n wh i c h i s t he dr y dens i t y
s u p p o r t of o p e n e x c a v a t i o n s i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y ( k g / m3) a n d w i s t h e wa t e r c o n t e n t i n p e r c e n t .
i mp o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n . Pe r ma n e n t g r o u n d f r e e z ­ Th e l a t e n t h e a t , L, f or t he p h a s e c han g e of
i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s a r e n o w s o me t i me s r e q u i r e d i n wa t e r t o i c e i s 3 33 x 1 0 3 J / k g. Th u s , f o r f r e e z ­
a r c t i c ar eas . Ba c k - f r e e z i n g a n d ma i n t e n a n c e o f i n g o r t h a wi n g s o i l t he l a t e n t heat , L , i s
f r oz en s oi l c ondi t i ons ar ound pi l e f oundat i ons
i n p e r ma f r o s t a n d ma i n t e n a n c e o f f r o z e n s o i l s
u n d e r h e a t e d b u i l d i n g s o n p e r ma f r o s t a r e t wo ( J / m3) ( 26)
e x a mp l e s . L ( Ï W>

De s i g n o f t h e r ma l s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n v o l v e s t wo Fo r p h a s e c h a n g e s o n b o i l i n g , t h e h e a t o f v apo­
c l a s s e s o f p r o b l e ms ; n a me l y , t h e r ma l e v a l u a ­ r i z a t i o n , V, o f wa t e r i s 2 2 6 0 x l O 3 J / k g . So

538
 heat i ng f or s oi l s t abi l i z at i on i s t he hi g h ener g y
c os t .

F i e l d Me t h o d s f or De e p St a b i l i z a t i o n b y He a t i n g
I n t h e me t h o d d e v e l o p e d b y L i t v i n o v ( 1960) a
bur ner i s pl ac ed i n a pl ug at t he t op of a
s eal ed bor ehol e. Co mp r e s s e d a i r a n d f u e l a r e
i n j e c t e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e , a n d t h e t e mp e r a t u r e a n d
c o mb u s t i o n p r o d u c t s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d . Th e
s y s t e m i s s h o wn s c h e ma t i c a l l y i n Fi g . 36. In
appl i c at i on s ev er al bor ehol es ar e c onnec t ed t o a
c e n t r a l a p p a r a t u s a n d f i r e d s i mu l t a n e o u s l y .

Fi g . 35 T h e r ma l Co n d u c t i v i t y o f So i l
( Ad a p t e d f r o m Ke r s t e n , 1949)

f or v apor i z at i on of wa t e r i n s oi l

Vs = V ( I W)l 'd <2 7 >

Ap p l i c a t i o n s of St a b i l i z a t i o n b y He a t i n g
Wi t h a f e w e x c e p t i o n s ; e . g . , Hi l l ( 1934) , d e e p
t r e a t me n t b y h e a t i n g h a s b e e n u t i l i z e d p r i ma r i l y
i n Ea s t e r n Eu r o p e a n d t h e USSR. He a t i n g h a s
been us ed s uc c es s f ul l y t o s t abi l i z e l ands l i des
a n d i mp r o v e c o l l a p s i n g s o i l s u n d e r e x i s t i n g
s t r u c t u r e s ( Be l e s a n d St a n c u l e s c u , 1958) ,
c o n s t r u c t a s t r u c t u r a l ma t f o r f o u n d a t i o n s u p ­
p o r t ( Ku r n a k o v , 1 9 7 2 ) , f o r m v i t r i f i e d p i l e s i n
pl ac e, and r educ ed l at er al s t r es s es on r et ai ni ng
wa l l s a n d e mb e d d e d s t r u c t u r e s ( J u r d a n o v , 1 9 7 8 ) .
Bo t h c o mb u s t i o n me t h o d s ( L i t v i n o v , 1960;
L i t v i n o v e t a l . , 1979; Ku r n a k o v , 1972) a n d e l e c ­
t r i c a l me t h o d s ( J u r d a n o v , 1978) a r e u s e d as h e a t
s our c es . So me i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f mi c r o wa v e d r y i n g
( Sh i b a k o v a , 1975) a n d s o i l f u s i o n b y l a s e r b e a m
( Ro m e t a l . , 1977) h a s b e e n ma d e , b u t t h e s e
t e c h n i q u e s a r e s t i l l i n t h e e x p e r i me n t a l s t a g e .
Mo s t s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n s h a v e b e e n t o p a r t l y
s a t u r a t e d f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s s u c h as c o l l a p s i b l e
l oes s . A s i g n i f i c a n t g a s p e r me a b i l i t y i s d e s i r ­
a b l e t o p e r mi t b o t h t h e r e mo v a l o f wa t e r v a p o r
a n d t h e i n j e c t i o n o f s t a b i l i z i n g c o mp o u n d s wh i c h
a r e s o me t i me s u s e d . He a t i n g h a s b e e n f o u n d t o
b e a b o u t as e c o n o mi c a l a s p r e - we t t i n g wi t h b l a s t ­
i n g f or t r e a t me n t o f l o e s s i n t h e USSR. Bo t h o f
t h e s e me t h o d s a r e g e n e r a l l y l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a n
p i l e s o r c a i s s o n s f o r t r e a t me n t d e p t h s u p t o 12 m
( Ba g d a s a r o v e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 ) . Pr o b a b l y t h e mo s t
i mp o r t a n t f a c t o r l i mi t i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
Fi g. 36 Sc h e me f or De e p Th e r ma l St a b i l i z a t i o n
( Li t v i nov , 1960)
1. Co mp r e s s o r ; 2. Co l d Ai r Pi p e l i n e ; 3. L i q u i d
Fu e l Co n t a i n e r ; 4. Pr e s s u r i z e d Fu e l Pu mp ; 5. Fu e l
Pi p e L i n e ; 6. Fi l t e r s ; 7. No z z l e ; 8. Co mb u s t i o n
Ch a mb e r ; 9. Bo r e Ho l e ; 10. St a b i l i z e d Zo n e .
T h e a i r a n d g a s p r e s s u r e i s t y p i c a l l y 25 t o 50
p e r c e n t a b o v e a t mo s p h e r i c . So i l h e a t i n g r e s u l t s
f r o m i n f i l t r a t i o n of c o mp r e s s e d h o t a i r a n d c o m­
b u s t i o n p r o d u c t s as we l l a s b y c o n d u c t i o n .
T e mp e r a t u r e s s h o u l d b e k e p t b e l o w t h e s o i l f us i on
t e mp e r a t u r e t o p r e v e n t p o r e b l o c k a g e . I f onl y
a t mo s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s ma i n t a i n e d i n t h e b o r e ­
h o l e , t h e n a s u b s t a n t i a l l y s ma l l e r d e p t h a n d
v o l u me o f t r e a t e d s o i l r e s u l t . Ga s t e mp e r a t u r e s
r a n g i n g f r o m a b o u t 800° C f o r an a i r : f u e l r a t i o
o f 3 . 5 t o 2800° C f or a r a t i o of 1 . 0 c a n be
ac hi ev ed. To t r e a t a c o l u mn o f s o i l 1 . 5 t o 2 . 5 m
i n d i a me t e r t o a d e p t h of 8 t o 10 m r e q u i r e s 8
t o 10 d a y s . St a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e e d s d u r i n g t h i s
p e r i o d b y p r o g r e s s i v e l y l o c a t i n g t h e f l a me
d e e p e r i n t h e b o r e h o l e wh i l e t h e c o mb u s t i o n
c h a mb e r r e ma i n s f i x e d a t t h e s u r f a c e .

539
Be c a u s e o f d e p t h l i mi t a t i o n s , t h e r ma l i n e f f i ­ c o mp a r i s o n wi t h o t h e r me t h o d s f o r s o i l i mp r o v e ­
c i e n c i e s , a n d s a f e t y h a z a r d s , t h e p r o c e d u r e wa s me n t a n d f o u n d a t i o n s y s t e ms , i t s e c o n o mi c f e a s i ­
mo d i f i e d r e c e n t l y ( L i t v i n o v e t a l . , 1979) s o b i l i t y i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e wo r l d a p p e a r s n o t
t h a t t h e b u r n e r c a n b e l o we r e d i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e . t o hav e been t hor oughl y ev al uat ed. Fu e l a n d
St a b i l i z a t i o n i s c o n d u c t e d i n s e c t i o n s f r o m t h e e n e r g y c o s t s wi l l b e a ma j o r f a c t o r , a n d t h e i r
b o t t o m up. Pr e t r e a t me n t o f t h e b o r e h o l e b y c on t i n u i n g r i s e i s not l i k el y t o l ead t o any
b l o wi n g i n a i r u n d e r p r e s s u r e ( 200 t o 3 00 k Pa) i n c r e a s e i n c o mp e t i t i v e n e s s f o r t h e me t h o d .
c a n i n c r e a s e t h e g a s p e r me a b i l i t y b y a f a c t o r
o f 3 t o 5. De p t h s o f t r e a t me n t o f mo r e t h a n I n g l e s a n d Me t c a l f ( 1973) p r o p o s e a n e q u a t i o n
20 m h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d b y t h i s me t h o d . Ku r n a k o v f o r e s t i ma t i o n o f f u e l u s e, F, p e r u n i t v o l u me
( 1972) r e p o r t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o f o r m a s t r u c ­ o f s t a b i l i z e d s oi l :
t u r a l p a d v a r y i n g b e t we e n 7 m a n d 16 m i n t h i c k ­
n e s s a n d c o v e r i n g a n a r e a o f 3 000 m2 .
100( 6. 4w y, + 0 . 2 5 Ty )
T7> _ ^ Q / OO\
An a l t e r n a t i v e f o r i n - s i t u h e a t i n g u s e s e l e c t r i c
h e a t e r s r a t h e r t h a n c o mb u s t i o n ( J u r d a n o v , 1 9 7 8 ) .
I n o n e s y s t e m c o mp r e s s e d a i r i s b l o wn t h r o u g h an
el e c t r i c h e a t e r at t he t op of a b or ehol e. T e m­ i n wh i c h w i s t h e mo i s t u r e c o n t e n t ( p e r c e n t ) , y ^
p e r a t u r e s f r o m 500° C t o 1200° C c a n b e a c h i e v e d . i s s o i l d r y d e n s i t y , T i s t h e b u r n i n g t e mp e r a ­
I n anot her , el e c t r i c h e a t e r s ar e i n s e r t e d i n t he t u r e a t t h e s o i l , a n d C^ i s u n i t h e a t c a p a c i t y
bor ehol e. So i l a d j a c e n t t o t h e b o r e h o l e c a n be of t he f uel ( 35% f o r o p e n b u r n i n g , 7 0% f o r c l o s e d
s i n t e r e d t o f o r m a s t r u c t u r a l me mb e r . By t h i s bur ni ng) . Th e b o r e h o l e s p a c i n g , d, f or mi n i mu m
me a n s p i l e s , wa l l s , a n d s t r u c t u r a l ma t s c a n be f uel c os t c an t hen be c a l c u l a t e d us i ng
f o r me d . I ns er t ed el ec t r i c heat er s c an ef f ec ­
t i v e l y f u s e a n d s i n t e r s o i l s r e g a r d l e s s o f wa t e r
d = 2 / D / ( i r - F- H ) ( 29)
c o n t e n t o r g a s p e r me a b i l i t y . c c

Pr o p e r t i e s o f He a t - T r e a t e d So i l s
wh e r e Dc i s c o s t p e r u n i t l e n g t h f o r d r i l l i n g
Ch a n g e s o f p r o p e r t i e s o f c o l l a p s i b l e l o e s s s o i l a n d Hc i s c o s t p e r u n i t we i g h t o f f uel .
t r e a t e d b y t h e c o mb u s t i o n me t h o d c a n b e s u b s t a n ­
t i al . Re s u l t s f r o m s e v e r a l s i t e s , s u mma r i z e d b y Gr o u n d St a b i l i z a t i o n b y Fr e e z i n g
L i t v i n o v ( 1960) , i n d i c a t e d a n a p p r o x i ma t e d o u b l ­
Ar t i f i c i a l g r o u n d f r e e z i n g c a n b e a u s e f u l a n d
i n g o f f r i c t i o n a n g l e , o r d e r o f ma g n i t u d e
v e r s a t i l e me t h o d f o r t e mp o r a r y g r o u n d s u p p o r t o r
i nc r eas e i n c ohes i on i nt er c ept , and f i v e- f ol d
g r o u n d wa t e r c o n t r o l , e s p e c i a l l y f o r s o f t g r o u n d
d e c r e a s e i n c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y . Th e r e s u l t s i n a n y
c ondi t i ons , ex c av at i ons deeper t han about 7 t o
c as e d e p e n d s t r ongl y on i ni t i al c o n d i t i o n s and
8 m, a n d b e l o w t h e g r o u n d wa t e r t a b l e . De t a i l e d
f i r i n g t e mp e r a t u r e .
r e v i e w of al l as pec t s of gr ound f r e e z i n g i s
b e y o n d t he s c ope of t hi s r epor t ; t her ef or e, onl y
Re c o mme n d e d mi n i mu m t r e a t me n t t e mp e r a t u r e s h a v e
a b r i e f r e v i e w i s gi v e n her e. Mu c h i mp o r t a n t
b e e n g i v e n b y J u r d a n o v ( 1978) t o a c h i e v e t h e
n e w i n f o r ma t i o n c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e Pr o c e e d i n g s
p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d f or d i f f e r e n t appl i c at i ons .
o f t h e F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sy mp o s i u m o n Gr o u n d
Pr o p o s e d v a l u e s a r e g i v e n i n Ta b l e VI I I .
Fr e e z i n g h e l d a t Ru h r Un i v e r s i t y , Bo c h u m, Ge r ma n y
i n 1 978. Th e p a p e r b y Br a u n e t al . ( 1978) at
t h a t c o n f e r e n c e p r e s e n t s a p r a c t i c a l o v e r v i e w of
t h e me t h o d , as d o e s a l s o Sh u s t e r ( 1972) . Th e
TABL E VI I I
p a p e r b y Sa n g e r a n d Sa y l e s ( 1979) , a l s o a p a r t
of t hat c onf e r e n c e , p r o v i d e s d e t a i l s f or t he
Mi n i mu m He a t T r e a t me n t Te mp e r a t u r e s
n e c e s s a r y t h e r ma l a n d s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s e s a n d
f o r Di f f e r e n t Ap p l i c a t i o n s
c o mp u t a t i o n s .
( Ad a p t e d f r o m J u r d a n o v , 1978)
Th e mo s t c r i t i c a l a s p e c t s t h a t mu s t b e c o n s i d e r e d
t o ens ur e s af et y and s uc c es s i n gr ound f r eez i ng
a r e ( Sh u s t e r , 1 9 72) :
Mi n i mu m Tr e a t me n t
Pu r p o s e o f He a t i n g
T e mp e r a t u r e ( ° C) 1. Ac c u r a t e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t he f r eez i ng
e l e me n t s
Re d u c t i o n o f Lat er al 2. Gr o u n d wa t e r f l ow and qual i t y
300- 500
Pr e s s u r e
3. Po t e n t i a l g r o u n d mo v e me n t s and p r e s s u r e s
El i mi n a t i o n o f Co l l a p s e a c c o mp a n y i n g f r e e z i n g
350- 400
Pr o p e r t i e s ( l oes s )
4. Longt er m s t r engt h and s t r es s - s t r ai n p r o p e r ­
Co n t r o l Fr o s t He a v e 500 t i es of t he f r o z e n gr ound.
Ma s s i v e Co l u mn Co n s t r u c t i o n
600 Gr o u n d F r e e z i n g Sy s t e ms
Be l o w Fr o s t De p t h
Ma n u f a c t u r e o f Bu i l d i n g A n u mb e r o f g r o u n d f r e e z i n g s y s t e ms a r e a v a i l a b l e
900- 1000
Ma t e r i a l s as s h o wn i n Fi g . 37. As a p r a c t i c a l ma t t e r t hes e
ma y b e r e d u c e d t o t wo b a s i c t y p e s :

1. Ex p e n d a b l e r e f r i g e r a n t s y s t e ms u s i n g l i q u i d
ni t r o g e n or c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n an open s y s t em
Co s t of He a t Tr e a t me n t wh e r e t h e r e f r i g e r a n t i s l o s t t o t h e a t mo s ­
Al t h o u g h h e a t t r e a t me n t h a s p r o v e n e c o n o mi c a l f or pher e af t er i t has a b s or bed e n e r g y and
s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f c o l l a p s i b l e l o e s s i n t h e USSR i n v apor i z ed. Th e s e s y s t e ms c a n p r o d u c e r a p i d

540
 P r im e
M over

C o m p re s s o r —

C ondensor

E v a p o ra to r

N o p lo n t , N o p la n t , R e liq u e fa c tio n P r im a r y P r im a r y
e x p e n d a b le e x p e n d a b le p l a n t w i t h in - s it u p lo n t w ith p la n t a n d
s o li d r e f r i g e r a n t li q u id r e f r i g e r a n t cascaded 2nd s ta g e in - s it u e v a p o r a t io n in - s i t u p u m p e d
lo o p s e c o n d a r y
c o o la n t

Fi g . 37 Al t e r n a t i v e Re f r i g e r a t i o n Ap p r o a c h e s

( Sh u s t e r , 1972)

g r o u n d f r e e z i n g — i n a ma t t e r o f h o u r s — h o w­ h o mo g e n e o u s c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g t wo - d i me n s i o n a l
ev er , t h e y ar e c o s t l y an d d i f f i c u l t t o c o n ­ heat c onduc t i on t heor y . Fo r h e t e r o g e n e o u s p r o ­
t r ol i n t he f i el d. Th e y a r e g e n e r a l l y o n l y f i l e s , u n u s u a l g e o me t r y , a n d n o n u n i f o r m t h e r ma l
u s e d , t h e r e f o r e , u n d e r e me r g e n c y c o n d i t i o n s . l o a d s , f i n i t e e l e me n t o r f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e
a n a l y s e s ma y b e wa r r a n t e d . Th e mo s t i mp o r t a n t
2. Ci r c u l a t i n g c o o l a n t s y s t e ms u s i n g a c o n v e n ­
f ac t or s g o v e r n i n g c os t ar e t he s i z e and s pac i ng
t i o n a l me c h a n i c a l r e f r i g e r a t i o n p l a n t c o n ­
o f f r e e z i n g p i p e s ( Sh u s t e r , 1 9 7 2 ) . Fi g . 39 c a n
nec t ed t o a c l os ed c i r c ui t hy dr aul i c s y s t em
b e u s e d f o r e s t i ma t i o n of t h e t i me r e q u i r e d t o
i n wh i c h t h e c o o l a n t f l o ws . Wi t h t h e s e
f r eez e t o a r adi us R f or f r eez e pi pes of r adi us
s y s t e ms g r o u n d f r e e z i n g i s s l o we r - - r e q u i r i n g
d a y s t o we e k s . Th e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o r Q. Re l a t i v e s p a c i n g s , R' , g r e a t e r t h a n 15 a r e
n o t n o r ma l l y u s e d . Wi t h o u t p r o p e r f i e l d c o n t r o l
c ont r ol and i nex p e n s i v e t o o p e r a t e f or l ong
per i ods . Th e p r i ma r y p l a n t wi t h i n - s i t u of a f i el d l i qui d n i t r o g e n f r e e z i n g pr oc es s , t he
p o t e n t i a l t i me s a v i n g s s h o wn i n Fi g . 39 ma y n o t
p u mp e d l o o p s e c o n d a r y c o o l a n t , Fi g. 37, i s
be r eal i z ed. Ap p r o x i ma t e l y , t h e e n e r g y r e q u i r e d
t h e o n e t h a t i s mo s t u s e d . Fr e e z e p i p e
t o f r e e z e t h e g r o u n d i n Kc a l / m3 wi l l b e b e t we e n
s p a c i n g s of 1 t o 2 m ar e t y pi c al . Pi p e
2 2 0 0 a n d 2 8 0 0 t i me s t h e wa t e r c o n t e n t i n p e r c e n t
d i a me t e r s a r e 1 00 t o 150 mm wi t h i n t e r i o r
f e e d p i p e s o f 35 t o 55 mm.
Wi t h c i r c u l a t i n g c o o l a n t s y s t e ms s u c c e s s f u l
f r e e z i n g ma y n o t b e p o s s i b l e i f t h e l a t e r a l r a t e
De s i g n Co n s i d e r a t i o n s i n Gr o u n d Fr e e z i n g
o f g r o u n d wa t e r f l o w e x c e e d s 1 . 5 m/ d a y . Fl o ws as
I n h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u n d t h e f r o z e n z o n e wi l l b e h i g h as 50 m/ d a y h a v e b e e n s t o p p e d u s i n g l i q u i d
i r r e g u l a r i n s h a p e , as i n Fi g. 38. Th e s h a p e o f n i t r o g e n ; h o we v e r , t h e p r o c e d u r e i s c o s t l y
t h e z o n e a t s h a l l o w d e p t h wi l l b e i n f l u e n c e d b y ( Br a u n e t al . , 1 9 7 8 ) . Th e a d d i t i o n a l r e f r i g e r a ­
s e a s o n a l t e mp e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s u n l e s s s u r f a c e t i o n l o a d i n t r o d u c e d b y f l o wi n g g r o u n d wa t e r c a n
i n s u l a t i o n i s us ed. Fo r a g i v e n r e f r i g e r a n t b e e s t i ma t e d a n d s h o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d f o r i n
t e mp e r a t u r e r e l a t i v e l y t h i n n e r f r o z e n g r o u n d s e l e c t i o n of t he r e f r i g e r a t i o n pl ant .
wi l l n o r ma l l y o c c u r i n s i l t s , c l a y s , a n d o r g a n i c
s oi l s t han i n s ands and gr av el s . As t h e s e a r e Gr o u n d Mo v e me n t Co n s i d e r a t i o n s i n Fr e e z i n g
u s u a l l y t h e we a k e r s t r a t a , s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n ma y
Bo t h e x p a n s i o n d u r i n g f r e e z i n g , o wi n g t o t h e
o f t e n b e d i c t a t e d b y t h e s e ma t e r i a l s .
9 p e r c e n t e x p a n s i o n o f wa t e r a n d f o r ma t i o n o f
i c e l ens es , and t haw c o n s o l i d a t i o n ar e pos s i bl e.
Th e t h e r ma l e n e r g y a n d t i me r e q u i r e d t o c o mp l e t e
Ne i t h e r i s l i k e l y t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r s a n d s
f r e e z i n g ma y b e c a l c u l a t e d a p p r o x i ma t e l y f or

541
 R e l a t i v e values, M K H units: a n d g r a v e l s wh i c h c a n d r a i n as r a p i d l y as f r e e ­
z i ng oc c ur s . I n s i l t s a n d c l a y s , h o we v e r , s i g ­
F ro z e n F r o z e n C re e p n i f i c a n t mo v e me n t s a r e p o s s i b l e . Ap p r o x i ma t e
T h e rm a l Shear c o mp u t a t i o n s , s u f f i c i e n t t o e n a b l e e v a l u a t i o n
C o n d u c t iv i t y S tre n g th o f wh e t h e r o r n o t a p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m e x i s t s a n d
t h e o r d e r o f ma g n i t u d e o f mo v e me n t s t h a t ma y
o c c u r , a r e p o s s i b l e ( Sh u s t e r , 1972; Ra d d a n d
Wo l f e , 1978; Ta k a g i , 1 9 7 8 ; Kl e i n a n d J e s s b e r g e r ,
1978; J o n e s a n d Br o wn , 1 978; Ch a mb e r l a i n a n d Gow,
1978) .

De f o r ma t i o n a n d St r e n g t h Co n s i d e r a t i o n s i n
Gr o u n d Fr e e z i n g
Th e l o n g t e r m s t r e n g t h a n d s t r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r o z e n g r o u n d d e p e n d ma i n l y o n i c e
c o n t e n t , t e mp e r a t u r e , a n d d u r a t i o n o f l o a d i n g .
Th e s h o r t t e r m s t r e n g t h u n d e r r a p i d l o a d i n g ma y
b e 5 t o 10 t i me s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t u n d e r s u s ­
t a i n e d s t r es s es ; i . e. , f r o z e n s oi l s ar e s u s c e p ­
t i bl e t o l ar ge c r eep s t r e n g t h l os s es . Th e c o m­
pr es s i on s t r engt h i n s hor t - t er m t es t s at l ow
t e mp e r a t u r e s ma y b e u p t o 20 MPa . Th e Co u l o mb
e q u a t i o n c an be us ed t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t he c o n f i n ­
i ng s t r e s s - d e p e n d e n c y of f r o z e n s oi l .

Th e d e f o r ma t i o n b e h a v i o r o f f r o z e n s o i l i s
v i s c o - p l a s t i c , a n d b o t h s t r e s s a n d t e mp e r a t u r e
h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e o n t he s t r a i n at any
t i me . Th e c r e e p c u r v e s i n Fi g. 40 f o r a f r o z e n
s i l t y c l a y ( Sa n g e r a n d Sa y l e s , 1978) a r e i l l u s ­
t r at i v e of t hes e ef f ec t s . Th e o n s e t of t he
Fi g. 38 Ef f e c t o f He t e r o g e n e o u s Gr o u n d
t h i r d s t a g e o f c r e e p r e p r e s e n t s t h e b e g i n n i n g of
Co n d i t i o n s o n Sh a p e o f F r o z e n Zo n e
f ai l ur e. Th u s , t i me t f c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d r e p r e ­
( Sh u s t e r , 1972)
s e n t a t i v e o f t h e t i me t o f a i l u r e . Fo r ma n y s oi l s
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n s t r e s s a n d t i me t o
f ai l ur e c an be d e s c r i b e d by

— = a + b l og t . ( 30)
a f

wh e r e p a r a me t e r s a a n d b a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t e m­
per at ur e. Th i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e u s e d wi t h a
f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o n t i me t o d e t e r mi n e ma x i mu m
a l l o wa b l e s t r e s s . Fo r e x a mp l e , i f a n e x c a v a t i o n
i s t o b e o p e n f o r a mo n t h , t h e u s e o f a y e a r f o r
t f ma y b e r e a s o n a b l e ( Sa n g e r , 1968) .

Vi a l o v ' s e q u a t i o n h a s b e e n f o u n d t o f i t c r e e p
d a t a we l l . Th e c r e e p s t r a i n , e, a t a n y t i me i s
g i v e n by

(u(0+l) K

wh e r e a i s s t r e s s , 9 i s d e g r e e s b e l o w f r e e z i n g ,
a n d m, X, u, a n d k a r e e x p e r i me n t a l l y d e t e r mi n e d
p a r a me t e r s r e q u i r i n g s e t s o f c r e e p t e s t s a t t wo
t e mp e r a t u r e s .

I n p r a c t i c e t he e v a l u a t i o n of s t a b i l i t y of f r oz en
s o i l ma s s e s , t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f c r e e p d e f o r ma t i o n ,
a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c r e e p r u p t u r e a r e c o mp l e x
p r o b l e ms . Th i s i s b e c a u s e n o t o n l y ma y t h e r e b e
h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u n d a n d i r r e g u l a r g e o me t r i e s ,
b u t a l s o t h e r e wi l l b e t e mp e r a t u r e a n d s t r e s s
v a r i a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f r o z e n s o i l ma s s . Mo r e
d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s of c r e e p a n d s t r e n g t h
R e la tiv e S iz e o f Z o n e to b e F r o z e n , R ' - N o .o f U n it s b e h a v i o r as i t r e l a t e s t o g r o u n d f r e e z i n g f o r
g r o u n d s u p p o r t p u r p o s e s c a n b e f o u n d i n Vi a l o v
( 1962) , Sa n g e r ( 1 968) , Sh u s t e r ( 1972) , Ts y t o v i c h
Fi g . 39 De t e r mi n a t i o n o f Re q u i r e d Fr e e z i n g Ti me ( 1975) , Sa n g e r a n d Sa y l e s ( 1979) a n d Ta k e g a wa
( Sh u s t e r , 1972) e t al . ( 1979) .

542
 me n t s a n d f u n c t i o n a s d r a i n s f o r t h e s o f t
s oi l . Th e y c a n b e u s e d a l s o t o r e s i s t s h e a r
i n hor i z ont al and i nc l i ned di r ec t i ons . Sa n d
c o l u mn s i n s t a l l e d b y t h e Co mp o z e r s y s t e m a r e
u s e d f o r t h e s a me p u r p o s e s i n J a p a n .

Ro o t p i l e s o r mi c r o - p i l e s a r e s ma l l d i a me t e r
p i l e s ( 75 t o 2 5 0 mm) o f c o n c r e t e c a s t i n
p l a c e , u s u a l l y wi t h a r e i n f o r c i n g b a r i n t h e
c ent er . Th e y a r e i n s t a l l e d i n g r o u p s wi t h
i ndi v i dual pi l es bot h v er t i c al and i nc l i ned.
Th e y c an be u s e d b o t h f or s u p p o r t of s t r u c ­
t ur es and f or s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t he i n c l uded
s o i l a g a i n s t mo v e me n t a n d l o s s o f s t a b i l i t y .

So i l n a i l i n g c o n s i
f or c i ng bar s gr out
s uppor t ed. An i l l
f or s u p p o r t of a n
i n Fi g . 41.
s t s of a s er i es of r e i n -
ed i nt o t he gr ound t o be
u s t r a t i o n of s oi l n a i l i n g
ex c av at ed s l ope i s gi v en

Re i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s a c o n s t r u c t e d c o mp o s i t e
ma t e r i a l c o n s i s t i n g o f a l t e r n a t i n g l ay e r s of
c o mp a c t e d b a c k f i l l a n d t e n s i l e r ei nf or c i ng
ma t e r i a l . Bo t h me t a l s a n d g e o t ex t i l es ar e
u s e d as r e i n f o r c e me n t s .

Re i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s u n i q u e a mo n g t h e s e f our
t e c h n i q u e s i n t wo wa y s :

Ti me , t - hr
Fi g . 40 Cr e e p Cu r v e s f o r a F r o z e n Or g a n i c
Si l t y Cl a y
( Sa n g e r a n d Sa y l e s , 1978)
SOI L REI NF ORCEMENT
I nt r oduc t i on
Of t h e me t h o d s o f s o i l i mp r o v e me n t a n d g r o u n d
s t r engt heni ng, none hav e been so i nt ens i v el y
s t udi ed and adv anc ed i n appl i c at i on i n t he pas t
s e v e r a l y e a r s as h a s s o i l r e i n f o r c e me n t . Bo t h
t h e ma n u f a c t u r e o f c o mp o s i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n
ma t e r i a l s o f e a r t h wi t h r e i n f o r c i n g i n c l u s i o n s
a n d g r o u n d r e i n f o r c e me n t i n - s i t u a r e n o w wi d e l y
us ed.
Ma n y o f t h e c u r r e n t a n d p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s
a r e d e s c r i b e d b y Ba r t o s ( 1979) . Se v e r a l o f t h e
s o i l i mp r o v e me n t me t h o d s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n
t h i s r e p o r t a r e f o r ms o f s o i l r e i n f o r c e me n t ;
e . g . , s a n d a n d g r a v e l c o mp a c t i o n p i l e s ; p i l e s ,
p i e r s , a n d wa l l s c o n s t r u c t e d b y d e e p mi x i n g
me t h o d s ; g r o u n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g b y h e a t i n g or
f r eez i ng. Th e r e a r e a t l e a s t f o u r o t h e r t y p e s
o f s o i l r e i n f o r c e me n t t h a t a r e u s e d a t t h e
p r e s e n t t i me: r ei nf or c ed ear t h, s oi l nai l i ng,
r o o t p i l e s , a n d s t o n e c o l u mn s . T h e a r r a n g e me n t
o f r e i n f o r c e me n t s a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n s a r e d i f ­
f e r e n t f o r e a c h o f t h e m, as ma y b e s e e n f r o m
Ta b l e I X. Ap p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t
r e i n f o r c i n g s y s t e ms a r e s u mma r i z e d i n Ta b l e X.
St o n e c o l u mn s a r e c o mp a c t e d c o l u mn s o f
gr av el or c r us hed r oc k i ns t al l ed i nt o s of t
s oi l s . Di a me t e r s a r e u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e
o f 0 . 6 t o 1 . 0 m. Th e y p r o v i d e v e r t i c a l
s u p p o r t f o r o v e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s o r e mb a n k ­
1. Th e r e i n f o r c e me n t s ar e us ed t o c ar r y
t ens i on onl y
2. I t i s a c o mp o s i t e ma t e r i a l i n wh i c h t h e
s o i l a n d r e i n f o r c e me n t s a r e b u i l t u p i n
s u c c e s s i v e l ay er s .
Th e o t h e r s a r e u s e d t o r e s i s t s t r e s s e s i n a t
l e a s t t wo mo d e s , a n d t h e y a r e u s e d t o s t r e n g t h e n
t he g r o u n d i n- s i t u. A c o mp r e h e n s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o m­
p r e s s i o n r e i n f o r c e me n t e l e me n t s i s g i v e n b y t h e
Co mmi t t e e o n Pl a c e me n t a n d I mp r o v e me n t o f So i l s
( 1978) . Gr o u n d a n c h o r s a n d t i e - b a c k s y s t e ms a r e
o u t s i d e t he s c ope of t hi s r epor t .
St o n e a n d Sa n d Co l u mn s
Mo d e r n t e c h n i q u e s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c o m­
p a c t e d g r a v e l c o l u mn s i n s o f t s o i l s we r e d e v e l ­
o p e d i n Ge r ma n y s t a r t i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 ' s.
Me t h o d s f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n of d e n s e l y c o mp a c t e d
s a n d c o l u mn s we r e d e v e l o p e d c o n c u r r e n t l y i n
J apan. Co n s t r u c t i o n of s a n d p i l e s i n l o o s e s a n d
b y t h e Vi b r o - Co mp o z e r me t h o d wa s d e s c r i b e d i n an
e a r l i e r s e c t i o n a n d i l l u s t r a t e d b y Fi g. 5.
Es s e n t i a l l y t h e s a me p r o c e d u r e i s u s e d f o r i n ­
s t a l l a t i o n of s a n d p i l e s i n s o f t c l a y s .
Mo s t s t o n e c o l u mn i n s t a l l a t i o n s a r e ma d e u s i n g
t h e v i b r o - r e p l a c e me n t me t h o d i n a ma n n e r s i mi l a r
t o v i b r o f l o t a t i o n , a s s h o wn e a r l i e r i n Fi g. 4.
A c y l i n d r i c a l v e r t i c a l h o l e i s ma d e b y a v i b r a t ­
i ng pr obe pen e t r a t i n g by j et t i ng and under i t s
o wn we i g h t . I n s o me c a s e s a d r y p r o c e s s wi t h o u t
wa t e r j e t s i s u s e d . Gr a v e l b a c k f i l l i s d u mp e d
i n t o t h e h o l e i n i n c r e me n t s of 0 . 4 t o 0. 8 m a n d
c o mp a c t e d b y t h e p r o b e wh i c h s i mu l t a n e o u s l y d i s ­
p l a c e s t h e ma t e r i a l r a d i a l l y i n t o t h e s o f t s o i l .
Th e d i a me t e r o f t h e r e s u l t i n g c o l u mn c a n b e e s t i ­
ma t e d f r o m t h e r o c k c o n s u mp t i o n . I t wi l l u s ual l y
b e i n t h e r a n g e of 0 . 6 t o 1 . 0 m. Lar ger
d i a me t e r c o l u mn s c a n b e f o r me d b y c o u p l i n g v i b r a ­
t or s t oget her . Co l u mn l e n g t h s u p t o 20 m h a v e
been i ns t al l ed. Th e s o f t e r t h e g r o u n d t h e
l a r g e r t h e d i a me t e r . I n s i t u a t i o n s wh e r e s o f t

543
 TABLE IX
Ty p e o f Ea r t h Re i n f o r c e me n t a n d Re i n f o r c e me n t Fu n c t i o n s
( Sc h l o s s e r and J ur an, 1979)

Re i n f o r c e me n t
Ma j o r Ty p e Re i n f o r c e d Ro o t St o n e
Na i l i n g
f unc t i on or ' ' - - ^ ^ ^ Ea r t h Pi l e s Co l u mn s
r e i n f o r c e me n t

Te n s i o n * * *

Co mp r e s s i o n * *

Sh e a r * ★

Fl e x u r e *

TABL E X

Ap p l i c a t i o n s of So i l Re i n f o r c e me n t
( Sc h l o s s e r and J ur an, 1979)

Re i n f o r c e me n t
— Ty p e Re i n f o r c e d Ro o t St o n e
Na i l i n g
Ea r t h Pi l e s Co l u mn s
Ap p l i c a t i o n

Be a r i n g c a p a c i t y * *** *★ *

St a b i l i t y **★ * ** * *

Se t t l e me n t Ma g n i t u d e * ★ * ***

Se t t l e me n t Ra t e **

g r o u n d wo u l d o t h e r wi s e s q u e e z e i n, t h e b a c k f i l l
c an be i nt r oduc ed t hr ough a s epar at e pi pe ahead
of t he pr obe. Gr a v e l p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n t h e
F is s u re
r a n g e o f 20 t o 75 mm a r e t y p i c a l .

G ro u te d b a rs Sq u a r e o r t r i a n g u l a r g r i d p a t t e r n s a r e u s e d wi t h
c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r c o l u mn s p a c i n g s o f 1 . 5 t o 3 . 5 m.
S h o tc r e te
An e n t i r e f o u n d a t i o n a r e a ma y b e c o v e r e d , wi t h
a d d i t i o n a l c o v e r a g e a r o u n d t h e p e r i me t e r t o i n ­
P hases of B a r s in c l u d e s t r e s s s p r e a d wi t h d e p t h . Co l u mn s ma y
e x e c u tio n t e n s io n a l s o b e u s e d i n c l u s t e r s a n d r o ws t o s u p p o r t
f o o t i n g s a n d wa l l s . Th e c o l u mn s s h o u l d e x t e n d
i n t o a f i r me r s t r a t u m b e l o w. A b l a n k e t o f s a n d
o r g r a v e l 0 . 3 m o r mo r e i n t h i c k n e s s i s u s u a l l y
p l a c e d o v e r t h e t op. Th i s b l a n k e t s e r v e s b o t h
as a d r a i n a g e l ay er and t o d i s t r i b u t e s t r es s es
f r om s t r u c t u r e s abov e.

St o n e a n d s a n d c o l u mn s y s t e ms i n s o f t , c o mp r e s ­
s i b l e s o i l s a r e s o me wh a t l i k e p i l e f o u n d a t i o n s ,
e x c e p t t hat pi l e c aps , s t r u c t u r a l c onnec t i ons ,
and deep penet r at i on i nt o under l y i ng f i r m s t r at a
a r e n o t r e q u i r e d , a n d t h e s t o n e c o l u mn s a r e , o f
c o u r s e , mo r e c o mp r e s s i b l e . Wh e n u s e d i n l i e u of
p i l e or c a i s s o n f o u n d a t i o n s t he s u p p o r t i n g c a p a ­
c i t y a n d s e t t l e me n t a r e o f p r i ma r y c o n c e r n . Wh e n
Fi g . 41 Ex a mp l e o f So i l Na i l i n g f o r u s e d f o r s t a b i l i t y p u r p o s e s u n d e r e mb a n k me n t s or
St a b i l i z a t i o n o f Ex c a v a t e d Sl o p e i n s l o p e s , as s h o wn i n Fi g. 42, t h e s h e a r
s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o l u mn s i s o f p r i ma r y i n t e r e s t .
( f r o m Sc h l o s s e r and J ur an, 1980)

5 44
Th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d s u i t a b i l i t y of s t o n e c o l u mn s
f or us e i n s of t c l ay s of h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y i s open
t o s o me d e b a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e d e t r i me n t a l e f f e c t s
o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n p r o c e s s o n s t r e n g t h ( Ba u ma n n
a n d Ba u e r , 1 974; Di s c u s s i o n , I n s t i t u t i o n o f Ci v i l
En g i n e e r s , 1976) .
0 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e t t l e me n t o f a l a r g e l o a d e d
wh e r e i s t he u n d r a i n e d s hear s t r e n g t h of t he
s o f t g r o u n d a n d F. S. i s t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y .
A v a l u e o f 3 i s r e c o mme n d e d f o r t h e F. S.
Th e s e t t l e me n t o f a s t o n e c o l u mn f o u n d a t i o n
d e p e n d s o n c o l u mn s p a c i n g . A l oad t es t on a
s i n g l e c o l u mn wi t h i n a g r o u p wi l l o r d i n a r i l y
g i v e a s e t t l e me n t i n t h e r a n g e o f 5 t o 10 mm
un d e r t he d e s i g n l oad. Ex p e r i e n c e a n d a n a l y s e s
a r e a s u p p o r t e d b y s t o n e c o l u mn s wi l l b e a b o u t 5
t o 10 t i me s g r e a t e r t h a n t h i s . Es t i ma t e d s e t t l e ­
me n t o f t r e a t e d g r o u n d as a f u n c t i o n o f s o i l
s t r e n g t h a n d c o l u mn s p a c i n g i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 43.
To t h e s e e s t i ma t e s s h o u l d b e a d d e d a n y a n t i c i ­
p a t e d s e t t l e me n t s c o n t r i b u t e d b y t h e u n d e r l y i n g
st r at a.

Al t h o u g h s o me d e s i g n e r s a s s u me c o n s e r v a t i v e l y
t hat al l t he app l i e d f o u n d a t i o n l oads ar e c a r ­
r i e d b y t h e c o l u mn s , t he s t r es s es ar e s har ed
b e t we e n t h e m a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t g r o u n d i n
p r o p o r t i o n t o t he r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s of t he t wo
ma t e r i a l s , t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e
c o l u mn s a n d t h e i r s p a c i n g . A s t r es s c onc ent r a­
t i o n r a t i o , n, ma y b e d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o o f
Fi g . 42 St o n e o r Sa n d Co l u mn s Us e d t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s i n t h e c o mp a c t e d c o l u mn , a , to
I mp r o v e Sl o p e St a b i l i t y t h a t i n t h e s o f t g r o u n d , ac

n = a /a ( 33)
s c
Se v e r a l me t h o d s f o r t h e d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f t h e
s u p p o r t i n g c a p a c i t y a n d l o a d - s e t t l e me n t b e h a v i o r
Av a i l a b l e i n f o r ma t i o n ( Va u t r a i n , 1 977; Pi l o t ,
o f s t o n e c o l u mn f o u n d a t i o n s , r a n g i n g f r o m
1 977; Go u g h n o u r a n d Ba y u k , 1 9 7 9 b ) ; Ab o s h i e t al ,
e x p e r i e n c e - b a s e d e mp i r i c a l e s t i ma t e s t o s o p h i s t i ­
1 9 7 9 ; Mu r a y a ma , 1 9 8 0 - p e r s o n a l c o mmu n i c a t i o n )
c a t e d f i n i t e e l e me n t a n a l y s e s , h a v e b e e n p r o ­
i n d i c a t e s t h a t n f a l l s i n t h e r a n g e o f 2 t o 6,
pos ed. Us e f u l g u i d e l i n e s a r e p r e s e n t e d b y
wi t h v a l u e s o f 3 t o 4 u s u a l . I f A_ i s t h e c r o s s
Th o r b u r n ( 1975) a n d t h e ASCE Co mmi t t e e o n Pl a c e ­
s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f s t o n e o r s a n d c o l u mn , a n d A c
me n t a n d I mp r o v e me n t o f So i l s ( 1978) . An a l y t i c a l
i s t h e p l a n a r e a o f c l a y p e r c o l u mn , t h e n
me t h o d s a r e p r o p o s e d b y Ba u ma n n a n d Ba u e r ( 1 974) ,
Hu g h e s a n d Wi t h e r s ( 1974) , Pr i e b e ( 1976) , Ba' l aam
e t al . ( 1977) , Ab o s h i e t a l . ( 1979) , a n d (A + A )a = A a + A a ( 34)
s c s s c c
Go u g h n o u r a n d Ba y u k ( 1 9 7 9 a ) . • I n s p i t e o f t h e
c o mp l e x i t y o f t h e l o a d t r a n s f e r me c h a n i s m i n a
wh e r e a i s t h e a v e r a g e a p p l i e d s t r e s s . A r e­
s t o n e c o l u mn f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e n e e d f o r s i mp l i ­
p l a c e me n t r a t i o , a s , ma y b e d e f i n e d as
f y i n g a s s u mp t i o n s i n a n a l y s i s , t h e r e s u l t s
o b t a i n e d b y t h e s e v e r a l me t h o d s a r e o f t e n i n
r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e me n t wi t h e a c h o t h e r a n d wi t h a = A / (A + A ) ( 35)
s s s c
f i e l d me a s u r e me n t s . Fo r a n a l y s i s p u r p o s e s t h e
e f f e c t i v e c o h e s i o n c' a n d f r i c t i o n a n g l e (Ji g' o f
c o mp a c t e d s t o n e c o l u mn s c a n b e t a k e n a s 0 a n d Th u s
35° t o 40° , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Mo d u l u s v a l u e s i n t h e
r a n g e o f 40 t o 70 MN/ m2 a r e a p p r o p r i a t e . a c = ct / [ 1 + ( n - 1 ) a ] = uc a ( 36)

T h e l o a d c a p a c i t y o f a s t o n e o r s a n d c o l u mn i s ( 37)
= n a / [ 1+ ( n - 1) a g ] = us a
c o n t r o l l e d by t he p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e of t he s of t
s o i l t h a t c a n b e mo b i l i z e d t o wi t h s t a n d r a d i a l
b u l g i n g a n d b y t h e f r i c t i o n a n g l e o f t h e c o mp a c ­ T h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e me n t , s, of unr ei nf or c ed
t e d ma t e r i a l i n t h e c o l u mn . Th e r e q u i r e d mi n i ­ g r o u n d wo u l d b e
mu m l e n g t h o f c o l u mn i n s o f t s o i l c a n b e e s t i ­
ma t e d b a s e d o n t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e n g t h a l o n g t h e
s = m • a • H ( 38)
s i des and t he end b ear i ng c apac i t y . I n pr ac t i c e, s
h o we v e r , c o l u mn s a r e o r d i n a r i l y c a r r i e d t h r o u g h
t h e s o f t l a y e r t o a f i r me r b e a r i n g l a y e r b e l o w wh e r e ms i s t h e c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y a n d H i s t h e
i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e s e t t l e me n t . Des i gn l ay er t hi c k nes s . Th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e me n t
v a l u e s o f 20 t o 30 t o n s p e r c o l u mn a r e t y p i c a l o f t h e c o mp o s i t e f o u n d a t i o n , s ' , wo u l d be
f o r c o l u mn s i n s o f t t o me d i u m s t i f f c l a y s . Bo t h
l i mi t a n a l y s e s ( Hu g h e s a n d Wi t h e r s , 1974) a n d s ' = m • a • H = m • p a • H ( 39)
e x p e r i e n c e ( Th o r b u r n , 1975) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s c s c
a l l o wa b l e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s , a v , o n a s i n g l e
c o l u mn c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y
and t he s e t t l e me n t r e d u c t i o n r at i o. S. wi l l be

25 Tf
( 32) B = Uc = 1 / [ 1 + ( n - 1) a g ] ( 40)
F. S.

3 6. V o ly m e 4
545
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f irm ground
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sh e a r displa ce m e nts ne gle cte d

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£ £ k N / m 2 (0 4 tsf )
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Fi g. 43 Ef f e c t of St o n e Co l u mn s o n An t i c i p a t e d F o u n d a t i o n Se t t l e me n t
( Gr e e n wo o d , 1970)

a s s u mi n g t h a t t h e c l a y a n d c o l u mn s s e t t l e e q u a l St r e n g t h x g i s o b t a i n e d f r om
a mo u n t s . Eq u a t i o n ( 40) s h o ws , as wo u l d be
ex pec t ed, t hat t he h i g h e r t he v a l u e s of s t r es s
t g = p z t an<( >g • c o s a ( 42)
c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a t i o a n d r e p l a c e me n t r a t i o t h e
g r e a t e r wi l l b e t h e r e d u c t i o n i n s e t t l e me n t .
Al t e r n a t i v e me t h o d s f o r s e t t l e me n t a n a l y s i s wh e r e p z i s t h e v e r t i c a l s t r es s on t he s l i d i n g
b a s e d o n t h e r a d i a l e x p a n s i o n a n d v e r t i c a l c o m­ s ur f ac e, gi v en by
p r e s s i o n o f t h e c o l u mn a r e p r o p o s e d b y Hu g h e s
e t al . ( 1975) a n d Pr i e b e ( 1976) . Pr i e b e
d e v e l o p e d c h a r t s e n a b l i n g t h e s i mp l e e s t i ma t i o n p = v 'z + a y ( 43)
's z s
o f s e t t l e me n t r e d u c t i o n .

Dr a i n a g e t h r o u g h s a n d a n d g r a v e l c o l u mn s a c c e l ­ i n wh i c h y ' z i s t h e e f f e c t i v e o v e r b u r d e n p r e s ­
e r a t e s s e t t l e me n t s . Ba l a a m e t al . ( 197 6) p r e ­ s u r e o f t h e c o l u mn i t s e l f a n d ct z y s i s t h e i n ­
s e n t e d a n a l y s i s me t h o d s . Go u g h n o u r a n d Ba y u k c r e me n t o f s t r e s s d u e t o s u r f a c e l o a d i n g . ys
( 1979a) s u g g e s t e d t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l s a n d - d r a i n i s g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n ( 37) , a n d ct 2 i s o b t a i n e d
us i ng el as t i c t heor y s t r es s di s t r i but i ons .
t h e o r y i s s u i t a b l e f o r t i me - s e t t l e me n t c o mp u t a ­
t i ons .
I n t h e me t h o d d e v e l o p e d _ b y Pr i e b e ( 1978) c o m­
An a l y s i s o f t h e r e i n f o r c i n g e f f e c t o f s t o n e a n d p o s i t e v a l u e s o f <}> a n d c a r e u s e d , a n d t h e y a r e
s a n d c o l u mn s i n s t a b i l i t y a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e d e t e r mi n e d b y
t y p e s h o wn i n Fi g. 42 i s u s u a l l y d o n e o n t h e
b a s i s of a c o mp o s i t e s h e a r s t r e n g t h b a s e d on t an<| > = m • t an<( i g + ( 1 - m) • t amf i j , ( 44)
t he u n d r a i n e d s t r e n g t h of t he c l ay , t he t r a n s ­
v e r s e s h e a r s t r e n g t h o f t h e c ol umns , a n d t h e
c = ( 1 - m) • c ( 45)
r e p l a c e me n t r a t i o . As t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h o f t h e
c o l u mn s d e p e n d s p r i ma r i l y o n t h e n o r ma l s t r e s s
on t he s hear pl ane, and t hi s s t r es s i s not wh e r e c a n d 4>c a r e t h e s t r e n g t h p a r a me t e r s o f t he
r e a d i l y d e t e r mi n e d o wi n g t o t h e c o mp l e x i t y of u n i mp r o v e d s o i l ma s s . Th e p a r a me t e r m i s t h e
t h e c o l u mn - s o f t g r o u n d i n t e r a c t i o n s , a s s u mp ­ r e l a t i v e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n b e t we e n s o f t s o i l
t i o n s a n d a p p r o x i ma t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d . Bo t h a n d c o l u mn d e f i n e d b y
Pr i e b e ( 1978) a n d Ab o s h i e t al . ( 1979) h a v e p r e ­
s e n t e d me t h o d s f o r ma k i n g t h e s e d e t e r mi n a t i o n s .

Th e c o mp o s i t e s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e t a t a n y p o i n t
a l o n g t h e c i r c u l a r s l i d i n g s u r f a c e , Fi g. 42, i s
o b t a i n e d b y s u mmi n g t h e s t r e n g t h s T s and T c Gr a p h s , b a s e d o n t h e r e p l a c e me n t r a t i o , a g a n d
f o r t h e c o l u mn a n d c l a y , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( Ab o s h i t h e c o l u mn f r i c t i o n a n g l e , <|>g a r e g i v e n b y
et a l . , 1979) . Pr i e b e f o r t h e r a p i d d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f m. Al t e r ­
n a t i v e l y , i t wo u l d s e e m r e a s o n a b l e t o ma k e u s e
t = ( l - a s ) xc + a s t g c os a ( 41) o f e q u a t i o n s ( 36) a n d ( 37) a n d t h e f a c t t h a t n

546
i s l i k el y t o be i n t he r ange of 3 t o 4 t o det er ­
mi n e a s u i t a b l e v a l u e o f m.
Wh e n s t o n e c o l u mn s we r e p r o p o s e d f o r s u p p o r t o f
a l a r g e s e wa g e t r e a t me n t p l a n t i n Ca l i f o r n i a ,
t h e r e wa s c o n c e r n a b o u t b o t h t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e
c o l u mn s t o t r a n s mi t h o r i z o n t a l s h e a r a n d t h e
i n t e g r i t y o f t h e c o l u mn s s h o u l d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
g r o u n d l i q u e f y i n t he ev e n t of an e a r t hquak e.
Ac c o r d i n g l y , l a r g e s c a l e s h e a r t e s t s we r e d o n e
o n s t o n e c o l u mn s t o d e mo n s t r a t e t h e i r a d e q u a c y
( En g e l h a r d t a n d Go l d i n g , 1 9 7 5 ) . Th e r e s u l t s
d e mo n s t r a t e d mo r e t h a n a d e q u a t e s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e .
I t s e e ms u n l i k e l y t h a t i n s u f f i c i e n t h o r i z o n t a l
s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o s e i s mi c l o a d s c o u l d b e a
p r o b l e m, b e c a u s e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n o f
t h e c o l u mn wi l l i n v a r i a b l y b e g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 7
(<j)s > 35° ) wh i c h wo u l d i mp l y a r e s i s t a n c e t o
s e i s mi c a l l y i n d u c e d g r o u n d a c c e l e r a t i o n s u p t o
0 . 7 g.
Ex p e r i e n c e s h o ws t h a t p o c k e t s o f l o o s e , c o h e -
s i o n l e s s s o i l s ( f i n e s c o n t e n t s < 20%) wi l l b e
d e n s i f i e d d u r i n g t he i n s t a l l a t i o n of s t one
c o l u mn s b y v i b r a t o r y me t h o d s . Sa t u r a t e d , c o m­
p r e s s i b l e s i l t s , h o we v e r , p r o b a b l y wi l l n ot ,
a n d t h e s e ma t e r i a l s , as we l l a s s o f t , s e n s i t i v e
c l ay s , c onc ei v abl y c o u l d l os e s t r engt h i n a
s t r ong ear t hquak e. Th e q u e s t i o n t h e n a r i s e s as
t o wh e t h e r s u f f i c i e n t l a t e r a l c o n f i n e me n t wi l l
r e ma i n t o s u p p o r t t h e c o l u mn . Ev e n i f t h e s o f t
g r o u n d l o s e s a l l i t s s t r e n g t h , i t wi l l s t i l l
b e h a v e as a h i g h d e n s i t y f l u i d . Pr o v i d e d t h e
s t o n e c o l u mn i s f u l l y d r a i n i n g t o t h e g r o u n d
s u r f a c e t h e wa t e r p r e s s u r e wi t h i n t h e c o l u mn
wi l l b e h y d r o s t a t i c . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n
t hi s p r e s s u r e a n d t h a t of t he h i g h d e n s i t y
" f l u i d " s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c o l u mn , a u g me n t e d b y a n y
a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s a p p l i e d at t he g r o u n d s ur f ac e,
wi l l a c t as a n e f f e c t i v e c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e .
Th e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s t h a t c a n b e c a r r i e d b y t h e
c o l u mn wo u l d t h e n b e t h i s s t r e s s t i me s
t a n 2 ( 45 + <(. / 2) .
St o n e c o l u mn f o u n d a t i o n s we r e a d o p t e d f o r t h e
s e wa g e t r e a t me n t p l a n t . Th e c o mp l e t e d f a c i l i t y
wa s s u b j e c t e d t o a ma g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e wi t h
l o c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s u p t o 0 . 3 g. No d i s t r e s s
r e l a t e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n s wa s o b s e r v e d .
Ro o t Pi l e s
Th e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s ma l l d i a me t e r ( 7 5 - 2 5 0 mm)
r oot pi l es r equi r es dr i l l i ng and gr out i ng equ i p ­
me n t . Ca s e d b o r i n g s a r e ma d e u s i n g r o t a r y o r
p e r c u s s i o n me t h o d s . Re i n f o r c e me n t , u s u a l l y i n
t he f o r m of a s i n g l e s t e e l bar , i s p l a c e d i n t he
c e n t e r of t he c as i ng. Th e h o l e i s t h e n f i l l e d
wi t h a h i g h s l u mp , c e me n t r i c h , s ma l l a g g r e g a t e
c onc r et e. Du r i n g wi t h d r a wa l o f t h e c a s i n g
a d d i t i o n a l c o n c r e t e i s p l a c e d b y p u mp i n g o r a i r
pr es s ur e. T h e p r e s s u r e g u a r a n t e e s a n i n t i ma t e
c o n t a c t b e t we e n c o n c r e t e a n d s o i l , f o r c e s p e n e ­
t r a t i o n of t he c o n c r e t e i nt o c r a c k s a n d f i s s ur es ,
a n d , i n t h e c a s e o f c o mp r e s s i b l e s o i l s , p r o d u c e s
a p i l e o f l a r g e r d i a me t e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l
c as i ng. I n d i v i d u a l r o o t p i l e s ma y h a v e b e a r i n g
c a p a c i t i e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 8 t o 50 t o n s . Ro o t
p i l e s c a n be i n s t a l l e d i n al l t y p e s o f s oi l .
Fo r ma n y y e a r s s i n c e t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n o v e r 30
y e a r s ago, t he us e of r o o t p i l e s wa s ma i n l y f or
under pi nni ng appl i c at i ons , a t opi c out s i de t he
s c ope of t hi s r epor t . A c l us t e r of r oot pi l es ,
u s u a l l y c o n t a i n i n g s o me i n s t a l l ed at a bat t er ,
c a n b e u s e d , h o we v e r , t o f o r m a s or t of i n- s i t u
r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h ma s s . Us e d i n t h i s wa y t h e s e
" r et i c ul at ed r oot pi l e" s t r uc t ur es ( r et i c ul at ed
Pa l i Ra d i c e ) h a v e a p p l i c a t i o n s t o s l o p e s t a b i l i ­
z at i on, r e t a i n i n g s t r uc t ur es , and u n d e r g r o u n d
c ons t r uc t i on. F i g u r e 44 i s a n e x a mp l e .
Fi g . 44 Re t i c u l a t e d Ro o t Pi l e Re t a i n i n g
St r u c t u r e f o r Sl o p e St a b i l i z a t i o n
( Li z z i , 1977)
Wh i l e i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l p i l e s
wi t h i n a r e t i c u l a t e d r o o t p i l e s t r u c t u r e ma y be
c a l l e d u p o n t o c a r r y t e n s i o n , c o mp r e s s i o n , a n d
f l e x u r a l s t r e s s e s , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s wi t h t h e
i n c l u d e d s o i l a r e c o mp l e x . I f t he p i l e s y s t e m
wi t h t h e i n c l u d e d s o i l i s t a k e n a s a c o h e r e n t
s t r uc t ur e, t he n t he t ot al s y s t e m s t a b i l i t y c an
b e a n a l y z e d f o l l o wi n g u s u a l s o i l me c h a n i c s p r o ­
c edur es . Th e i n t e r n a l d e s i g n ; i . e. , t h e s e l e c ­
t i o n o f p i l e s i z e , a r r a n g e me n t , a n d s p a c i n g , i s
mo s t l y b a s e d o n e x p e r i e n c e a n d f o l l o ws p a t e n t e d
pr oc edur es .
F u r t h e r i n f o r ma t i o n o n r o o t p i l e s y s t e ms f o r
g r o u n d i mp r o v e me n t i s g i v e n b y L i z z i ( 1977) ,
Sc h l o s s e r a n d J u r a n ( 1979) , L i z z i a n d Ca r n e v a l e
( 1 979) , a n d Fl o s s ( 1979) . Two r e c e n t c a s e h i s ­
t o r i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d b y Da s h a n d J o v i n o ( 1980)
a n d Mu r r a y ( 1980) .
So i l Na i l i n g
So i l n a i l i n g , as s h o wn s c h e ma t i c a l l y i n Fi g . 41,
i s , i n ma n y r e s p e c t s , s i mi l a r t o r o o t p i l e s f o r
gr ound s t r engt heni ng. Th i s i s p e r h a p s mo r e
e v i d e n t b y c o mp a r i s o n wi t h Fi g . 45, wh i c h s h o ws
a r oot pi l e s y s t e m f or s l ope s t abi l i z at i on.
So i l n a i l i n g i s u s e d f o r g r o u n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g
i n - s i t u , p r i ma r i l y f o r i mp r o v e me n t o f s l o p e
s t abi l i t y and s uppor t of ex c av at i ons .
Th e " n a i l s " a r e u s u a l l y s t e e l r o d s 2 0 - 3 0 mm i n
d i a me t e r t h a t a r e g r o u t e d i n t o p r e d r i l l e d h o l e s
or d r i v e n u s i n g a p e r c u s s i o n d r i l l i n g dev i c e.
Th e i r l e n g t h ma y b e o f t h e o r d e r o f 50 p e r c e n t
of t he h e i g h t of t he e x c a v a t i o n t o be s uppor t ed.
Th e l e n g t h r e q u i r e d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e s t a b i l i ­
z a t i o n o f an e x i s t i n g s l o p e wi l l d e p e n d o n t h e
l o c a t i o n of t he c r i t i c a l s hear pl ane. Th e
gr out ed bar s c an r es i s t t ens i l e f or c es t hat ar e
l i mi t e d b y t h e l e s s e r o f t h e b a r y i e l d s t r e n g t h
and t he pul l - out r es i s t anc e pr ov i ded by t he
547
Fi g. 45 Ro o t Pi l e s Us e d f or Sl o p e St a b i l i z a t i o n
( Li z z i , 1977)
f r i c t i o n t h a t c a n b e mo b i l i z e d a l o n g t h e g r o u t
s oi l i nt er f ac e. Sh e a r a n d b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s wi
b e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e b a r s a t ma g n i t u d e s t h a t
d e p e n d o n t h e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e b a r - g r o u t c o mb i
n a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t he s oi l . Th e a b i l i t y o f
t he s oi l t o r es i s t l at er al l oads ac t i ng t r a n s ­
v e r s e l y t o t he n a i l a x i s mu s t a l s o b e c o n s i d e r
i n t he i n t er nal des i gn.
Th e i n t e r n a l d e s i g n o f s o i l n a i l i n g s y s t e ms r e ­
q u i r e s d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f t h e s i z e , s p a c i n g , o r i e n ­
t at i on, and l engt h of bar s . Ov e r a l l s t a b i l i t y
o f t h e n a i l e d s o i l ma s s c a n b e a n a l y z e d i n t h e
u s u a l wa y . Re c e n t wo r k o n s o i l n a i l i n g h a s b e e n
s u mma r i z e d b y Sc h l o s s e r a n d J u r a n ( 1979) , a n d
r e s e a r c h on t he s u b j e c t i s c o n t i nui ng.
Th e e a r t h s u p p o r t s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d b y Ba n g e t a l .
( 1980) a n d i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi g. 46 h a s c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c s b o t h of s oi l n a i l i n g a n d a r e i n f o r c e d
e a r t h wa l l c o n s t r u c t e d i n - s i t u . Th e s y s t e m i s
c o mp o s e d o f a 0 . 1 m- t h i c k wi r e me s h - r e i n f o r c e d
s h o t c r e t e f a c i n g , r e i n f o r c e me n t s s p a c e d f r o m 0. 9
t o 1. 8 m a p a r t t hat ar e g r o u t e d i nt o t he s oi l ,
a n d r o ws o f r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s t h a t f o r m h o r i ­
z o n t a l wa l e s a t e a c h a n c h o r l e v e l . L e v e l s of
r e i n f o r c e me n t a r e p l a c e d i mme d i a t e l y a f t e r e a c h
s t age of ex c av at i on.
T e n s i l e Re i n f o r c e me n t s
I n c l u s i o n s o f t e n s i l e r e i n f o r c e me n t s i n s o i l s
ma y b e o f t wo b a s i c t y p e s : i deal l y i nex t ens i bl e
ma t e r i a l s , s u c h as me t a l s t r i p s a n d b a r s , a n d
i d e a l l y e x t e n s i b l e ma t e r i a l s s u c h as f i b e r s ,
r oot s and geot ex t i l es . Th e f i r s t t y p e i s c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c o f s y s t e ms u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t r e i n ­
f or c ed ear t h s t r u c t u r e s . Th e s e c o n d has b e e n
t e r me d " p l y - s o i l " b y Mc Go wn e t al . ( 1978) . Th e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e t wo t y p e s o f r e i n f o r c e d
s y s t e ms a r e c o mp a r e d i n Ta b l e XI . Th e c h o i c e i n
a n y c a s e i s l i k e l y t o b e c o n t r o l l e d b y a l l o wa b l e
d e f o r ma t i o n s .
Re i n f o r c e d Ea r t h
Re i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s a c o mp o s i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n
ma t e r i a l t h a t i s ma d e i n t e r n a l l y s t a b l e b y t h e
548
-
l l
­
ed
Fi g. 46 Cr o s s Se c t i o n o f Re i n f o r c e d Gr o u n d
Sy s t e m f o r De e p Ex c a v a t i o n s
( Ba n g e t al . , 1980)
i n t e r a c t i o n b e t we e n s o i l , wh i c h , f o r c e r t a i n
g r a d a t i o n s a n d c o mp a c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , i s s t r o n g
i n c o mp r e s s i o n a n d s h e a r , a n d r e i n f o r c e me n t s ,
wh i c h a r e s t r o n g i n t e n s i o n . Wh i l e t h e
s t r engt heni ng ef f ec t s of l i near t ens i l e r ei n­
f o r c i n g e l e me n t s i n s o i l s h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d
and u t i l i z e d f or c ent ur i es , i t has been o n l y i n
t h e l a s t 15 y e a r s t h a t l a r g e - s c a l e r e i n f o r c e d
ear t h c ons t r uc t i on has been under t ak en, and t he
me c h a n i s ms u n d e r l y i n g r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h b e h a v i o r
hav e been el uc i dat ed. Mu c h o f t h e c u r r e n t
d e v e l o p me n t c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p i o n e e r i n g
wo r k o f Vi d a l ( 1966) .
Ea r t h r e i n f o r c e d wi t h h i g h mo d u l u s l i n e a r t e n s i l e
e l e me n t s ma y b e a n e c o n o mi c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n
ma t e r i a l f or a v a r i e t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g
r e t a i n i n g wa l l s , b r i d g e a b u t me n t s , e mb a n k me n t s ,
t h e b r i d g i n g o f c a v e r n s i n l i me s t o n e , c o n t a i n me n t
d i k e s , c o a l a n d o r e s t o r a g e s l o t s wi t h s l o p i n g
f ac es , an d h o u s i n g on s l o p i n g t er r ai n. Th e r e
ma y b e a p p l i c a t i o n i n a n y s i t u a t i o n wh e r e a
s t a b l e c h a n g e i n e l e v a t i o n u p t o 30 t o 40 m i s
r equi r ed and s ui t abl e s oi l bac k f i l l i s av ai l abl e.
A t y p i c a l r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h wa l l o f t h e Vi d a l t y p e
i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 47. Su c h s t r u c t u r e s , i f p r o ­
p e r l y d e s i g n e d , b e h a v e as c o h e r e n t , s e l f -
c o n t a i n e d u n i t s ( Mc Ki t t r i c k , 1 9 7 9 ) . Re i n f o r c e d
ear t h s t r u c t ur es pos s e s s f l e x i b i l i t y a n d c an
t o l e r a t e s o me d e f o r ma t i o n wi t h o u t d i s t r e s s . As
a r e s u l t t h e y c a n b e u s e d i n s i t u a t i o n s wh e r e
s o me g r o u n d mo v e me n t s a r e a n t i c i p a t e d , a n d i n
c o mb i n a t i o n wi t h o t h e r f o r ms o f g r o u n d i mp r o v e ­
me n t . An e x a mp l e i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 48. Be c a u s e
 TABLE XI
Co mp a r a t i v e Be h a v i o r of Ea r t h Re i n f o r c e me n t

Ty p e o f St r e s s - De f o r ma t i o n Ro l e a n d Fu n c t i o n
Re i n f o r c e me n t Be h a v i o r o f Re i n f o r c e me n t o f Re i n f o r c e me n t

I deal l y i nex t ens i bl e i nc l us i ons I nc l us i ons hav e r upt ur e St r e n g t h e n s s o i l ( i nc r eas es

( me t a l a n d p l a s t i c s t r i p s , b a r s , s t r a i n s l e s s t h a n t h e ma x i mu m a pp a r e n t s hear r es i s t anc e)
g r i d s , et c . ) t e n s i l e s t r ai ns i n t he s oi l and i nhi bi t s bot h i nt er nal
w/ o i n c l u s i o n s , u n d e r t h e s a me a n d b o u n d a r y d e f o r ma t i o n s .
s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s , i . e. , Ca t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e a n d
c o l l a p s e of s oi l c an o c c u r
i f r e i n f o r c e me n t b r e a k s .
( eR> r u p < es
r ma x
De p e n d i n g o n t he u l t i ma t e
s t r engt h of t he i nc l us i ons i n
r el at i on t o t he i mp o s e d l o a d s ,
t hes e i nc l us i ons ma y o r ma y
n o t r upt ur e.

I deal l y ex t ens i bl e i nc l us i ons I nc l us i ons hav e r upt ur e So me s t r e n g t h e n i n g . . . b u t

( nat ur al and s y nt h e t i c f i ber s ,
r oot s , f abr i c s , geot ex t i l es )
s t r a i n s l a r g e r t han t he mo r e i mp o r t a n t l y p r o v i d e s
ma x i mu m t e n s i l e s t r a i n s i n t h e g r e a t e r e x t e n s i b i l i t y ( duc ­
s o i l w/ o i n c l u s i o n s , i . e . , t i l i t y ) a n d s ma l l e r l o s s o f
p o s t p e a k s t r e n g t h c o mp a r e d
t o s oi l al one.
( eR> r u p > Es
r ma x
Th e s e i n c l u s i o n s c a n n o t r u p t u r e
n o ma t t e r t h e i r u l t i ma t e
s t r e n g t h n o r t h e i mp o s e d l oad.

( adapt ed f r o m D. H. Gr a y , l ec t ur e, Un i v e r s i t y o f Ca l i f o r n i a , Be r k e l e y , Fe b r u a r y 26, 1981)

Ea r t h r e i n f o r c e me n t h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d
i n r e c e n t y e a r s , a n d t o p r o v i d e a c o mp r e h e n s i v e
r ev i ew of al l as pec t s i n t hi s r epor t i s not
pos s i bl e. Co n s e q u e n t l y , a t t e n t i o n h e r e i n i s
d i r e c t e d p r i ma r i l y a t t h e c o n c e p t a n d e s s e n t i a l
f eat ur es of r e i n f o r c e d ea r t h and t he p r i n c i pl es
u n d e r l y i n g t he d e s i g n of r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h s t r u c ­
t ur es . Re c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t p r e s e n t
d e t a i l e d i n f o r ma t i o n o n e a r t h r e i n f o r c e me n t wi t h
t e n s i l e e l e me n t s i n c l u d e ASCE ( 1978) , Co mmi t t e e
o n Pl a c e me n t a n d I mp r o v e me n t o f So i l s ( 1978) ,
Ne w So u t h Wa l e s ( 1978) , ENPC- L CPC ( 1979) ,
Mc Ki t t r i c k ( 1979) , a n d Sc h l o s s e r a n d J u r a n
( 1 979) .

Fi g. 47 Ty p i c a l Re i n f o r c e d Ea r t h Wa l l
o f r i g h t o f wa y l i mi t a t i o n s a h i g h wa y a l i g n me n t
wa s r e q u i r e d a t t h e l o c a t i o n s h o wn i n Fi g. 4 8 a
a l o n g t h e s h o r e l i n e o f L a k e Pe n d Or e i l l e i n Ut ah,
U. S. A. Th e c o n v e n t i o n a l e mb a n k me n t s o l u t i o n
wo u l d h a v e b e e n d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e
q u a n t i t i e s o f ma t e r i a l r e q u i r e d a n d t h e l o w
s t r e n g t h o f t he l oos e s a n d y s i l t . I ns t ead t he
s o l u t i o n s h o wn i n Fi g. 48 wa s a d o p t e d wh i c h
c o n s i s t s o f a r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h s u p p o r t e d e mb a n k ­
me n t f o u n d e d o n v i b r o - r e p l a c e me n t s t o n e c o l u mn s .
Th r e e e l e me n t s c o mp r i s e a r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h wa l l
s y s t e m: f a c i n g , r e i n f o r c e me n t s , a n d b a c k f i l l
s o i l , as s h o wn s c h e ma t i c a l l y i n Fi g. 49. Th e
r e i n f o r c i n g s t r i p l e n g t h s a r e u s u a l l y a b o u t 0. 7
t o 0. 8 t i me s t h e h e i g h t o f t h e wa l l . Di f f e r e n t
a r r a n g e me n t s a n d t y p e s o f f a c i n g s a n d r e i n f o r c e ­
me n t s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d . Fo r e x a mp l e , i n t h e
t y p i c a l Vi d a l - t y p e o f wa l l c o n c r e t e f a c i n g
panel s and gal v ani z ed r i bbed s t eel r ei nf or c i ng
s t r i p s 5 x 40 mm o r 5 x 60 mm i n c r o s s s e c t i o n a r e
p r e s e n t l y us ed. Wi r e me s h , f a b r i c , a n d g a l v a n ­
i z ed s heet or c o r r u g a t e d f a c i ngs ar e us ed by
s o me ma n u f a c t u r e r s , as a r e b a r g r i d , wi r e me s h ,
pl as t i c , f i ber gl as s and geot ex t i l e r ei nf or c e­
me n t s . Fu k u o k a ( 1980) d e s c r i b e s a r e t a i n i n g
s t r u c t u r e wi t h o i l b a r r e l h a l v e s u s e d f o r t h e
f ac i ng. Of p r i ma r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t he
s e l e c t i o n o f t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s a r e t h e i r
s t r e n g t h , mo d u l u s , a n d d u r a b i l i t y . Th e f a c i n g

549
 Rei n f or ce ment

✓ R e in fo rc e d e a r th wcHI
I P la t f o r m H ig h p o o l E l. 2 0 66'
.3 0 5 8 ' lJq w p o o l El. 2053'
< ^ i n a l rip ra p s lo p e
:S to n e ^ v r j ( p t ectjon
c o lu m n s ^< N

Rei nf or cement t hi ckness =t

Bed r oc k

Fi g . 49 Re i n f o r c e d Ea r t h Wa l l Sy s t e m

b. Re i n f o r c e d Ea r t h Wa l l Su p p o r t e d b y
St o n e Co l u mn s
Fi g . 48 Co mb i n a t i o n o f Re i n f o r c e me n t Sy s t e ms
panel s ar e r equi r ed t o c ar r y l oc al s t r es s c o n ­
c e n t r a t i o n s f r o m t h e s o i l i n z o n e s s o me d i s t a n c e
f r o m t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s . I n addi t i on, t he
p a n e l s a n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s
mu s t r e s i s t s t r e s s e s i n d u c e d b y c o n s t r u c t i o n
e q u i p me n t a n d b a c k f i l l c o mp a c t i o n c l o s e t o t h e
wa l l .
Th e k e y t o t h e s t a b i l i t y o f a r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h
s t r u c t u r e i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t we e n t h e s o i l
a n d r e i n f o r c e me n t s . A pr oper l y des i gned and
c o n s t r u c t e d s t r u c t u r e h o l d s i t s e l f t o g e t h e r as
a c oher ent body bec aus e of t hi s i nt er ac t i on,
wh i c h p r e v e n t s t h e s o i l f r o m s p r e a d i n g l a t e r ­
a l l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s .
An e f f e c t i v e c o n f i n e me n t o r a p p a r e n t c o h e s i o n i s
d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o i l o wi n g t o t h e t e n s i l e
s t i f f n e s s o f t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s wh i c h r e s t r a i n
t he s oi l . L i n e a r t e n s i l e r e i n f o r c e me n t s e x e r t
t h e i r g r e a t e s t s t r e n g t h e n i n g e f f e c t wh e n o r i e n ­
t ed i n t he d i r e c t i o n of p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n e x t e n ­
s i o n , as s h o wn b y r e c e n t a n a l y s e s s u c h a s t h o s e
b y Ba s s e t t a n d L a s t ( 1978) a n d J e we l l ( 1 980) .
Co mp r e h e n s i v e r e v i e ws o f t h e e a r t h r e i n f o r c e ­
me n t me c h a n i s m a r e p r e s e n t e d b y Mi t c h e l l a n d
Sc h l o s s e r ( 1979) a n d Mc Ki t t r i c k ( 1979) .
As t h e r e s i s t a n c e mo b i l i z e d b e t we e n t h e s oi l a n d
t e n s i l e r e i n f o r c e me n t s i s p r o b a b l y t h e mo s t
i mp o r t a n t a s p e c t o f r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h , q u e s t i o n s
r el at i ng t o how i t i s dev el oped, how i t v ar i es
a l o n g t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s , h o w t o me a s u r e i t ,
and how t o ex pr es s i t i n des i gn ar e of gr eat
i nt er es t . Th e me a s u r e me n t o f t h e a p p a r e n t
f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , f * , b e t we e n s o i l a n d r e i n ­
f o r c e me n t s h a s b e e n d o n e u s i n g s e v e r a l t e s t
t y p e s a s s h o wn s c h e ma t i c a l l y i n Fi g. 50. Pu l l -
o u t t e s t s h a v e b e e n d o n e b o t h o n mo d e l s a n d f ul l
s c a l e wa l l s . So me r e i n f o r c i n g ma t e r i a l s s u c h as
f a b r i c s , n e t s , a n d me s h e s , ma y h a v e s t r e s s -
s t r ai n pr oper t i es t hat depend on t he l at er al
c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s a p p l i e d t o t h e m. An a p p a r a t u s
s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e r mi n i n g t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s i s
d e s c r i b e d b y An d r a we s e t al . ( 1 980) . Al t h o u g h
t h e p u l l o u t t e s t i s o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e mo s t
appr opr i at e, t he s t r es s di s t r i but i ons al ong
t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s d o n o t d u p l i c a t e e x a c t l y
t h o s e i n a n a c t u a l wa l l , a s ma y b e s e e n f r o m
Fi g. 51.
Th e v a l u e o f f * h a s b e e n s h o wn ( e. g. , Mc Ki t t r i c k ,
1979) t o v a r y wi t h t y p e o f r e i n f o r c e me n t , t y p e
of bac k f i l l , dens i t y of bac k f i l l , and c onf i ni ng
pr es s ur e. Th e i n f l u e n c e o f o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e
o n f * f o r s mo o t h a n d r i b b e d s t r i p r e i n f o r c e ­
me n t s i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 52. Re i n f o r c e me n t s wi t h
r i b s , d e f o r ma t i o n s , o r o t h e r wi s e r o u g h s u r f a c e s
g i v e h i g h e r v a l u e s t h a n r e i n f o r c e me n t s wi t h
s mo o t h s u r f a c e s , b e c a u s e s o i l - t o - s o i l p r o p e r ­
t i es c ont r ol behav i or r at her t han s oi l - t o-

550
 ------ 1------------- 1-------------
G ro v e l
/ = 21 k N/ m3
• . . Soil . • *.
►T 4> - 4 6 ° in te rn o l fr ic tio n
7S/ 2?/ s; / ; / 2222; / A Re in f o rcin g R ib b e d
m o t e rio l ^ = 2 7 .5 ° s o i l- s tr i p fric tio n

f * T/ N f* = t / n

D i r e c t S h e a r Te st P U LL O U T T E S T IN S H EA R BO X

to n <t>__
ta n

2 4 6
H e ig h t o f F ill A b o v e S tr ip , H - m

f =
Fi g. 52 Ef f e c t o f Ov e r b u r d e n Pr e s s u r e o n t h e
C7V x a re a Ap p a r e n t Co e f f i c i e n t o f Fr i c t i o n f *
P U LL O U T TE S T O N W ALL P U L L O U T T E S T B Y R O TA TI O N ( Al i mi et al . , 1977)

Ba c k f i l l ma t e r i a l s f o r p e r ma n e n t r e i n f o r c e d
F i g . 50 Ty p e s o f Te s t f o r Me a s u r e me n t of
e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s a r e u s u a l l y l i mi t e d t o g r a n u l a r
So i l - Re i n f o r c e me n t Fr i c t i o n
s oi l s . On e c u r r e n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t
t he p l a s t i c i t y i ndex be l es s t han 6 per c ent ,
t h e f r i c t i o n a n g l e b e g r e a t e r t h a n 34° , a n d t h a t
t h e r e b e l e s s t h a n 15 p e r c e n t b y we i g h t f i n e r
t h a n 15 pm. Th e s u i t a b i l i t y o f c o h e s i v e s o i l s
Ca se
Ideal Pull-Out Te st Ideal Reinf orcing
Re inf orce d Ea rth
Retaining Wall
i s l i mi t e d f o r t h e f o l l o wi n g r e a s o n s :

1. Th e f r i c t i o n a l s t r e n g t h , a t l e a s t u n d e r t h e
undr ai ned c ondi t i ons r el ev ant t o s t abi l i t y
She a r
St re ss
i mme d i a t e l y a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , i s l ow.
2. Co h e s i v e b a c k f i l l s a r e l i k e l y t o b e p o o r l y
dr ai ni ng and s us c ept i bl e t o s t r engt h l os s
o n we t t i n g .
Tie 3. Si g n i f i c a n t c o n t i n u i n g c r e e p d e f o r ma t i o n s
Te nsion
ma y o c c u r u n d e r t h e s u s t a i n e d s t r e s s e s t h a t
t he b a c k f i l l i s c a l l e d upon t o r es i s t .
4. Co h e s i v e s oi l s ar e us u a l l y di f f i c ul t to
c o mp a c t .

Bo t h t h e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y o f a r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h
s t r u c t u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s i t e o n wh i c h i t i s
<<Sn u s e d and t he i n t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y of t he r e i n ­
f o r c e d v o l u me o f s o i l mu s t b e e v a l u a t e d f o r
Tm a x - M a x. Tie Te nsio n
Ft - Ti e Force at W a ll Fa ce
des i gn. Th e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y i n c l u d e s c o n s i ­
6 - Equiva le nt Skin Friction Angle
der at i ons of s l i di ng, ov er t ur ni ng, f oundat i on
e (Co m p ut e d f rom T ,) bear i ng c apac i t y , and s l ope s t abi l i t y , and c on­
v e n t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s of a n a l y s i s c a n be us ed.
Es s e n t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f or i n t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y
a r e t h a t t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s b e s a f e a g a i n s t b o t h
Fi g . 51 Hy p o t h e t i c a l Sh e a r St r e s s
pul l out and r upt ur e. I t i s pr ef er abl e t o des i gn
Di s t r i b u t i o n s Al o n g Re i n f o r c e me n t s
s o t h a t i f a n y f a i l u r e s i n t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t
( Ha u s ma n a n d L e e , 19 78) o c c u r t h e y wi l l b e b y p u l l o u t r a t h e r t h a n b y
r u p t u r e i n o r d e r t o mi n i mi z e t h e r i s k o f c a t a s ­
t r o p h i c f a i l ur e of t he s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d t he r e i n ­
f o r c e me n t s f a i l b y a p r o g r e s s i v e me c h a n i s m.
r e i n f o r c e me n t v a l u e s . Th e v a l u e o f f * d e c r e a s e s
wi t h i n c r e a s i n g o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e p r i ma r i l y
bec aus e t he i nc r eas ed pr es s ur e s uppr es s es di l a- Th e r e s u l t s o f b o t h mo d e l a n d f i e l d t e s t s on
t anc y . As d i l a t a n c y i s e s s e n t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e i n s t r u me n t e d s t r u c t u r e s , a s we l l as a n a l y s es by
f or t he hi g h v a l u e of f * , i t s s u p p r e s s i o n l eads v a r i o u s me t h o d s , h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t he l oc us
t o v a l u e s c l o s e t o t a mp a n d t an<t > f o r s mo o t h a n d o f ma x i mu m t e n s i l e f o r c e s i n t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s
r i b b e d s t r i p s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , as s h o wn i n Fi g. 52. d e f i n e s a c t i v e a n d r e s i s t a n t z o n e s wi t h i n t he

551
v o l u me o f r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h . Th e l o c i o f ma x i mu m
t ens i l e f or c es and t he di s t r i but i on of t ens i l e
f o r c e s a l o n g t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t s a r e s h o wn f o r
f our t y pes of r ei nf or c ed ear t h s t r uc t ur e i n
Fi g. 53.

b) R e t a in in g W a ll

Fi g. 54 De s i g n Ge o me t r y f o r a Si mp l e
Re i n f o r c e d Ea r t h Wa l l

2b • f * ■ 1 • a '
c) V a u lt d) B r id g e A b u tm e n t --------------- 5 ----- ^ --------— > 1. 5 ( 49)

Fi g. 53 L o c u s o f Ma x i mu m T e n s i l e Fo r c e s i n i n wh i c h b i s t h e s t r i p wi d t h , a v ' = y h, y i s
Di f f e r e n t Re i n f o r c e d Ea r t h t h e e f f e c t i v e u n i t we i g h t o f t h e b a c k f i l l , h
St r u c t u r e s i s t he d e p t h t o t he s t r i p i n ques t i o n , S i s t he
h o r i z o n t a l s p a c i n g o f r e i n f o r c e me n t s , a n d V i s
t hei r v er t i c al s pac i ng. Th e ma x i mu m t e n s i l e
T h e i n t e r n a l d e s i g n o f a s i mp l e r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h s t r e s s , f t , i n t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t c a n b e f o u n d
wa l l i s i l l u s t r a t i v e . Th e a c t i v e a n d r e s i s t a n t f r om
z o n e s c a n b e a p p r o x i ma t e d b y t h e g e o me t r y i n
Fi g . 54. Me a s u r e me n t s j u s t i f y t h e u s e o f f * =
1. 2 at t he g r o u n d s ur f ac e, d e c r e a s i n g l i n e a r l y
t o t an<) > a t a d e p t h o f 6 m a n d c o n s t a n t a t t an<( i
b e l o w f o r r i b b e d r e i n f o r c e me n t s , a n d t h e u s e o f
f * = 0. 4 f o r s mo o t h r e i n f o r c e me n t s . Me a s u r e ­
me n t s h a v e a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l wh e r e A s i s t he c r os s - s ec t i onal a r e a of r ei n­
s t r e s s a h t o b e c a r r i e d b y t h e r e s i s t a n t z o n e at f o r c e me n t .
a n y d e p t h c an be d e f i n e d by
I f me t a l l i c r e i n f o r c e me n t s a r e u s e d , t h e r e mu s t
b e a n a l l o wa n c e f o r c o r r o s i o n t h a t wi l l o c c u r
a, = a • K ( 47)
h v o v e r t he l i f e of t he s t r uc t ur e. Th e d u r a b i l i t y
o f me t a l l i c r e i n f o r c e me n t s i s d i s c u s s e d b y Ki n g
( 1977) a n d Mc Ki t t r i c k ( 1979) . I f s y nt het i c
wh e r e ay i s t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s , a n d K i s an
ma t e r i a l s a r e u s e d , t h e n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n ­
ear t h pr es s ur e c oef f i c i ent . K c a n b e t a k e n as
s i d e r s uc h f a c t or s as t h e i r c r e e p p r o p e r t i e s and
Kq a t t he gr ound s ur f ac e, dec r eas i ng l i near l y
t h e i r l o n g - t e r m c h e mi c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l
t o Ka at a d e p t h of 6 m a n d b e l o w, wh e r e
s t abi l i t y.

K = 1 - si ni j ) ( 48) Re i n f o r c e d e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s h a v e b e e n u s e d s u c ­
c e s s f u l l y i n s e i s mi c a r e a s , a n d t h e r e h a v e b e e n
n o r e c o r d e d f a i l u r e s as a r e s u l t o f e a r t h q u a k e s .
K a = t a n 2 ( 45 - Q/ 2)
Th e r e s u l t s o f mo d e l t e s t s a n d l i mi t e d f i e l d
t e s t s we r e u s e d b y Ri c h a r d s o n a n d L e e ( 1975) a n d
Ri c h a r d s o n ( 1978) t o p r o p o s e me t h o d s f o r t h e
Th e e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h o f r e i n f o r c e me n t s , l e , i s
s e i s mi c d e s i g n o f r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h wa l l s . Th e
t he l engt h t o t he r i g h t of t he ac t i v e z one i n
mo s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s e i s mi c l o a d i n g s
Fi g. 54. A f a c t o r of s a f e t y of at l e a s t 1. 5
a p p e a r t o b e t h a t a s o me wh a t i n c r e a s e d wi d t h o f
agai n s t s t r i p p u l l o u t i s u s u a l l y r equi r ed, and
r ei nf or c ed z one i s r equi r ed t o i ns ur e ov er al l
t he ma x i mu m t e n s i l e s t r e s s i n t h e r e i n f o r c e me n t
s t abi l i t y of t he s t r uc t ur e, and addi t i onal r e i n ­
mu s t b e l e s s t h a n t h e a l l o wa b l e f o r t h e ma t e r i a l .
f o r c e me n t i s r e q u i r e d a t s h a l l o w d e p t h s t o
Fo r t he s t r i p pul l out c ondi t i on

552
i ns ur e i nt er nal s t abi l i t y . Fu r t h e r s t u d y of
t h e s e i s mi c b e h a v i o r o f r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s i n Ty p i c a l o v e rla p

pr ogr ess. 1 2 -3 6 in.

h—H
Ge o t e x t i l e s i n Ea r t h Re i n f o r c e me n t
Th e r a p i d e me r g e n c e a n d u t i l i z a t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c
f abr i c s i n g e o t e c h n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s has b een
o n e o f t h e ma j o r d e v e l o p me n t s o f t h e p a s t 10
y ear s . A v e r y l a r g e n u mb e r o f ma t e r i a l s e n c o m­
p a s s i n g a wi d e r a n g e o f p r o p e r t i e s h a s b e e n
d e v e l o p e d f or s pec i al pur pos es . Be c a u s e c o n ­
s t r u c t i o n f a b r i c s h a v e a s s u me d s u c h a n i mp o r t a n t
r o l e i n t h e g e o t e c h n i c a l f i e l d t h e y we r e g i v e n
t h e n a me " g e o t e x t i l e s " b y J . P. Gi r o u d a t t h e
ENPC- L CPC I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co n f e r e n c e o n t h e u s e of
Fa b r i c s i n Ge o t e c h n i c s h e l d i n Pa r i s i n 1 9 7 7
( ENPC- L CPC, 1 9 7 7 ) . A book dev ot ed s ol el y t o
c ons t r uc t i on and geot ec hni c al engi neer i ng us es
of s y nt h e t i c f abr i c s has r e c e n t l y a p p e a r e d
( Ko e r n e r a n d We l s h , 1 9 8 0 ) .

Ge o t e x t i l e s c a n s e r v e s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s , i n c l u d ­
i n g s e p a r a t i o n , r e i n f o r c e me n t , d r a i n a g e , e r o s i o n
c o n t r o l , f o r ms , a n d i mp e r me a b l e me mb r a n e s . Th e
mo s t i mp o r t a n t o f t h e s e r e l a t i v e t o g r o u n d i m­
p r o v e me n t a r e d r a i n a g e a n d r e i n f o r c e me n t . Al ­ Fi g . 55 T y p i c a l Cr o s s Se c t i o n o f Fa b r i c
t h o u g h n o t d e a l t wi t h i n d e t a i l i n t h i s r e p o r t , Re t a i n i n g Wa l l
mo i s t u r e c o n t e n t c o n t r o l b y p r o p e r d r a i n a g e ( Ko e r n e r a n d We l s h , 1980)
me a s u r e s c a n b e o n e o f t h e mo s t e f f e c t i v e me a n s
f or s oi l s t abi l i z at i on. Ge o t e x t i l e s c a n b e u s e d
e c o n o mi c a l l y i n ma n y d r a i n a g e s i t u a t i o n s as
d e s c r i b e d b y Ko e r n e r a n d We l s h ( 1980) .

Pr e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e g e o t e x t i l e s a c t as e x t e n s ­
i b l e i n c l u s i o n s . Ta b l e XI . On e o f t h e i r mo s t
i mp o r t a n t u s e s h a s b e e n f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
t e mp o r a r y r o a d s o v e r ma r s h e s , p e a t s o i l s , a n d
c o mp r e s s i b l e c l a y s . A l a y e r o f f a b r i c b e t we e n
t he s u r f a c e of t h e s of t g r o u n d an d a g r a v e l b as e
s e r v e s b o t h t o s e p a r a t e t h e ma t e r i a l s a n d p r e v e n t
t h e i r mi x i n g a n d t o s p r e a d v e r t i c a l v e h i c l e l o a d s
ov er t he f oundat i on, t hus r e d u c i n g t he i nduc ed
s hear s t r es s es . Th e d e t a i l e d me c h a n i s ms i n a l l
Fi g . 56 F a b r i c Ea r t h Da m
c as es hav e not been f ul l y el uc i dat ed. A ma j o r
f a c t o r , h o we v e r , i s t h a t t h e f a b r i c wh e n d e f o r m­ ( Ker n, 1977)
e d u n d e r t h e a p p l i e d l o a d s b e c o me s s t r e s s e d i n
t ens i on. Th i s , i n t u r n , r e a c t s a l o n g t h e b o t t o m
of t he o v e r l y i n g g r a v e l l ay er , i n c r e a s i n g i t s Fi n a l l y , f a b r i c c o n t a i n me n t s y s t e ms , i n wh i c h
e f f e c t i v e c o n f i n e me n t and, t h e r e f o r e , i t s s t i f f ­ s o i l i s c o mp l e t e l y e n v e l o p e d b y t h e g e o t e x t i l e ,
nes s . Th e u s e f u l n e s s of f ab r i c s i n t hi s a p p l i ­ c an be us ef ul . I n t hi s c a s e t he t e n s i l e s t r engt h
c a t i o n i n c r e a s e s ma r k e d l y as s u b g r a d e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f a b r i c r e s t r a i n s t h e e n c a p s u l a t e d s oi l .
d e c r e a s e s , wi t h t h e i r g r e a t e s t a p p l i c a t i o n t o I f i mp e r v i o u s f a b r i c i s u s e d , t h e e n c l o s e d s o i l
s o i l s o f CBR ( Ca l i f o r n i a Be a r i n g Ra t i o ) l e s s c a n b e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t d e t r i me n t a l mo i s t u r e
t h a n 3. De s i g n me t h o d s a r e p r e s e n t e d b y Ko e r n e r c ont ent c hanges . MESL ( Me mb r a n e En c a p s u l a t e d
a n d We l s h ( 1980) . Si mi l a r me c h a n i s ms a n d d e s i g n So i l L a y e r ) c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d f o r r o a d
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ap p l y f or g e o t e x t i l e s us e d f or and ai r f i el d c ons t r uc t i on. En c a p s u l a t e d d i k e
s u p p o r t o f e mb a n k me n t s o v e r s o f t s o i l s o r t o a n d e mb a n k me n t s t r u c t u r e s ma y b e s u i t a b l e f o r
i mp r o v e t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f s h a l l o w f o u n d a ­ s o me a p p l i c a t i o n s .
t i ons . I n t h e s e l a t t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s e mb e d me n t
l engt h or anc hor des i gn t o i ns ur e agai ns t f abr i c
p u l l o u t ma y b e c r i t i c a l .
COMPARI SON AND SEL ECT I ON OF METHODS
Ge o t e x t i l e s c a n b e u s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h wa l l s . F a b r i c wa l l s ma y b e Th e e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s o f a l a r g e n u mb e r o f s o i l
e s p e c i a l l y we l l s u i t e d a n d e c o n o mi c a l f o r r e l a ­ i mp r o v e me n t me t h o d s h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
t i v e l y l o w wa l l s i n r u r a l o r f o r e s t a r e a s . A pr ec edi ng pages . Th e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e mo s t
t y p i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n f o r a f a b r i c r e t a i n i n g wal l s u i t a b l e o n e i n a n y c a s e c a n o n l y b e ma d e a f t e r
i s s h o wn i n Fi g. 55. Wh e n e x p o s e d f a b r i c i s e v a l u a t i o n of s e v e r a l f ac t or s s p e c i f i c t o t he
us ed, p r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g p r o b l e m at hand. Mo s t i mp o r t a n t a mo n g t h e s e ar e:
e f f e c t s of u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t a n d v a n d a l i s m a r e
r equi r ed. Us e o f f a b r i c s i n a s ma l l e a r t h d a m 1. Th e p u r p o s e t o wh i c h t h e t r eat ed gr ound
h a s a l s o b e e n ma d e , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi g . 56. wi l l b e put . Th i s wi l l e s t abl i s h t he l ev el
Th e f a b r i c u s e d i n t h i s c a s e wa s a wo v e n o f i mp r o v e me n t r e q u i r e d i n t e r ms o f p r o p e r ­
p o l y e s t e r f i l l e d wi t h a l o a m s oi l . t i e s s u c h as s t r e n g t h , s t i f f n e s s , c o mp r e s ­
s i b i l i t y , a n d p e r me a b i l i t y .

553
2. Th e ar ea, dept h, and t ot al v o l u me o f s oi l to me n t me t h o d i n a n y g i v e n c a s e . Co s t c o mp a r i s o n s ,
be t r eat ed. on a r e l a t i v e b a s i s , a r e g i v e n i n Ta b l e XI V f or
s ev er a l me t h o d s . Th e v a l u e s l i s t e d a r e a p p r o x i ­
3. So i l t y pe and i ts i ni t i al pr oper t i es . ma t e f or g r o u n d mo d i f i c a t i o n i n t h e USA d u r i n g
4. Ma t e r i a l s a v a i l a b i l i t y ; e. g. , s and, gr av el , 1 980. Th e y ma y b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i n
wa t e r , a d mi x t u r e s . ot her p a r t s o f t h e wo r l d d e p e n d i n g o n l o c a l
c ondi t i ons .
5. Eq u i p me n t and ski l l s av ai l abi l i t y .
6. En v i r o n me n t a l f a c t o r s — wa s t e d i s p o s a l ,
e r o s i o n , wa t e r p o l l u t i o n , e f f e c t s o n a d j a ­
c ent s t r uc t ur es and f ac i l i t i es . CONCL USI ON
7. Loc al ex per i enc e and pr ef er enc es .
Un t i l a b o u t 20 y e a r s a g o s o i l i mp r o v e me n t
8. Ti me av ai l abl e. me t h o d s , wi t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n
f o r p a v e me n t s t r u c t u r e s , o c c u p i e d t h e a t t e n t i o n
9. Co s t .
of o n l y a f ew s pec i al i s t s , i n v o l v e d t he s p o r adi c
a p p l i c a t i o n o f a r e l a t i v e l y f e w me t h o d s , a n d wa s
Th e me t h o d s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s r e p o r t a r e s u m­
o f l i mi t e d c o n c e r n t o mo s t o f t h e me mb e r s o f o u r
ma r i z e d i n Ta b l e XI I wh i c h c a n b e r e f e r r e d t o
So c i e t y . Fo r t h e r e a s o n s s t a t e d i n t h e i n t r o ­
f o r e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s a n d c o mp a r i s o n s . Mo s t
d u c t i o n t o t h i s s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t r e p o r t , h o we v e r ,
o f t h e me t h o d s a r e b e t t e r s u i t e d t o i mp r o v e me n t
i n t e r e s t i n a n d t h e i mp o r t a n c e o f s o i l i mp r o v e ­
o f s o me s o i l t y p e s t h a n o t h e r s . Th i s i s i l l u s ­
me n t i n g e o t e c h n i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e e s c a l a t e d
t r a t e d b y Fi g . 57 wh i c h r e l a t e s e a c h i mp r o v e me n t
s o t h a t n o w s u c c e s s f u l , e c o n o mi c a l s o i l i mp r o v e ­
me t h o d t o t h e r a n g e o f s o i l g r a i n s i z e s f o r wh i c h
me n t ma y b e c e n t r a l t o t h e s u c c e s s o f ma n y
i t i s mo s t a p p l i c a b l e . Ta b l e XI I I s u mma r i z e s
pr oj ect s.
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t he a p p l i c a b i l i t y of
s o i l i mp r o v e me n t f o r s u p p o r t o f s t r u c t u r e s
Se v e r a l d i f f e r e n t me t h o d s f o r s o i l i mp r o v e me n t
us i ng s hal l ow f oundat i ons .
h a v e b e e n r e v i e we d i n t h i s p a p e r ; e a c h h a s i t s
a d v a n t a g e s , l i mi t a t i o n s , a n d s p e c i a l a p p l i c a ­
Co s t c a n a l wa y s b e e x p e c t e d t o b e a n i mp o r t a n t
t i ons . No n e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e f o r t h e
f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c h o i c e o f s o i l i mp r o v e ­

G ra v e l] Sand 1 S ilt
1 C la y
' .......
V ib r o - c o m p a c tio n -------- 1

B la s tin g
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P a r tic u la te G ro u t I
1
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10 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

P a r tic le S iz e - mm

Fig. 57 Applicable Grain Size Ranges for Different Stabilization Methods

554
 TABLE XII

S UMMA RY OF S OI L I MP ROV E ME NT ME T HODS

MA X I MUM
MOS T S UI T A B L E S P E CI A L S P E CI A L P ROP E RT I E S OF S P E CI A L
E F F E CT I V E REL A T I V E
ME T HOD P RI NCI P L E S OI L CONDI T I ONS / MA T E RI A L S E QUI P ME NT T RE A T E D ADV A NT A GE S
T RE A T ME NT COS T
T YPES RE QUI RE D RE QUI RE D MA T E RI A L A ND L I MI T A T I ONS
DE P T H

BL A S T I NG Sh o c k wa v e s and Sa t u r a t e d , cl ean >30 m Ex p l o s i v e s , Jet t i ng or Ca n obt ai n Ra p i d , i nexpensi ve, Low

vi br at i ons caus e sands; par t l y bac k f i l l t o dr i l l i ng r el at i v e densi ­ c an t r eat any si ze
l i quef act i on and sat ur at ed sands pl ug dr i l l ma c h i n e t i es t o 7 0 - 8 0 %; ar eas ; var i abl e
d i s p l a c e me n t , wi t h and si l t s hol es , hol e ma y get v ar i abl e pr oper t i es , no
s e t t l e me n t t o ( col l aps i bl e cas i ngs densi t y; t i me - i mp r o v e me n t near
hi gher dens i t y l oes s ) af t er dependent s ur f ace,
f l oodi ng st r engt h gai n danger ous

3 V I B RA T ORY De n s i f i c a t i o n by Sa t u r a t e d o r dr y 20 m No n e Vi b r a t o r y Ca m o b t a i n Ra p i d , s i mp l e , good Mo d e r a t e
if)
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PROB E v i br at i on; l i que­ cl ean sand ( I nef f ec­ pi l e dr i v er r el at i ve densi ­ u n d e r wa t e r ; s of t
V)
ir f act i on i nduc ed t i ve and 750 mm t i es of up t o under l ay er s ma y d a mp
M
3
s e t t l e me n t under abov e di a. open 8 0 %. I nef f ect i ve v i br at i ons, di f f i ­
Z over bur den 3- 4 m s t eel pi pe i n s o me sands c ul t t o penet r at e,
O
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T dept h) st i f f
not
ov er l ayer s,
good i n par t l y
3
O s at ur at ed soi l s
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C
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o VI B RO- De n s i f i c a t i o n by Co h e s i o n l e s s 30 m Gr a n u l a r Vi b r o f l o t , Ca n obt ai n hi gh Us e f u l i n s at ur at ed Mo d e r a t e
COMP A CT I ON vi br at i on and soi l s wi t h l es s bac k f i l l , c r ane, r el at i v e densi ­ and par t l y sat u­
o
c o mp a c t i o n of t hem 20% f i nes wa t e r suppl y p u mp s t i es , good r at ed soi l s, uni ­
6 backf i l l ma t e r i a l u n i f o r mi t y f o r mi t y
<
s:
COMP A CT I ON De n s i f i c a t i o n by Loos e s andy >20 m Pi l e ma t e r i a l Pi l e dr i ver , Ca n obt ai n hi gh Us e f u l i n s o i l s wi t h Mo d e r a t e t o hi gh
8
PI L ES d i s p l a c e me n t of s oi l s ; par t l y ( of t en s and speci al sand densi t i es , good f i nes , u n i f o r m c o m­
a
U] pi l e v o l u me and sat ur at ed or s oi l pl us pi l e equi p­ u n i f o r mi t y pact i on, easy t o
g by vi br at i on cl ayey soi l s; c e me n t me n t c heck r esul t s ; s l o w,
dur i ng dr i vi ng l oes s mi x t u r e ) l i mi t e d i mp r o v e me n t
H
i n upper 1- 2 m
l/>
Z Low
HEA V Y Re p e a t e d appl i ca­ Co h e s i o n l e s s 30 m No n e T a mp e r s of Ca n obt ai n good S i mp l e , r api d, s ui t ­
T A MP I NG t i on of hi gh s oi l s, wa s t e (?) up t o 200 i mp r o v e me n t and abl e f or s o me soi l s
( Dy n a mi c i nt ensi t y i mp a c t s f i l l s, par t l y t ons , hi gh r eas onabl e uni ­ wi t h f i nes ; usabl e
c onsol i da­ at s ur f ace s at ur at ed soi l s c apaci t y f o r mi t y above and bel ow
t i on) cr ane wa t e r ; r equi r es
cont r ol , mu s t be
a wa y f r om ex i s t i ng
st r uct ur es

P RE L OA DI NG Load i s appl i ed No r ma l l y cons ol i ­ Ea r t h f i l l or E a r t h mo v i n g Re d u c e d wa t e r Ea s y , t heor y we l l Low

suf f i ci ent l y i n dat ed s of t c l ay s , ot her ma t e r ­ e q u i p me n t ; c ont ent and devel oped, uni f or ­ ( Mo d e r a t e i f
adv anc e of con­ si l t s, or gani c i al f or l oad­ l a r g e wa t e r voi d r at i o, mi t y ; r equi r es l ong v er t i cal dr ai ns
st r uct i on so t hat depos i t s , c o m­ i ng t he si t e; t ank s o r vac ­ i nc r eased t i me ( v er t i c al ar e r equi r ed)
uum dr ai nage st r engt h dr ai ns can be used
c o mp r e s s i o n of pl et ed sani t ar y s and or
s y s t e ms s o me ­ t o r educe consol i ­
sof t soi l s i s l andf i l l s gr av el f or
t i me s u s e d ;
c o mp l e t e d pr i or dr ai nage dat i on t i me )
s e t t l e me n t
t o d e v e l o p me n t bl anket ma r k e r s ,
of t he si t e p i e z o me t e r s

S URCHA RGE Fi l l i n ex c es s of No r ma l l y consol i ­ Ea r t h f i l l or Ea r t h mo v i n g Re d u c e d wa t e r Fas t er t han pr e- Mo d e r a t e

FI LLS t hat r equi r ed dat ed sof t c l ay s , ot her ma t e r i a l e q u i p me n t ; cont ent , v oi d l oadi ng wi t h o u t

g
M p e r ma n e n t l y i s si l t s, or gani c f or l oadi ng s e t t l e me n t r at i o and c o m­ sur char ge, t heor y
W appl i ed t o achi eve depos i t s , c o m­ t he si t e; s and ma r k e r s , pr essi bi l i t y ; we l l devel oped;
pl et ed s ani t ar y ext r a ma t e r i a l
S a gi ven a mo u n t of i ncr eased
0
or gr av el f or p i e z o me t e r s
. s e t t l e me n t i n a l andf i l l s dr ai nage s t r engt h handl i ng; c an us e
s h o r t e r t i me ; bl ank et v er t i c al dr ai ns
ex c es s f i l l t hen t o r educe c on­
s
a. r e mo v e d sol i dat i on t i me

E L E CT RO­ DC c u r r e n t No r ma l l y c o n s o l i ­ An o d e s DC p o we r Re d u c e d wa t e r No f i l l l oadi ng Hi g h

OS MOS I S caus es wa t e r f l ow dat ed si l t s and ( usual l y r e­ suppl y, c ont ent and r equi r ed, can us e
f r o m a n o d e t o wa r d s si l t y cl ays bar s or wi r i n g , c o mp r e s s i b i 1 i t y , i n c o n f i n e d ar ea,
a l u mi n u m) , me t e r i n g i nc r eased r e l a t i v e l y f as t ;
c a t h o d e wh e r e i t
i s r e mo v e d cat hodes s y s t e ms st r engt h, non- uni f or m pr o-
( we l l poi nt s e l e c t r o c h e mi c a l De r t i e s b e t we e n
or r ebar s ) har deni ng el ect r odes , no
good i n hi ghl y
conduct i ve soi l s
<J1
ai
ai
556

T ABL E XI I ( Co n t d . )

S UMMA RY OF S OI L I MP ROV E ME NT ME T HODS

MA X I MUM
MOS T S UI T A B L E S P E CI A L S P E CI A L P ROP E RT I E S OF S P E CI A L
E F F E CT I V E RE L A T I V E
ME T HOD P RI NCI P L E S OI L CONDI T I ONS / MA T E RI A L S E QUI P ME NT T RE A T E D A DV A NT A GE S
T RE A T ME NT COS T
T YPES RE QUI RE D RE QUI RE D MA T E RI A L A ND L I MI T A T I ONS
DE P T H

P A RT I CUL A T E Pe n e t r a t i o n gr out - Me d i u m t o coar se Un l i mi t e d Gr o u t , wa t e r Mi x e r s , I mp e r v i o u s , hi gh Low cost gr out s , L o we s t of t he

GROUT I NG i ng- f i l l soi l sand and gr av el t anks, st r engt h wi t h hi gh st r engt h; gr out s y s t e ms
por es wi t h s oi l , p u mp s , c e me n t gr out , l i mi t e d t o
c e me n t , and/ or hoses e l i mi n a t e l i que­ coar se- qr ai ned
c l ay f act i on danger soi l s, har d t o
eval uat e

CHE MI CA L So l u t i o n s of t wo Me d i u m s i l t s and Un l i mi t e d Gr o u t , wa t e r Mi x e r s , I mp e r v i o u s , l ow Low vi scosi t y, con­ Hi g h t o ver y hi gh

GROUT I NG or mo r e c h e mi c a l s coar ser t anks, t o hi gh s t r engt h, t r ol l abl e gel t i me ,
r eact i n s oi l p u mp s , e l i mi n a t e l i que­ g o o d wa t e r s hut - of f ;
por es t o f or m a hoses f ac t i on danger hi gh cos t , har d t o
gel or a sol i d eval uat e
pr eci pi t at e

P RE S S URE L i me sl ur r y Ex p a n s i v e cl ays Un l i mi t e d , L i me , wa t e r , Sl u r r y t ank s , L i me encapsu­ On l y ef f ect i ve i n Co mp e t i t i v e wi t h

I NJ E CT E D i nj ect ed t o but 2- 3 m sur f act ant agi t at or s , l at ed z ones n ar r ow r ange of ot her sol ut i ons
ü L I ME shal l ow dept hs us ual p u mp s , hoses f o r me d b y s oi l condi t i ons t o expansi ve
2
under hi gh channel s r esul t ­ s oi l p r o b l e ms
H
3 pr es s ur e i ng f r om cr ac k s ,
O
ût r oot hol es,
hydr aul i c
O
f r act ur e
%

S D I S P L A CE ­ Hi g h l y v i scous So f t , f i ne­ Un l i mi t e d , So i l , c e me n t Ba t c h i n g Gr o u t bul bs Go o d f or cor r ec­ L o w ma t e r i a l ,

wi t h i n c o m­ t i on of di f f er en­ hi gh i nj ect i on
B
U
ME NT gr out act s as gr ai ned s oi l s ; but a f ew wa t e r e q u i p me n t ,
hi gh pr essed s oi l t i al s e t t l e me n t s ,
GROUT r adi al hydr au­ f oundat i on m us ual
2 l i c j ack wh e n soi l s wi t h pr essur e ma t r i x f i l l i ng l ar ge
p u mp e d i n under l ar ge v oi ds p u mp s , v oi ds; car ef ul
hi gh pr essur e or c avi t i es hoses c ont r ol r equi r ed

E L E CT RO- St a b i l i z i n g Sa t u r a t e d si l t s, Un k n o wn Ch e mi c a l DC p o we r I ncr eased Ex i s t i n g soi l and Ex p e n s i v e

K I NE T I C c h e mi c a l s mo v e d si l t y c l ays st abi l i zer suppl y , s t r engt h, r e­ st r uct ur es not sub­
I NJ E CT I ON i nt o soi l by ( cl ean s ands i n c ol l oi dal anodes, duced c o mp r e s ­ j ect ed t o hi gh
e l e c t r o - o s mo s i s or c ase of col l oi d voi d f i l l er s cat hodes si bi l i t y, pr essur es; no good
c ol l oi ds i nt o i nj ect i on) r educed l i que­ i n soi l wi t h hi gh
por es by el ect r o­ f ac t i on conduct i vi t y
phor es i s pot ent i al

J ET Hi g h speed j et s at Sa n d s , si l t s, Wa t e r , st abi ­ Sp e c i a l j et So l i d i f i e d Us e f u l i n soi l s

GROUT I NG dept h ex c avat e, i n­ cl ays l i zi ng nozzl e, c o l u mn s and t hat can' t be
j ec t , and mi x c h e mi c a l s p u mp s , pi pes wa l l s p e r me a t i o n
st abi l i zer wi t h and hoses gr out ed, pr e­
soi l t o f or m ci si on i n l ocat i ng
c o l u mn s or panel s t r eat ed zones
 TABLE XII (Contd.)

S UMMA RY OF S OI L I MP ROV E ME NT MET HODS , CONT I NUE D

MA X I MUM
MOS T S UI T A B L E S P E CI A L S P E CI A L PROP E RT I E S OF SP E CI A L
E F F E CT I V E RE L A T I V E
ME T HOD P RI NCI P L E S OI L CONDI T I ONS / MA T E RI A L S EQUI P ME NT T RE A T E D A DV A NT A GE S
T RE A T ME NT COS T
T Y PES RE QUI RE D RE QUI RE D MA T E RI A L AND L I MI T A T I ONS
DE PT H

RE MOV E Foundat i on soi l I nor gani c soi l s 10 m A d mi x t u r e Ex c a v a t i n g , I nc r eased Un i f o r m, cont r ol l ed Hi g h

AND ex c av at ed, i m­ ( ?) st abi l i zer s mi x i n g , and st r engt h and f oundat i on soi l
RE PL ACE pr oved by dr y i ng c o mp a c t i o n st i f f ness, wh e n r epl ac ed; ma y
or a d mi x t u r e , and e q u i p me n t , r educed r equi r e l ar ge ar ea
r e c o mp a c t e d d e wa t e r i n g c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y d e wa t e r i n g
syst em

S T RUCT URA L St r u c t u r a l f i l l Us e over s of t Sa n d , gr av el , Mi x i n g and So f t subgr ade Hi g h st r engt h, good Low t o hi gh

FI L L S di s t r i but es l oads cl ays or or gani c f l y as h, bot t om c o mp a c t i o n pr ot ect ed by l oad di st r i but i on
t o under l y i ng soi l s, ma r s h as h, sl ag,
A DMI X T URE S

e q u i p me n t st r uct ur al l oad- t o under l yi ng sof t

s of t soi l s depos i t s ex panded bear i ng f i l l soi l s
aggr egat e,
c l am s hel l or
oyst er s hel l ,
i nci ner at or
ash

MI X - I N- L i me , c e me n t , or Al l s of t or >20 m Ce me n t , l i me , Dr i l l r i g, So l i d i f i e d s o i l Us e s nat i v e s oi l , Mo d e r a t e t o hi gh
P L A CE asphal t i nt r oduced l oose" i nor - as phal t , or r ot ar y cut ­ pi l es or wa l l s r educ ed l at er al
P I L E S A ND t hr ough r ot at i ng gani c soi l s c h e mi c a l t i ng and of r el at i vel y suppor t r equi r e­
WA L L S auger or speci al st abi l i zer mi x i n g head, hi gh s t r engt h me n t s dur i ng
i n- pl ace mi x e r addi t i ve excav at i on; di f ­
pr opor t i on­ f i cul t qual i t y
i ng equi p­ c ont r ol
me n t

HE A T I NG Dr y i n g at l o w t e m­ Fi n e - g r a i n e d 15 m Fuel Fu e l t ank s , Re d u c e d wa t e r Ca n obt ai n i r ­ Hi g h

per at ur es; al t er a­ soi l s, especi al ­ bur ner s, c ont ent , pl as­ r ever si bl e
t i on of cl ays at l y par t l y sat u­ b l o we r s t i ci t y, wa t e r i mp r o v e me n t s i n
i n t e r me d i a t e t e m­ r at ed cl ays and sensi t i vi t y; pr oper t i es; c an
per at ur es ( 400- si l t s, l oess
T HE RMA L

i ncr eased i nt r oduce st abi ­

600° C) ; f usi on at st r engt h l i zer s wi t h hot
hi gh t e mp e r a t u r e s gas es
( >1 0 00 ° C)

F RE E Z I NG Fr e e z e sof t , we t Al l soi l s Se v e r a l m Re f r i g e r a n t Re f r i g e r a ­ I nc r eased No good i n f l o w­ Hi g h

gr ound t o i n­ t i on syst em st r engt h and i ng g r o u n d wa t e r ,
cr ease i t s s t i f f ness; r e­ t e mp o r a r y
st r engt h and duced p e r me ­
s t i f f ness abi l i t y

V I B RO- Ho l e j et t ed i nt o So f t c l ays and 20 m Gr a v e l or Vi b r o f l o t , I nc r eas ed Fa s t e r t han pr e­ Mo d e r a t e t o hi gh

RE PL ACEMENT s of t , f i ne- gr ai ned al l uvi al c r ushed r ock c r e me or bear i ng capac­ c o mp r e s s i o n ,
S T ONE A ND s oi l and bac k ­ deposi t s backf i l l vi br ocat , i t y, r educed avoi ds d e wa t e r i n g
S A ND f i l l e d wi t h wa t e r s e t t l e me n t s r equi r ed f or r e­
COL UMNS densel y c o mp a c t e d mo v e and r epl ac e;
gr av el or sand l i mi t e d b e a r i n g
c apaci t y

ROOT I nc l usi ons used t o Al l soi l s ? Re i n f o r c i n g Dr i l l i n g Re i n f o r c e d zone I n- s i t u r ei nf or ce­ Mo d e r a t e t o hi gh

g PI L ES, car r y t ensi on, bar s, c e me n t and gr out ­ behav es as a me n t f or soi l s
i S OI L s hear , c o mp r e s s i o n gr out i ng equi p­ coher ent ma s s t hat c an' t be
etu NA I L I NG me n t gr out ed or mi x e d -

z
s i n- pl ac e
a d mi x t u r e s
wi t h

H
sa ST RI PS, Ho r i z o n t a l t ensi l e Co h e s i o n l e s s soi l s Ca n con­ Me t a l or Ex c a v a t i n g , Se l f - s u p p o r t i n g E c o n o mi c a l , ear t h Low t o mo d e r a t e
GRI DS st r i ps, me mb r a n e s s ane c- t f soi l s st r uct pl ast i c st r i ps , ear t h hand­ ear t h st r uc­ st r uct ur es cohe­
A ND ME M­ bur i ed i n soi l ear t h geot ext i l es l i ng, and t ur es , i n­ r ent , can t ol er at e
BRANES under e mb a n k me n t s , s t r uc­ c o mp a c t i o n cr eased bear i ng d e f o r ma t i o n s ; i n­
gr av el base t ur es t o e q u i p me n t c apaci t y, c r eased a l l o wa b l e
cour ses and f oot ­ hei ght s r educ ed def or ­ bear i ng pr essur e
i ngs of ma t i o n s
s ever al
t ens of

en m
C Jl
 TABLE XIII

APPL I CABI L I T Y OF F OUNDATI ON SOI L I MPROVEMENT F OR DI F F ERENT STRUCTURE AND SOI L TYPES
( a d a p t e d f r o m We s t , 1975)

PROBABI L I TY OF ADVANTAGEOUS USE OF SOI L

L OAD I NTENSI TY/ I MPROVEMENT TECHNI QUES
CATEGORY OF PERMI SSI BL E
STRUCTURE USUAL BEARI NG PRESSURE
STRUCTURE SETTLEMENT
REQUI RED, k Pa ( t sf ) L OOSE COHESI ON- SOFT ALL UVI AL OLD, I NORGANI C
LESS SOI LS DEPOSI TS FI LLS

OFFI CE/ Hi gh r i s e: Mor e Smal l Low

Hi gh/ 300 + ( 3+) Hi gh Unl i k el y
APARTMENT t han 6 s t or i es <25- 50 mm

Me d i u m r i s e: Smal l
FRAME OR LOAD- Mo d e r a t e / 2 0 0 ( 2) Hi gh Low Good
3- 6 s t or i es <25- 50 mm
BEARI NG
CONSTRUCTI ON Low r i se: Smal l
L o w/ 100- 200 ( 1- 2) Hi gh Good Hi gh
1- 3 s t or i es <25- 50 mm

Lar ge s pan v / h e a v y
Smal l ( <25- 50 mm) Va r i a b l e / h i g h l oc al
I NDUSTRI AL ma c h i n e s , c r anes ; Low
Di f f er ent i al s et t l ement c onc e n t r a t i o n s t o Hi gh Unl i k el y
p r oc es s pl ant s ; Cr i t i c al >400 ( >4)
p ower pl ant s

Fr ame d war eho u s e s

Mo der at e L o w/ 100- 200 ( 1- 2) Hi gh Good Hi gh
an d f ac t or i es

Co v e r e d s t or age,
et or . r ac k s y s t ems , Low t o moder at e Low/ <200 ( <2) Hi gh Good Hi gh
pr o d uc t i on ar eas

Wat er an d was t e Moder at e

OTHERS Hi gh, i f r equi r ed
wa t e r t r eat ment Di f f er ent i al s et t l ement L ow/ <150 ( <1. 5)
at al l Hi gh Hi gh
pl ant s I mpor t ant

Mod e r a t e t o hi gh,
Hi gh, i f r equi r ed Hi gh
St or age t ank s b ut di f f er ent i al Hi g h/ up t o 300 ( 3) Hi gh
at al l
may be c r i t i c al

Hi gh, i f r e qui r ed Hi gh
Open s t or age ar eas Hi gh Hi g h/ up t o 300 ( 3) Hi gh
at al l

Embank ment s and Hi gh, i f r equi r ed

Moder at e t o hi gh Hi g h/ up t o 200 ( 2) Hi gh Hi gh
abut ment s at al l

TABL E XI V

Co s t Co mp a r i s o n f o r Se v e r a l Me t h o d s
o f Gr o u n d Mo d i f i c a t i o n s
( Va l u e s a r e U. S. Do l l a r s f o r Co n s t r u c t i o n i n
t h e U. S. A. d u r i n g 1980)

Co s t p e r Co s t p e r m2 Co s t p e r m 3
Me t h o d o r Ma t e r i a l
Me t e r Gr o u n d Su r f a c e T r e a t e d Gr o u n d

Re i n f o r c e d Co n c r e t e 100- 250
Ch e mi c a l Gr o u t 200- 400 150- 250
Co mp a c t i o n Gr o u t
Ma t e r i a l p u mp e d 250- 650
Tr e a t e d g r o u n d 3. 00- 30. 00
Ea r t h An c h o r s 50- 100
Dy n a mi c Co mp a c t i o n 7. 50- 30. 00 1. 50- 3. 00
Co n c r e t e Sl u r r y Wa l l 400- 750 500- 750
Sl u r r y Wa l l Cu t o f f 80- 120 125- 250
Jet Ex c a v a t e d Cu t o f f 30- 50 125- 250
St o n e Co l u mn s 40- 75 100- 150 13- 20
Jet Gr o u t e d Co l u mn s 250- 650

( Dat a f r o m W. H. Ba k e r , l ec t ur e, Ma r c h 28, 1980)

558
s o l u t i o n of a l l p r o b l e ms i n a l l s o i l s . As n o t e d
r e c e n t l y a l s o b y Sc h l o s s e r a n d J u r a n ( 1979) ,
wh e n d e a l i n g wi t h t e c h n i q u e s o f s o i l i mp r o v e me n t ,
e x p e r i e n c e h a s a l mo s t a l wa y s p r e c e d e d t h e o r y .
Th e r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a c o n t i n u i n g n e e d f o r
f u r t h e r d e v e l o p me n t o f r a t i o n a l t h e o r e t i c a l
a p p r o a c h e s f or p r e d i c t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n of t he
d e g r e e of i mp r o v e me n t of s t a b i l i z e d s o i l s y s t e ms
b a s e d o n t h e c o n s t i t u e n t p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s o i l
a n d i t s i n t e r a c t i o n wi t h t h e s t a b i l i z i n g
ma t e r i a l s a n d p r o c e s s e s .
Fi v e y e a r s a g o t h e ASCE Co mmi t t e e o n Pl a c e me n t
a n d I mp r o v e me n t of So i l s c o n d u c t e d a De l p h i
s u r v e y t o o b t a i n o p i n i o n s f r o m e x p e r t s wo r l d ­
wi d e o n p o s s i b l e a n d p r o b a b l e f u t u r e d e v e l o p ­
me n t s i n s o i l i mp r o v e me n t . T h e r e p o r t s u m­
ma r i z i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s u r v e y c o n c l u d e d as
f o l l o ws ( Bel l , 1 9 7 8 ) :
Fi n a l l y , t wo f u r t h e r a s p e c t s o f s o i l i mp r o v e me n t
wi l l r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e y e a r s a h e a d .
En e r g y c o s t s , b o t h f o r p r o d u c i n g t h e n e e d e d
ma t e r i a l s a n d f o r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e wo r k i n t h e
f i e l d , wi l l b e o f i n c r e a s i n g i mp o r t a n c e .
Se c o n d l y , i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o
t he l ong t e r m f at e of t hi n g s t hat ar e a d d e d t o
t he gr ound. Ar e t h e r e p o t e n t i a l s f o r a d v e r s e
e n v i r o n me n t a l i mp a c t s ? I f t h e t r e a t me n t i s n o t
p e r ma n e n t , wh a t p r o v i s i o n s a r e ma d e f o r r i s k s
t h a t ma y d e v e l o p s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e d e s i g n l i f e
per i od?
As s o i l s a n d r o c k s a r e r e s o u r c e s t h a t a r e n o t
l i k e l y t o b e c o me i n s h o r t s u p p l y i n t h e y e a r s
a h e a d , i n c r e a s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n o n, i n, a n d wi t h
t hem c an be ant i c i pat ed. Th e n e e d f o r s u i t a b l e
s o i l i mp r o v e me n t me t h o d s wi l l c o n t i n u e t o
i nt ens i f y .

" Ad v a n c e s i n t h e a r e a s o f s o i l i mp r o v e ­
me n t a n d p l a c e me n t wi l l b e v e r y r a p i d
i n t he n ex t f i f t y y ear s . Ho we v e r , t he ACKNOWL EDGMENT S
i n n o v a t i o n s a n d a d v a n c e s ma y p r i ma r i l y
be t e c h n o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t han c onc ept ual . Th e a u t h o r a p p r e c i a t e s t he k i n d a s s i s t a n c e of
Mo s t a d v a n c e me n t s wi l l b e f u r t h e r ma n y c o l l e a g u e s wo r l d wi d e wh o f u r n i s h e d i n f o r ­
d e v e l o p me n t o f me t h o d s p r e s e n t l y a v a i l ­ ma t i o n u s e f u l f o r p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e - o f -
abl e. " t h e - a r t r e p o r t . He i s p l e a s e d t o a c k n o wl e d g e t h e
s p e c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s ma d e b y ma n y o f t h e g r a d ­
I n g l e s ( 1978) pr ognos t i c at ed i n a s o me wh a t s i mi ­ u a t e s t u d e n t s i n Ge o t e c h n i c a l En g i n e e r i n g a t t h e
l ar v ei n: Un i v e r s i t y o f Ca l i f o r n i a , Be r k e l e y , e s p e c i a l l y
t h o s e e n r o l l e d d u r i n g 1 9 8 0 i n t h e c o u r s e So i l
" I mp r o v e me n t s i n ma t e r i a l s h a n d l i n g a n d a n d Si t e I mp r o v e me n t . Th e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
d e s i g n b y me a n s o f p r o b a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s r e v i e w, a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e c e n t
a r e s e e n t o b e f a r t h e mo s t i mp o r t a n t r e f e r e n c e s wa s o f i n e s t i ma b l e v a l u e . Th e r e ­
a d v a n c e i n t h e i mme d i a t e f u t u r e u t i l i z a ­ s p o n s i b i l i t y f or t he i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and c o n ­
t i o n o f s o i l ma t e r i a l s . Ma j o r i mp r o v e ­ c l u s i o n s p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n i s , h o we v e r , s o l e l y
me n t i n s o i l ma t e r i a l s p r o p e r t i e s i s n o t t h e a u t h o r 1s .
t o be e x p e c t e d . "
Wi t h o u t t h e s p e c i al t y pi ng and dr af t i ng ef f or t s
I n r e t r o s p e c t b o t h o f t h e s e s t a t e me n t s s e e m t o o f Na n c y Ho e s , Ci n d y St e e n , Ro s a l i n d I i a ms , a n d
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r e c e n t l y as 15 y e a r s a g o f e w wo u l d h a v e p r e ­ r e p o r t wo u l d n o t hav e been pos s i bl e. Th e i r c o n ­
d i c t e d t h a t e a r t h r e i n f o r c e me n t or g e o t e x t i l e s t r i but i ons ar e gr a t e f u l l y a c k n o wl e d g e d .
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