BSW

5th Semester

PASKAL PUTHIN K A

SQ191000

BSW STUDENT OF ST.PHILOMENA’S COLLEGE, MYSORE

SUBMITTED TO,

DEEPTHY MAM { H.O.D }

MATHEW SIR

ANJU MAM

SUBJECTS

1. Social work and Health care.

2. Social work Research.

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 3. Social work with Tribal community.

4. Voluntary action.

Social work and Health

care.
Unit 1.

1.Concept of health.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.
2.physical,social, mental and spiritual dimensions of health.
Mental and physical health are probably the two most frequently discussed types of
health.
Spiritual, emotional, and financial health also contribute to overall health. Medical
experts have linked these to lower stress levels and improved mental and physical well-
being.
People with better financial health, for example, may worry less about finances and
have the means to buy fresh food more regularly. Those with good spiritual health may
feel a sense of calm and purpose that fuels good mental health.

3.positive health.
Positive Health is the scientific study of health assets.
A “health asset” is a factor that produces stronger health, over and above risk factors
for disease.
Positive Health works to discover which specific health assets produce longer, healthy

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life, and which health assets lower disease risk and health care costs. The goal is to strive
for optimal health —beyond the mere absence of illness.

4.determinants of health.
Determinants of health are the broad range of personal, social, economic and
environmental factors that determine individual and population health. The main
determinants of health include:
● Income and social status
● Employment and working conditions
● Education and literacy
● Childhood experiences
● Physical environments

5.changing perspectives of health care and social work practice in the field of
health.

The Functionalist Approach:As conceived by Talcott Parsons (1951), the functionalist

perspective emphasizes that good health and effective medical care are essential for a
society’s ability to function. Ill health impairs our ability to perform our roles in society,
and if too many people are unhealthy, society’s functioning and stability suffer. This was
especially true for premature death, said Parsons, because it prevents individuals from
fully carrying out all their social roles and thus represents a “poor return” to society for
the various costs of pregnancy, birth, child care, and socialization of the individual who
ends up dying early.

The Conflict Approach

The conflict approach emphasizes inequality in the quality of health and of health-care
delivery (Weitz, 2013). As noted earlier, the quality of health and health care differs
greatly around the world and within the United States. Society’s inequities along social
class, race and ethnicity, and gender lines are reproduced in our health and health care.

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The Symbolic Interactionist Approach

The symbolic interactionist approach emphasizes that health and illness are social
constructions. This means that various physical and mental conditions have little or no
objective reality but instead are considered healthy or ill conditions only if they are
defined as such by a society and its members (Buckser, 2009; Lorber & Moore, 2002).
The ADHD example just discussed also illustrates symbolic interactionist theory’s
concerns, as a behavior that was not previously considered an illness came to be defined
as one after the development of Ritalin.

6.concept of social medicine,preventive medicine and community health.

The field of social medicine seeks to implement social care through understanding how
social and economic conditions impact health, disease and the practice of medicine and
fostering conditions in which this understanding can lead to a healthier
society..Preventive healthcare, or prophylaxis, consists of measures taken for disease
prevention. Disease and disability are affected by environmental factors, genetic
predisposition, disease agents, and lifestyle choices and are dynamic processes which
begin before individuals realize they are affected.

7.role of family in health and disease.

The importance of the family to family physicians is inherent in the paradigm of family
medicine. Family medicine does not separate disease from person or person from
environment. It recognizes the strong connection between health and disease, and
personality, way of life, physical environment, and human relationship

8.Importanve of doctor patient relationship.

The physician-patient relationship is a foundation of clinical care. Physician-patient
relationships can have profound positive and negative implications on clinical care.
Ultimately, the overarching goal of the physician-patient relationship is to improve
patient health outcomes and their medical care.

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 Unit .2
1.Causes ,signs and symptoms treatment and prevention of communicable and non
communicable diseases.

Communicable Disease

Communicable diseases are the diseases which can be spread from one person to the
other. It can also spread from infected animals. The transfer of the infection can occur
through air, water, surfaces which are contaminated or through the direct contact.The
direct contact can be through the body fluids. To make this easy, let me give you an easy
example of the most common disease, cough and cold.At home, if any one family
member catches a cold, the other is very likely to catch the infection, and eventually the
whole family suffers from cold one by one consecutively.

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Such diseases are caused by the pathogens and are easily transmitted from the infected
person to the healthy person. The pathogens are fungi, bacteria, protozoa or viruses.But,
it is important to note that there are still some diseases which are caused by these
pathogens, but are not communicable.Some examples of communicable diseases are
rabies, HIV, malaria, pneumonia, and influenza and athlete's foot.

Communicable Diseases Definition

Every scientific term has a proper definition, which is accepted universally.

Communicable disease explanation can be put into proper words through a single
definition-“Communicable disease is a disease that is transmitted through direct contact
with an infected individual or indirectly through a vector.”It is also termed as a
contagious disease. The pathogens release the toxic products which intervene in the
major metabolic pathways of our body and hence, deter our body from functioning.

Types of Communicable Diseases

Classification helps to study the research topic more deeply, and thus, the “communicable
diseases” is a vast topic for discussion, which takes under itself the numerous diseases!

communicable diseases

● Contact Communicable diseases: examples are scabies, pediculosis, fleas,

bedbugs, acute bacterial conjunctivitis etc.
● Sexually transmitted and HIV/AIDS vector borne communicable diseases:
bancroftian filariasis onchocerciasis, yellow fever, relapsing fever, schistosomiasis
etc.
● Diseases caused by the faecal matter through oral contamination: amoebiasis,
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 cholera, food poisoning, poliomyelitis etc.
● Helminthic diseases: don’t be scared by the name. These communicable diseases
are caused by the helminths or parasitic worms. For example, Ascariasis,
enterobiasis, hookworm etc.
● Air borne diseases: acute respiratory infections, meningitis, tuberculosis etc.

Further, the communicable diseases are also classified on the basis of the causal
organisms, the type of illness caused and the characterisation of symptoms. They are also
classified according to the means of transmission- direct or indirect, which has further
sub categories.

List of Communicable Diseases

Few diseases are very popular in India, List of some common communicable diseases
are:

1. Malaria
2. Typhoid
3. Hepatitis
4. Jaundice
5. Diarrhoea
6. Amoebiasis

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 7. Cholera
8. Influenza
9. Tuberculosis
10. Rabies

Other than these, there are many other known as well as unknown communicable
diseases troubling the society.

Causes of Communicable Diseases

We should know the cause of communicable diseases to work upon the prevention and
control. What are the causes? How do communicable diseases find their way to infect
healthy people?There are several things to blame upon, and if you know the risk factors,
you can easily save yourself from being their victim.

1. The major transmission is through the body fluids. These body fluids are blood,
semen or vaginal fluids. Communicable diseases spread through unprotected sex,
sharing the infected needles (for instance, during drug abuse) or blood
transfusions.
2. Even modern artwork such as tattoos and piercings can be fatal. These diseases
can also spread from the mother to the child in their womb or through
breastfeeding.
3. You can avoid such encounters if you maintain sanitation and hygiene. Causes of
communicable diseases involve many things so wash your hands properly after

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 using the restroom. Have protected and safe sex. Use clean needles and syringes.
4. Direct or indirect causes of communicable diseases includes contact with a person
infected from a communicable disease can be taken as a transmission mode. Direct
contact is from skin to skin.The diseases such as ringworm and scabies spread in
this way.
5. Indirect contact is through the foreign entities which enter our body through
inhaling the droplets of cough or sneeze, or even spitting.You can prevent such
transfer by keeping sanitation and hygiene, and not interacting with the infected
person directly.
6. Airborne diseases are communicable and spread by means of air. The pathogens
are also the part of causes of communicable disease as they are suspended in the
air and can make any healthy person sick when inhaled.

Signs And Symptoms Of Communicable Diseases

Each disease is characterised by its own set of symptoms and thus, the communicable
diseases listed below have the following symptoms:
Influenza has symptoms of fever, constant coughing and sneezing, sore throat and runny
nose, the whole body aches and becomes restless, fatigue and low feeling

Chickenpox comes with fever, fatigue, vesicles on the body, itchiness, fatigue.

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Gastroenteritis comes with pain in the abdomen (from mild to severe), vomits, feeling of
nausea, loss of appetite, fever and tiredness.

Acute conjunctivitis with the redness of eyes, itching in the eyes, tears streaming down
and any secretion from the eyes which is not normal and usual.

Flu symptoms are fever or headache. Common cold is accompanied with sore throat,
coughing, sneezing and blocked nose.

Ringworm shows the presence of some red coloured ring shaped scaly rashes. They are
itchy and spread more as you rub or scratch.

Hepatitis A is shown by the symptoms of fever, headache, loss of appetite, nauseated

feeling and weakness

Mumps is characterised by fever, swelling and tenderness of the salivary glands

Whooping cough has the symptoms such as irritating cough which turns into violent
cough.

Chronic Communicable Diseases

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Generally chronic diseases are non communicable diseases. But, there are chronic
communicable diseases which are extremely fatal and life threatening. AIDS, Hepatitis B,
herpes simplex and cytomegalovirus (CMV) are highly communicable and chronic. CMV
is a communicable disease which is caused by a virus, and is spread through the body
fluids. This disease can also spread from an infected pregnant mother to the child. The
effects are very severe and lead to hearing impairment, mental retardation or visual
impairment.Hepatitis B is another severe illness which is connected to liver cancer. The
symptoms are fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, joint pains and jaundice. The
transmission is through blood, from pregnant mother to child, through sexual contact or
through a medium.HIV virus of AIDS is highly dangerous and can destroy a person’s
immune system. Due to this, the body loses the capacity to fight with the other diseases
and thus, the person becomes prone to various other diseases.AIDS symptoms resemble
other diseases and poor immune response. They are prolonged fever, lymph node
enlargement, night sweats, fungal infections and persistent cough.HSV is another virus
which causes a severe chronic disease. The blisters erupt in dry form and then form
scabs. High fever and severe headache are the symptoms which are followed by the
appearance of blisters.

Effects Of Communicable Diseases

Because such diseases can spread at a very fast pace, they are very harmful and
detrimental. The effects can be seen upon the health, fitness, behaviour and mood.There
is a loss of appetite. How? You tell me by your own experience. Do you feel like eating
when you are ill? There has been marked a reduced level in food intake from the normal
level, when communicable diseases attack your body.But, remember, if you will not eat
food, then how will you get the energy to fight against the diseases? Your body needs a
fuel! Provide it with the surplus energy!

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Usually, a communicable disease cannot signal us without the coughing and sneezing.
These two symptoms are very common and when their intensity rises, you just cannot
take any more.Stomach ache, abdominal pain and diarrhoeal problems are also very
common. Fever and sweating is also observed. Tiredness and fatigue is experienced more
because the body has become weak and it is not able to carry out the day to day activities
properly.

Communicable Diseases Intelligence

Communicable Disease Intelligence (CDI) is a scientific journal which is published

quarterly, that is once in every 3 months. It is published by the Office of Health
Protection, Department of health.The main objectives of the journal are to present the
people with the information on “epidemiology, surveillance, prevention and control of
communicable diseases”. There are very high quality and standardized articles present in
the journal, which are really very informative and helpful.

Communicable Diseases Prevention

Prevention is better than cure. When you know the causes, the prevention methods
become easy to understand and execute. You must learn the individual methods to tackle
the problems.

The prevention steps are taken from the age of childhood. The vaccination is provided in
order to make the children immune to such communicable diseases.

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Also, on an environmental basis, you can fight against diseases. Keep your surroundings
neat and clean. The most contacted things should not be contaminated. The transfer
methods need to be avoided, such as the direct contact with the infected person or putting
contaminated hands on the face.

Non-communicable Disease
Non communicable diseases (NCDs) are the conditions or diseases which are not caused
by transmission of infections like that in communicable diseases. NCDs are non-
transferable or are not contagious.

Non communicable diseases are chronic diseases which affect the human body for long-
term.Non communicable diseases kill over 36 million people every year.

Types Of Non Communicable Diseases

There are many diseases which are due to hereditary, genetic or due to lifestyle and
environment which causes non communicable diseases.

1. Cancer.
2. Diabetes.
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 3. Chronic respiratory diseases.
4. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder that is COPD and asthma.

Some auto-immune diseases like trauma, malnutrition, mental disorders, fractures,

hormonal conditions and poisoning which are caused due to disturbance in the body's
defense mechanism.

Causes of Non Communicable Diseases

Non communicable diseases (NCDs) are caused by improper lifestyle use of tobacco,
smoking, abuse of alcohol, and lack in physical activity or exercise and poor
consumption of food like use of more salt, sugar, fats, etc.

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Some non communicable diseases (NCDs) are inherited, that is they are transferred from
one generation to another. Inherited Diseases are transferred from their parents to off-
springs and thus treating them is a difficult task. Either gene therapy is given to treat
them or any by any other possible means.These factors lead to non communicable
diseases like heart diseases, cancer, diabetes and other chronic non communicable
diseases.

Symptoms of Non Communicable Disease

Signs and symptoms of non communicable diseases may be the same. Sometimes it is
even possible to have non communicable disease without having any visible signs or
symptoms. Different diseases under non communicable diseases will have different
symptoms.

Like cardiovascular diseases will have symptoms of sudden chest pain, irregular
heartbeats, and cardiac cycle disturbance and may have a sign of fever.Cancer will
include symptoms like baldness, weakness, fatigue, etc.Alzheimer’s disease as it is
dementia. Memory loss in people of over age of 60 is common.

How to Prevent Non Communicable Diseases

Prevention is better than cure. And to prevent non communicable disease keep a check on
risk factors and try to reduce them.Doing physical activity and exercises daily. Add this
to your routine for prevention of non communicable diseases.Keep a check on your diet.

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High consumption of salt, sugar and fatty acids may cause high or low blood pressure,
diabetes and blockage in cardiovascular regions respectively.

2.Leprocy,TB,STDs,AIDS,Hepatitis A and B,Colera, Typhoid and malaria, Cancer,

blindness, hypertension, diabetes.
Leprosy is a disease mainly caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae, which causes
damage to the skin and the peripheral nervous system. The disease develops slowly (from
six months to 40 years) and results in skin lesions and deformities, most often affecting
the cooler places on the body (for example, eyes, nose, earlobes, hands, feet, and
testicles). The skin lesions and deformities can be very disfiguring and are the reason that
historically people considered infected individuals outcasts in many cultures.

The disease is termed a chronic granulomatous disease, similar to tuberculosis, because it

produces inflammatory nodules (granulomas) in the skin and peripheral nerves over time.

The term sexually transmitted disease (STD) is used to refer to a condition passed from
one person to another through sexual contact. You can contract an STD by having
unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has the STD.An STD may also
be called a sexually transmitted infection (STI) or venereal disease (VD).

3.Accidents:rising incidents of road traffic accidents.

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An accident is an unplanned event that sometimes has inconvenient or undesirable
consequences, other times being inconsequential. The occurrence of such an event may or
may not have unrecognized or unaddressed risks contributing to its cause. Most scientists
who study unintentional injury avoid using the term "accident" and focus on factors that
increase risk of severe injury and that reduce injury incidence and severity.

Most Common Reasons for Road Accidents:

The number of people killed per day in India due to road accidents has been increasing
every year. With the number of deaths reaching alarming levels, the government of India
has imposed laws and fines to curb this trend. However, this has done little to stem the
deaths caused by accidents. This has caused the government to take the help of the latest
technologies to analyse the reason for so many accidents in the country. The major
reasons that cause accidents in India are:

● Crossing the speed limit:

Overspeeding is one of the major causes of road accidents in India. Many riders
cross the speed limit in areas where it is dangerous to do so. It is important to
maintain the distance between your vehicle and the vehicle in front of you so that

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 if you need to apply the brakes immediately, you have the time and space to do so.

● Drunk driving:
Drunk driving is a serious offence and as per rules laid down by the court, any
driver found with more than 30 mg of alcohol in 100 ml of blood is under the
influence of alcohol and is a culprit of drunk driving. If caught in the act of drunk
driving, the person in question can be imprisoned up to a period of 2 years or/and
a fine up to Rs.3000.

● Not following rules and regulations on the road:

Being unaware of rules and regulations on the road or knowingly ignoring them is
another major cause of road accidents in India. For instance, many drivers change
the lanes without giving a proper signal or without looking at the rear view mirror.
Being unaware of the road signs is another reason and driving ahead despite seeing
a red light are some of the other reasons for road accidents in India.

● Driving on the opposite side on a one-way:

Driving in the reverse direction on one-way causes a lot of road accidents. Due to
lack of education or road awareness, many people drive in the wrong direction
which increases the chances of accidents.

● The condition of the road:

Another reason for road accidents in India is deplorable conditions of the road.
Despite the vast network of roads in the country, most of them have potholes,
without road signs or under construction for a long period. All these lead to road
accidents. Driving on such roads takes a special skill which many drivers do not
have and this often leads to catastrophic consequences.

● Multitasking while driving a vehicle:

While driving a vehicle on the road, the concentration of the driver should be
100%. Multitasking while driving like talking on the mobile phone or listening to
music on earphones can cause road accidents as the concentration of the driver is
not 100% on the road.

● The State of the vehicle:

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 Another reason for road accidents in India is the deplorable condition of the
vehicles on the road. Many vehicles in India are not fit enough to operate on the
roads in India. For instance, a vehicle may operate on the road without proper
tyres, the vehicle may be overloaded or it might not be repaired. A break or engine
failure, bursting of the tire etc. can be the reason for dangerous accidents in the
country.

4.Causes,effects and management strategies for the prevention of accidents.

Causes and Effects of Traffic Accidents

Traffic accidents can be caused by a number of factors, including equipment malfunction

as well as the actions of the driver, such as speeding or aggressive behaviors like
tailgating or unsafe lane changes. The consequences of traffic accidents depend on
variables such as the impact, number of vehicles involved and if vehicle occupants were
protected by safety belts and/or air bags.

Distracted Drivers

Distracted driving involves any non driving activity that causes drivers not to pay full
attention to their driving, including manual, visual and cognitive activities. Drivers that
take their hands off of the wheel to turn the radio station, send text messages, eat or
groom themselves increase their risk of causing traffic accidents.

Impaired Drivers and Driver Fatigue

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Drivers under the influence of alcohol cause traffic accidents because their judgment is
impaired and they are not able to quickly react in certain driving situations. Certain drugs
and prescribed medications taken by drivers can also affect their ability to drive. Driver
fatigue is another cause of traffic accidents occurring typically between 11 p.m. and 8
a.m. when most drivers are used to being asleep.

Weather Conditions

Inclement weather is another factor causing traffic accidents. Heavy rain, snowstorms or
hail can decrease the visibility of drivers and cause them to misjudge the distance of other
vehicles surrounding them.

Effects of Traffic Accidents

Traffic accidents can cause physical, financial and mental effects for everyone involved.
Drivers and passengers can suffer from minor cuts and bruises to broken limbs, whiplash,
back and spinal injuries, paralysis and even death.

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How to prevent accidents

1. Avoiding Distraction.
2. Avoid Using Alcohol And Drugs.
3. Keep Your Eyes Moving.
4. Follow Traffic Rules.
5. Avoid Driving At Night And Bad Weather.
6. Speeding.
7. Read Caution Signs.
8. Use Your Signal Properly.
9. Seat Belts Use.
10. Keeping Your Car Safe.

Unit.3
1.Mother and child health service(MCH)

MCH is a public health sub-field that began by focusing on a specific population

(mothers and children), rather than a method (e.g., epidemiology) or skill set (e.g., health
policy). The national focus on MCH in the US began in 1912 when President Taft
established the Children’s Bureau, consistent with efforts in the US to protect children
who were vulnerable to mortality, morbidity, or social conditions (like child labor).
Government interests were extended to mothers who were the primary child caregivers.
Even in its early days, though, the development of MCH extended beyond concerns for
mothers and children: advocates of birth control, for example, are counted among MCH’s
early leaders.

Today MCH work is clearly not limited to mothers and children, as evidenced by the
MCH Bureau’s (MCHB) website, which details its promotion of the health of families,
adolescents, and women—as well as that of mothers (and pregnant women) and

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children.The MCHB also reflects concerns about health equity and the reduction of
health disparities—for everyone, not just mothers and children. The ability to
demonstrate “cultural competence” is, in fact, considered critical for MCH leaders.
Beyond the US, it is also difficult to disentangle health equity from global MCH
advocacy and program development.

2.Prenatal and postnatal care ,immunization-School health programme,ICDS and

RCH.

Importance of prenatal and postnatal care

For most women, becoming a mother and holding the newborn baby is among the
happiest moments of their lives. It is right and happiness that every woman wishing to be a
mother is entitled to. However, for many pregnant women this does not come true and at
times even results in the worst of the scenarios. Every day as many as 800 women die due
to complications arising out of pregnancy (as per UNICEF) and uncountable many lose
their baby. In India, a woman dies every 20 minutes due to pregnancy or during childbirth,
as per the World Health Organization. The major cause of this is insufficient and poor
prenatal and postnatal care and the lack of awareness around the needs of women during
pregnancy.
Pregnancy during Adolescence: The journey to safe and healthy a mother and
child begins with educating adolescent girls about their bodies and encouraging them to
make decisions about their bodies and health. Pregnancy and childbirth require a physically
and mentally prepared woman, capable of handling the changes brought on in the process
and proper prenatal and postnatal care. Globally, mortality is high among girls between the
age of 15-19 years whose bodies are still growing and changing and who are put through
the trauma and complications of pregnancy. As per a UNICEF report, as many as 100 in
1000 adolescent girls between 15-19 years go through pregnancy in India, as of 2018. The
physical and psychological burden of pregnancy and childbirth can significantly weaken a
girl’s young body leaving her vulnerable to risk in future pregnancies.
Maternal Healthcare: Every pregnant woman needs access to prenatal
and postnatal care to ensure her and her baby’s health and welfare. As per WHO, every

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woman who is pregnant must have at least four prenatal attendance and have access to iron
and folic acid supplements for at least 100 days alongside two tetanus shots and vitamins
and calcium to maintain her physical health and prepare her body for childbirth. Prenatal
visits provide the opportunity to detect and possibly prevent adverse birth events. However,
only 21% utilize or get access to all four ANC visits and barely 30% take IFA for the
minimum stated period. Low iron can lead to anemia which can be possibly life-
threatening to both mother and child.After childbirth, a woman’s body suffers from low
levels of iron and calcium. For a speedy recovery, postnatal care includes access to iron,
calcium, vitamin-enriched diets as well as supplements.
Access to Safe Delivery and Emergency Care :To ensure a safe
delivery, it is advised to have a skilled provider such as doctor, nurse, or midwife around to
reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality. India has achieved a significant feat
where more than 81% of the deliveries take place in the presence of a skilled provider,
thereby actively bringing down the mortality rate of mother and baby.There, however, still
remains a lack of emergency care such as cesarean section, or C-section which can be
lifesaving interventions in case of a breech birth or some other serious complication,
specifically in rural regions where hospitals and healthcare centers are not easily reachable.
ICHS: International Community Health Services (ICHS) is a nationally-
recognized federally qualified health center, and for over 45 years ICHS has provided
culturally and linguistically appropriate health and wellness services, including increasing
health equity for uninsured and medically underserved individuals of all languages and
walks of life. We firmly believe that access to quality health care strengthens our families
and communities, and promotes a more just society. We take pride in our diverse and
inclusive workforce and at ICHS we value respect and support each other so each
individual can achieve his or her full potential. We invite you to join us and be inspired by
colleagues that share your mission and purpose

3.Nutrition balanced diet.

Nutrition is about eating a healthy and balanced diet. Food and drink provide the energy
and nutrients you need to be healthy. Understanding these nutrition terms may make it

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easier for you to make better food choices.

4.Under nutrition and malnutrition.

Undernutrition denotes insufficient intake of energy and nutrients to meet an individual's
needs to maintain good health. In most literature, undernutrition is used synonymously
with malnutrition. In the strictest sense, malnutrition denotes both undernutrition and
overnutrition.

5.Remedial measures.
● Eat a variety of foods.
● Base your diet on plenty of foods rich in carbohydrates.
● Replace saturated with unsaturated fat.
● Enjoy plenty of fruits and vegetables.
● Reduce salt and sugar intake.
● Eat regularly, control the portion size.
● Drink plenty of fluids.
● Maintain a healthy body weight.

Unit.4
1.Concept of mental health ,mental illness,community mental health and
community.
Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects
how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others,
and make choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and
adolescence through adulthood.

Mental illnesses are health conditions involving changes in emotion, thinking or behavior
(or a combination of these). Mental illnesses are associated with distress and/or problems
functioning in social, work or family activities. Mental illness is common.
2.Mental health as a part of general health.
Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects
how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others,

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and make choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and
adolescence through adulthood.
Emotional and mental health is important because it's a vital part of your life and impacts
your thoughts, behaviors and emotions. Being healthy emotionally can promote
productivity and effectiveness in activities like work, school or caregiving.

3.Rehabilitation,prevention of mental illness,and promotion of mental health.

What is rehabilitation?
Rehabilitation is the process of helping an individual achieve the highest level of
function, independence, and quality of life possible. Rehabilitation does not reverse or
undo the damage caused by disease or trauma, but rather helps restore the individual to
optimal health, functioning, and well-being.

Stopping mental health problems before they occur and promoting good mental health for
all. Often primary prevention work is 'universal' in that it targets and benefits everyone in
a community, for example anti-stigma campaigns such as Mental Health Awareness
Week or mental health literacy programmes.

1. Tell yourself something positive. Research shows that how you think about
yourself can have a powerful effect on how you feel. ...
2. Write down something you are grateful for. ...
3. Focus on one thing (in the moment). ...
4. Exercise. ...
5. Eat a good meal. ...
6. Open up to someone. ...
7. Do something for someone else. ...
8. Take a break.

4.Methods and technique and role of social worker.

Method’ is synonymous with process, technique and mode and depicts the actual
activities that a social worker does when working with a client. The selection of a
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method, or the actions the social worker will take, is dependent on the social worker’s use
of theory to help make sense of a current situation or behaviour.

Social work as a professional practice mainly uses the following methods while
accomplishing its objectives:
1) Social case work
2) Social group work
3) Community Organization
4) Social work research
5) Social welfare administration
6) Social action

Unit-5.
1.Health service at national,state,district,taluk and phc level.

HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM IN INDIA:

India is a union of 28 states and 7 union territories. States are largely independent in
matters relating to the delivery of health care to the people. Each state has developed its
own system of health care delivery, independent of the Central Government. The Central
Government responsibility consists mainly of policy making , planning , guiding,
assisting, evaluating and coordinating the work of the State Health Ministries.

The health system in India has 3 main links

1.Central

2.State and

3.Local or peripheral

I. AT THE CENTER

The official 'organs' of the health system at the national level consist of

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1.Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

2.The Directorate General of Health Services

3.The Central Council of Health and Family Welfare

Functions:

Union list

1. International health relations and administration of port quarantine

2. Administration of Central Institutes such as All India Institute of Hygiene and

Public Health, Kolkata.

3. Promotion of research through research centers

4. Regulation and development of medical, pharmaceutical, dental and nursing

professions

5. Establishment and maintenance of drug standards

6. Census and collection and publication of other statistical data

7. Immigration and emigration

8. Regulation of labour in the working of mines and oil fields

9. Coordination with states and with other ministries for promotion of health

Concurrent list

a. The functions listed under the concurrent list are the responsibility of both the union
and state governments

2. Prevention and extension of communicable diseases

3. Prevention of adulteration of food stuffs

4. Control of drugs and poisons

5. Vital statistics

6. Labour welfare
27
7. Ports other than major

8. Economic and social planning

9. Population control and Family Planning

2.Directorate General of Health Services

Functions:

1. International health relations and quarantine of all major ports in country and
international airport

2. Control of drug standards

3. Maintain medical store depots

4. Administration of post graduate training programmes

5. Administration of certain medical colleges in India

6. Conducting medical research through Indian Council of Medical Research ( ICMR )

7. Central Government Health Schemes.

8. Implementation of national health programmes

9. Preparation of health education material for creating health awareness through

Central Health Education Bureau.

10. Collection, compilation, analysis, evaluation and dissemination of information

through the Central Bureau of Health Intelligence

11. National Medical Library

3.Central Council of Health

Functions

1. To consider and recommend broad outlines of policy regard to matters

concerning health like environment hygiene, nutrition and health education.

28
2. To make proposals for legislation relating to medical and public health
matters.

3. To make recommendations to the Central Government regarding

distribution of grants-in-aid.

II) AT THE STATE LEVEL

The health subjects are divided into three groups: federal, concurrent and state. The state
list is the responsibility of the state, including provision of medical care, preventive
health services and pilgrimage within the state.

State health administration

At present there are 28 states in India, each state having its own health administration

1. State Ministry of Health

Two separate major departments, medical and public health are functioning in the
state.The Directorate of Health Services or the Director of Medical and Health Services

The Directorate of Health and Family Welfare.The Directorate of Medical Education for
the management of medical colleges and hospitals.

The Directorate of Public Health Services

III. AT THE DISTRICT LEVEL

There are 593 ( year 2001 ) districts in India. Within each district, there are 6 types of
administrative areas.

Sub -division

Tehsils( Taluks )

Community Development Blocks

Municipalities and Corporations

Villages and

Panchayats

Most district in India are divided into two or more subdivision, each in charge of an

29
Assistant Collector or Sub Collector

Each division is again divided into taluks, incharge of a Tahsildar. A taluk usually
comprises between 200 to 600 villages

The community development block comprises approximately 100 villages and about
80000 to 1,20,000 population, in charge of a Block Development Officer.

Finally, there are the village panchayats, which are institutions of rural local self-
government.

The urban areas of the district are organized into

Town Area Committees (in areas with population ranging between 5,000 to 10,000)

Municipal Boards (in areas with population ranging between 10,000 and 2,00,000)

Corporations (with population above 2,00,000)

The Town Area Committees are like panchayats. They provide sanitary services.
The Municipal Boards are headed by Chairman / President, elected by members.

The functions of Municipal Board

1. Construction and maintenance of roads

2. Sanitation and drainage

3. Street lighting

4. Water supply

5. Maintenance of hospitals and dispensaries

6. Education and

7. Registration of births and deaths etc

The Corporations are headed by Mayors, elected by councillors, who are elected from
different wards of the city. The executive agency includes the commissioner, the
secretary, the engineer and the health officer.The activities are similar to those of
municipalities, on a much wider scale.

30
Panchayat Raj -The panchayat raj is a 3-tier structure of rural local self-government in
India, linking the village to the district

Panchayat (at the village level)

Panchayat Samiti( at the block level)

Zila Parishad(at the district level)

Panchayat (at the village level):

The Panchayat Raj at the village level consists of

The Gram Sabha

The Gram Panchayat

The Gram Sabha considers proposals for taxation, and elects members of The Gram
Panchayat.

The Gram Panchayat covers the civic administration including sanitation and
public health and work for the social and economic development of the village.

Panchayat Samiti (at the block level):

The Panchayat Samiti executed the community development programme in the block.
The Block Development Officer and his staff give technical assistance and guidance in
development work.

Zila Parishad (at the district level):

The Zila Parishad is the agency of rural local self-government at the district level . Its
functions and powers vary from state to state.

2.Role and functions of social workers in health care.

Hospital or medical social workers provide help and support to patients with a variety of

31
medical problems. Patients admitted to the hospital may require a social worker for
psychosocial problems. These can be related to illness or medical issues or they may be
related to a psychosocial problem, such as mental illness or homelessness. Given the
complexity of the hospital setting, medical social workers must fulfill a variety of duties.

Collaboration

Collaboration with healthcare providers is a key duty for the medical social worker. This
is done as part of an interdisciplinary treatment team, which includes professionals such
as nurses, doctors, physician assistants and physical therapists. The social worker helps to
facilitate communication between team members and the patient, as well as the patient’s
family. Since different providers have different points of view, communication can be a
challenge, but it is up to the social worker to ease this process so that the patient receives
the best possible care.

Support

Being in the hospital can be stressful. For this reason, social workers provide supportive
counseling to patients and their families. Social workers can help patients facing
addiction and chronic pain, as well as those coping with terminal illness, death, disability,
and social and mental health problems. Social workers may offer individual and family
counseling or group counseling for patients dealing with similar problems. Social
workers are trained to treat behavioral and mental health issues, as well as counseling and
therapeutic techniques, allowing them to offer clinical and mental health services when
needed.

Advocacy

Medical social workers act as advocates on behalf of the patient. This may include
making the patient’s wishes known to the family and treatment team, or making sure the
patient receives accurate information about his care and treatment. Social workers are
particularly involved in assisting patients in creating advanced directives, which offer

32
clear instructions as to the patient’s wishes in terms of medical end-of-life decision-
making.

Case Management

Medical social workers fulfill duties as case managers, coordinating patient care. This can
include connecting patients with needed social services. For instance, a social worker
may help a homeless patient find a shelter or housing program. Medical social workers
are often involved in the process of discharge planning as well as coordinating after-care
services such as at-home care, follow-up appointments or finding the patient in a
rehabilitation facility, if needed.

3.Social work practice in hospital and community.

Medical social work is a sub-discipline of social work. Medical social workers typically
work in a hospital, outpatient clinic, community health agency, skilled nursing facility,
long-term care facility or hospice. They work with patients and their families in need of
psychosocial help. Medical social workers assess the psychosocial functioning of patients
and families and intervene as necessary. Social workers address questions such as: Who
should intervene and when should they intervene?[1] Interventions may include
connecting patients and families to necessary resources and support in the community
such as preventive care; providing psychotherapy, supportive counseling, or grief
counseling; or helping a patient to expand and strengthen their network of social support.

4.Health education: meaning, importance and methods

Health education is a profession of educating people about health. Areas within this
profession encompass environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional
health, intellectual health, and spiritual health, as well as sexual and reproductive
health education.

What is the Importance of Health Education?

Community health education looks at the health of a community as a whole, seeking

to identify health issues and trends within a population and work with stakeholders to

33
find solutions to these concerns.

The importance of health education impacts many areas of wellness within a

community, including:

● Chronic disease awareness and prevention

● Maternal and infant health
● Tobacco use and substance abuse
● Injury and violence prevention
● Mental and behavioral health
● Nutrition, exercise and obesity prevention

Methods of community health education are the techniques or ways in which a series
of activities are carried out to communicate ideas, information and develop necessary
skills and attitudes. Mainly methods have been classified into three main groups
according to the number of people who are willing to get health education. Such as
the Mass media method.

5.National health programs

List of National Health Programmes in India

National Year of Objective/Description

HealthProgra launched
mmes

National Cancer 1975 Primary prevention of cancers by health

Control education regarding
Programme
hazards of tobacco consumption and necessity
of genital hygiene for prevention of cervical
cancer, etc.

National ---- To prevent the avoidable hearing loss on

34
Program for account of disease or injury, etc.
Prevention and
Control of
Deafness
(NPPCD)

District Mental 1982 To ensure availability and accessibility of

Health Program minimum mental health care for all in the
(NMHP) foreseeable future, particularly to the most
vulnerable and underprivileged sections of
population.

National Cancer 1982 To provide true information on cancer

Registry prevalence and incidence.
Programme

National started in 1955, To arrest the disease activity in all the known
Leprosy launched in 1983 cases of leprosy.
Eradication
Program

Universal 1985 To achieve self-sufficiency in vaccine

Immunization production and the manufacture of cold-chain
Program (UIP) equipment for storage purposes, etc.

National Vector ---- For the prevention and control of vector borne
Borne Disease diseases
Control
Program

National 2007 Preventing the initiation of smoking among

Tobacco young people, educating, motivating and
Control assisting smokers to quit smoking, etc.

35
 Program

National 2010 To provide preventive, curative and

Program of rehabilitative services to the elderly persons at
Health Care for various levels of the health care delivery
the Elderly system of the country, etc.
(NPHCE)

6.National health policy

The Union Union Cabinet approved the National Health Policy 2017. It will replace
the previous policy which was framed 15 years ago in 2002.
It aims at providing healthcare in an “assured manner” to all by addressing current
and emerging challenges arising from the ever changing socio-economic,
epidemiological and technological scenarios.

● It aims to raise public healthcare expenditure to 2.5% of GDP from current

1.4%, with more than two-thirds of those resources going towards primary
healthcare.
● It envisages providing a larger package of assured comprehensive primary
healthcare through the ‘Health and Wellness Centers’.
● It is a comprehensive package that will include care for major non-
communicable diseases (NCDs), geriatric healthcare, mental health, palliative
care and rehabilitative care services.
● It proposes free diagnostics, free drugs and free emergency and essential
healthcare services in all public hospitals in order to provide healthcare access
and financial protection.
● It seeks to establish regular tracking of disability adjusted life years (DALY)
Index as a measure of burden of disease and its major categories trends by
2022.

36
 7.national and international organizations for health
Asia

● National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC; India)

● National Centre for Infectious Diseases (NCID; Singapore)
[14]
● National Institute of Health (NIH; Pakistan)
● National Institute of Infectious Diseases (NIID; Japan)
● National Institute of Public Health (NIPH; Japan)

SOCIAL WORK WITH

TRIBAL COMMUNITIES
Unit 1:
1.1 Definition of tribe

Tribe is a group of people of the same race, and with the same customs, language,
religion, etc., living in a particular area and often led by a chief.

1.2 Nature and characteristics of primitive culture

Primitive culture, in the lexicon of early anthropologists, any of numerous societies

characterized by features that may include lack of a written language, relative isolation,
small population, relatively simple social institutions and technology, and a generally
slow rate of sociocultural change. In some of these cultures history and beliefs are passed
37
on through an oral tradition and may be the province of a person or group especially
trained for the purpose.

1.3 Major scheduled tribes in India and with special reference to Karnataka and
their ecological distribution

The Scheduled Tribes in India form the largest proportion of the total population in
Lakshadweep and Mizoram followed by Nagaland and Meghalaya. Madhya Pradesh
has the largest number of scheduled Tribes followed by Orissa. Bastar district of
Chattisgarh consists of the largest number of Scheduled Tribes.

1.4 Characteristics of tribal society

Characteristics of community:

Human Scale:Communities have individuals engaging in face-to-face interactions.They

are in that sense primary groups who are in direct contact with one another. People know
each other and in this sense are in control of the range of interactions they are engaged in.

Social structures are sufficiently small and people are able to own and control them.

Identity and Belonging:

There is feeling of belonging and acceptance of each other as well as security thus one
feels a part of the community or a member of a community. Membership involves
acceptance by others, loyalty to the aims of the group concerned. This sense of belonging
is significant and positively regarded. Community can become the person’s self-concept.
Identity also plays a role in the person not only feeling a sense of belongingness to one
community but a sense of difference from the other groups. Institutions within
community and shared practices also play a role in identity formation and foster a sense
of belonging.

Obligations:

The belongingness carries with it a certain sense of rights and responsibilities. There is a
mutuality of trust and reciprocity. This implies that the people have a wide variety of
roles in which they interact with each other. These interactions are not contractual but are
obligatory. These are important for self enhancement of individuals as well as for

38
fostering the use of a range of talents and abilities for the benefit of others and the
community as a whole.

Culture:

A community has a specific culture that is reproduced and continuously being shaped by
the members of the community, through its social structures, economic systems and ower
relations. A culture in that sense is all encompassing and all embracing the way of life of
a group of people.

1.5 Economic, social, political and cultural problems of tribal life

. Economic Problem:

The tribal people are economically the poorest people of India. Majority of them live beta
the poverty line. The tribal economy is based on agriculture of the crudest type. The main
economic problems of the tribals are explained below.

(i) Exploitation:

The innocence, illiteracy and helplessness of the tribals are exploited by the outsiders.
The British policy, in particular, had led to ruthless exploitation of the tribals in various
ways as it favoured the zamindars, landlords, money-lenders, forest contractors and
excise, revenue and police officials.

(ii) Unprofitable Agriculture:

About 90% of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them are landless and
practise shifting cultivation. They need to be helped in adopting new methods of
cultivation. The tribals possess uneconomic holdings because of which their crop yield is
very less.

(iii) Problems of land ownership:

A good portion of the land in the tribal areas has been legally transferred to non-tribals.

39
Tribals demand that this land should be returned to them. In fact the tribals had earlier
enjoyed much freedom to use the forest and hunt their animals.

(iv) Unemployment and Underemployment:

A large number of tribal young men and women are either unemployed or
underemployed. They are unhappy for they are not able to get jobs that can keep them
occupied throughout the year.

(v) Non-Availability of Banking Facilities:

Banking facilities in the tribal areas are so inadequate that the tribals have mainly to
depend on the money-lenders. The tribals, therefore, demand that “Agricultural
Indebtedness Relief Acts” should be enacted so that they may get back their mortgaged
land.

1.5.1 Employment, communication, health, education, housing, indebtedness

CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN TRIBALS: The following are the main causes of

unemployment among the tribals: 1. Land Alienation 2. Lack of sufficient cultivable
lands 3. Lack of means of irrigation 4. Division of land in each generation 5. No scope
for Rabi crops 6. Decrease in forest areas 7. Recent forest policies 8. Lack of forest based
industries 9. Lack of cottage industries 10. Lack of work as casual labour 11. Lack of
attraction towards animal husbandry and live stocks due to migratory nature 357 12. Lack
of scientific agriculture 13. Lack of vocational education 14. Faulty policies of the
government towards employment

THE PROBLEM OF COMMUNICATION: The tribals live in such a territory, which is

surrounded by hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, streams, islands, etc. In tribal territories,
hills, streams, forests, seas, rivers, island are found to be working as a natural barrier of
communication. Tribals are poor. They have struggle hard to maintain their existence.
That is why they are rarely in a position to buy radio and T.V. set to get information from
distance places. Radio needs battery to run. Even in remote areas of tribals radios can be
seen in very numbers. Those few radios found are out of order due to shortage of

40
batteries and other mechanical problems. T.V. requires battery or electricity. The remote
tribals areas are not electrified. They do not have money to buy T.V. and battery. As a
result, tribals, have to miss the news of their importance national importance.

THE PROBLEM OF HEALTH AND SANITATION: Our tribal brethren have to face a
number of problems related to health and sanitation. The tribals live in a specific
territory. Their culture, style of life and economy are different. Their distinctive culture,
residence style of life and economy are also responsible for the problems of health and
sanitation. Tribals live in the villages surrounded by hills, forest, sea, islands, rivers etc.
In these areas, they lack communication facilities. Due to lack of communication
facilities, they are not able to attain the benefits of the programmes related to general
health, reproductive health, 358 children, expectant mother, lactating mother, family
welfare, communicable disease, sex linked diseases, AIDS etc. Tribals live in such an
area where one has to face a number of difficulties in going and coming. Due to these
difficulties, government doctors, nurses, health servants etc., posted at health centres,
health sub-centres or referral hospitals do not want to live in tribal areas.

. THE PROBLEM OF EDUCATION: After independence, following the provisions of

our constitution under Articles 15(4) and 46, our Central as well as State government
have established primary, middle and high schools in tribal areas. A number of voluntary
organisations have also come forward in tribal areas for the purpose of educational
development in tribal areas. As a result, literacy among the tribals has been achieved to
some extent, but still far away from the national literacy rate. Again, there is also a vast
difference in literacy rates of male and females. In the year 1971, the literacy rate among
the scheduled tribes was 11.30 percent, which increased to 16.35 percent in 1981 and
29.6 percent in 1991. The literacy rate among the tribal males was 17.63 percent in 1971,
which increased to 24.52 percent in 1981. The literacy rate among females of tribals was
4.85 percent in 1971, which increased to 8.04 in 1981. In the year 1991 the literacy rate
in male tribals was 40.65 percent. So far as the educational problem in tribals is
concerned, it is closely related to their cultural practices and economy.

1.6 Exploitation of tribals and the impact acculturation on tribal society

Exploitation and Unrest of the tribes:

For ages tribals are considered primitive segment of Indian society. They lived in forests
41
and hills without any contact with civilizations. During British rule they consolidated
their position and their political aspirations and administrative needs necessitated to open
up the entire country. The British introduced the system of landownership and revenue.
Annual tax was trebled which was beyond the paying capacity of tribal cultivators.

Thus it is the cumulative result of a number of factors.

● Indifference from administrators and bureaucracy in dealing with tribal

grievances.
● Harsh and unfriendly forest laws and regulations.
● Lack of legislation to prevent the passing of tribal land into the hands of non-
tribals.
● Lack of credit facilities.
● Ineffective government measures to rehabilitate tribal population.
● Delay in implementation of recommendations of different committee
● Discrimination in implementation of reform measures.

Acculturation and Changes Occurring in Tribal Culture!

Cultural change is ‘change in knowledge, attitudes, ideas, behaviour, religious beliefs,

and moral doctrines of individuals who compose the community or the society.’ Thus,
cultural change is a multifactorial process. Several factors as identified by Raha and
Dubash Roy which have brought about changes in the tribal culture are: measures un-
dertaken by the government, communication facilities, spread of education, process of
urbanisation, occupational mobility, community development projects, frequent contacts
with the neighbouring Hindus in the urban areas, construction of dams in the tribal areas,
impact of Christianity, facilities of bank credit, modern medicare, cooperative societies,
modern legislation, cash and market economy, and reformist movements.

Unit 2:
42
Historical analysis of tribal society: ancient, medieval, colonial and post-
independent:-

In general usage, the word “tribe” is taken to denote a primary aggregate of peoples
living in a primitive or barbarous condition under a headman or chief. The unnecessary
moralistic overtones that this usage implies can be avoided or minimized by the use of
the expression “tribal society,” which is to be preferred to such synonyms as “primitive
society” or “preliterate society.” At the same time, the word “tribe” need not be
discarded. Indeed, it has become a technical term denoting a territorially defined political
unit, a usage that recalls the original Latin use of the word for the political divisions or
patrician orders of the Roman state.

Traditional views:

Evolutionary writers of the last century attempted to distinguish between tribal and
modern society in terms of imputed differences in their legal and political institutions.
Morgan (1877) saw tribal society as having social, but not political organization, a
judgment echoed by Sidgwick (1891) and some later authorities on politics. Both Morgan
and Maine (1861) contrasted the territorial foundations of the modern state with what
they considered to be the kinship basis of tribal societies. Maine regarded tribal emphasis
on the status structure (ascribed through birth) to be dominant over relations of voluntary
contract that could be achieved by skill or effort. This assessment, of course, formed the
basis for the great legal historian’s famous aphorism expressing the transition from tribal
to modern institutions in terms of the “movement of the progressive societies” from
status to Contract.

Characteristics of tribal society:

While taking account of the implications of such homely synonyms as “simple society,”
“pre industrial society,” or “folk society,” a satisfactory characterization of tribal society
must therefore concentrate upon criteria of form rather than of content. Here the most
useful general criterion is that of “scale” (Wilson & Wilson 1945). Ideally, tribal societies
are small in scale, are restricted in the spatial and temporal range of their social, legal,
and political relations, and possess a morality, religion, and worldview of corresponding

43
dimensions. Characteristically, too, tribal languages are unwritten, and hence, the extent
of communication both in time and space is inevitably narrow. At the same time, tribal
societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design and have a compactness and self-
sufficiency lacking in modern society. This is achieved by the close, and sometimes
unilateral, connections that exist between tribal institutions or principles of social
organization, and by the concentration of a multiplicity of social roles in the same social
persons or offices.

Family and kinship systems:-

Kinship systems are mechanisms that link conjugal families (and individuals not living in
families) in ways that affect the integration of the general social structure and enhance the
ability of the society to reproduce itself in an orderly fashion. Kinship performs these
social functions in two ways.Anthropologists have discovered that there are only six
basic kin naming patterns or systems used by almost all of the thousands of cultures in
the world. They are referred to as the Eskimo, Hawaiian, Sudanese, Omaha, Crow, and
Iroquois systems.

How is family related to kinship?

You may have heard a phrase similar to, 'she is kin to us. ' That's because 'kin' is actually
a synonym for 'related. ' So, where family is the actual group of people, kinship is the
relationship between family members. Mothers and daughters, uncles and nephews,
sisters and cousins are all examples of kinships.

Economic structure(land relations):-

Tribes develop their economies through a wide range of activities, including agriculture,
mining, and tourism. Some tribal nations pursue economic development by quantifying
their water rights, developing infrastructure to deliver water, and leasing tribal water to
earn revenue.

Political organizations:-

They are usually associated with horticulture and pastoralism. Tribal groups may be

44
connected to each other through a clan structure in which members claim descent from a
common ancestor. Tribal political organisation is more formal than band-level
organisation.

Tribal communication ‒linguistics:-

LANGUAGE AND TRIBES

As of the 1991 Census, 8.8% of the total population of India is tribal. 93.80% are rural
based and 6.20% are urbanized. Of the 623 tribal communities, 123 (19.47%) are
monolingual. Tribal bilingualism is rural whereas non-tribal bilingualism is urban. The
shift to non-tribal mother tongues has increased from 51% (1971) to 58% (1981). Tribals
in India originate from five language families,

{ i.e.} Andamanese, Austro-Asiatic, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman. It is also

important to point out that those tribals who belong to different language families live in
distinct geographic settings.

For example, in South Orissa there are languages that originate from the Central
Dravidian family, Austro- Asiatic (Munda) family and the Indo-Aryan. In the Jharkhand
area, languages are from the Indo-Aryan, North Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic.

UNIT 3
Government programmes since independence and their

impact on tribal societies:-

Establishment of Ashram School in Tribal Sub-Plan Areas

(1990-1991):

The scheme provides for the establishment of Ashram schools in Tribal areas, ashram
schools refer to such educational centers which not only cater to educational facilities but
at the same time provide for accommodation for the children. This creates an
environment conducive to learning and lays off the economic burden from their
shoulders.

45
Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship (2005-2006):

This is a central fellowship scheme that provides fellowship to Scheduled Tribes students
for pursuing higher studies such as – M.Phil. and Ph.D. Under this scheme, the ST
student would get admission for full-time M.Phil. and Ph.D. courses in academic
institutions as per UGC. Moreover, the rate of fellowship for Junior Research Fellow
(JRF) and Senior Research Fellow (SRF) is at par with the UGC Fellowship as amended
from time to time.

National Overseas Scholarships for Scheduled Tribes (2007-

2008):

This is a central financial assistance scheme for meritorious students who want to pursue
higher education like- Master’s degrees, Ph.D. and Post-Doctoral research programmes in
foreign universities for certain disciplines of Engineering, Technology and Sciences.
Through this, the government aims to increase the ambit of employment opportunities for
the tribal people.

Vocational Training Centers in Tribal areas (1992-1993):

This scheme provides opportunities for the scheduled tribes to develop themselves for a
variety of jobs and self- employment in order to enhance their economic pursuits. This
scheme is implemented through NGOs and State institutions where tribal trainees are
appointed and are taught trade activities, research tasks, seminars and workshops for 6
months.

Coaching for Scheduled Tribes students:

This scheme provides coaching to the STs for competitive examinations like- Civil
Services, State Civil Services, CDS, Railway recruitments, Insurance companies etc. in
order to ensure a level playing field for all the aspirants. The financial assistance under
the scheme revises with time.

Adivasi Shiksha Rrinn Yojana (ASRY):

46
This scheme provides for soft loans to tribal students who want to pursue technical and
professional education. In this a loan up to Rs. 10 Lakh per family is provided at the rate
of 6% p.a. Additionally, in this scheme the Government of India provides interest subsidy
to students in which no interest is payable during the course period or one year after
getting a job.

Other Educational upliftment schemes:

The government has also launched schemes relating to the construction of hostels for ST
girls and boys. Such schemes stand to be most essential as they provide accessibility to
the students who are otherwise deprived because of the remote location of villages and
poor economic conditions which prevents them from travelling and attending schools
regularly. Also, in order to reduce the drop-outs rates of the ST a ‘book bank’ scheme
was implemented under which funds are provided for the purchase of books.

Programmes of voluntary agencies and their impact on tribal

societies:-

The role of NGOs in the welfare of the tribal communities of India is very significant.
They supplement the efforts of the government. They address the needs and the
aspirations of the people. The knowledge and commitment of NGOs help in making the
implementation process more transparent and accountable.

Names of Schemes / Programmes

.Pre Matric Scholarship Scheme for ST students

.Post Matric Scholarship Scheme for ST students

.National Overseas Scholarship for ST students for studying abroad.

.National Fellowship and Scholarship for Higher Education of ST students

(a) Scholarship for Higher Education (earlier known as Top Class Education For
ST Students).

(b) Fellowship (earlier known as Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship Scheme for ST

47
students).

.Grants-in-aid to Voluntary Organisations Working for welfare of STs

.Strengthening Education among ST Girls in Low Literacy Districts

.Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

.Grants under Article 275 (1) of the Constitution of India

.Special Central Assistance(SCA) to Tribal Sub-Scheme(TSS)

.Grants-in-aid to Tribal Research Institutes

.Institutional Support for Development and Marketing of Tribal Products/Produce

.Support to National/State Scheduled Tribe Finance and Development

Corporations

.Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and
Mechanism of marketing of Development of Value Chain for MFP

.Research Information & Mass Education, Tribal Festival and Others.

Social work intervention:-

Tribal community is one of the most underprivileged sections of a society who needs
some sort of support and sympathetic approach towards them in order to sustain
sufficiently in this society. They represent the most primitive livelihood of the race and
deserve the equal rights as that of the civilized people residing in skyscrapers. Tribals,
specifically the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes under Indian constitution are
considered most backwards. The term ‘Dalit and Aadiwasi’ is also used interchangeably.
Apart from India, all other countries have tribal communities which represent their social
background. Social work practices to help these people are unanimously recognised as
one of the noble services towards humanity.

Needs,scope and importance:-

Need of social work practices in the tribal areas are:

48
1) Urgency:

The main motive of a social worker is to lend a helping hand towards the less privileged
section of the society, as per which, one of the main focus points is the tribal people.
They need our help urgently to think in a broader aspect, for our country to prosper as a
whole. The main necessary items required to sustain a life is food. It is the duty of a
social worker to very urgently ensure that such a community of people are not starving. A
balanced diet not only increases the life expectancy of the people, but also encourages
them to earn their living.

2) Economic and medical support:

The tribals are deprived of the lavish economic prosperity that their nation does, since the
passage of resources is halted somewhere or the other. Such is the work of a social
worker who establishes this chain of communication via interacting with them and in a
way helping them to flourish. Helping the poor by providing them with the basic
necessities of life is the importance of social workers.

The lack of availability of proper healthcare facilities to the tribal and if not so, the
acceptability of medical services to treat any ailments is not that much prevalent. A social
worker should emphasize in encouraging them to opt for physicians help in case of any
illness and not carry out the traditional superstitious customs. In this respect, a social
worker must take additional steps to educate them to think in an unbiased manner in any
situation.

3) Means of communication

The innumerable local languages spoken by the different tribal groups pose a major
problem in reaching them directly. The vast difference in communication between the
upper castes and them very often stands high in their proper development. The local
organisations who themselves feel attached to the tribal people are best to help the
majority of them. This is because the inhabitants will genuinely trust the local people
rather than cooperating with a total stranger. Also, ensuring that they don’t feel fish out
of water in their process of prospering.

4) Innumerable superstitions still prevalent.

49
Some of the cultural rituals and vague practices are still now quite prevalent among some
tribal groups which not only harm themselves at the personal level but also pulls them
from progressing towards all round development. Several ill practices of hurting or
exploiting other humans or animals in the name of rituals downgrades the entire effort of
the government. Now, educating the younger generation about science and literature
without disrespecting their beliefs is the goal to be achieved. Still now the practice of
witchcraft is seen in several tribal villages, which is unknowingly torturing the women
for no fault of their own.

5) Assurance that they deserve the best.

The most important aspect of the empowering of the nation is by helping each other
when in need. Since the tribals are less fortunate to get all the best facilities for sustaining
the life, it is the duty of the government and the social workers to upgrade their status in
the society. The government has done its part in giving them reservation in education and
work sectors. Now the social workers part is to encourage them to lead their lives up to
the minimum standards needed.

6) Preserving the environment.

The tribal people are the most down to earth people residing in a collaborative
relationship with nature. They respect and worship the plants and trees and preserves
their mother nature in their own convenient ways. For them, nature is their home and
life , thus serving the tribal will not only impact their livelihood but also preserve the
environment as a whole. The responsibility of social workers is helping individuals,
families, and groups of people to cope with problems they’re facing in their daily lives
after patiently listening to their problems and understanding their difficulties. The main
aim of a social worker is educating and empowering the weaker group of the society to
help them emerge powerful and stand strong in their own feet independently.

Traditionally, social work emphasizes on the following basic processes as their work
procedure:

• Case work,

• Group work ; and

50
• Community organisation.

UNIT 4

Analysis and assessment of tribal community problems:-

Over the last 20 – 25 years, the international tribal community has been incessantly trying
to draw the attention of the world’s leading power blocks to save them from perennial

miseries. Currently there are about 300 million indigenous people in 70 countries
(Beteille 1998). They have come together to seek help from the UN to put an end to their
poverty as well as to social discrimination against them. In response, the UN has taken
some decisive steps. Among these is a series of programmes under the ‘Declaration of the
International Decade of World’s Indigenous People’, aimed at strengthening international
cooperation on redressal of crises in the areas of human rights, environment,
development, education and health. The World Health organisation (WHO) has
emphasised that indigenous people have higher rates of infant mortality, lower life
expectancy and more cases of chronic illness than the non-indigenous populations in their
home countries. It is argued that the indigenous people are among the poorest of the poor.
They suffer from extreme discrimination and lead a life of misery and destitution. The
development discourse, therefore, needs to concentrate on finding an effective strategy to
mitigate these crises.

Special problems of the tribals in a particular area:-

1. Loss of Control over Natural Resources

2. Lack of Education

3. Displacement and Rehabilitation

4. Problems of Health and Nutrition

5. Gender Issues

51
6. Erosion of Identity

Various approaches like locality development, social planning

and social area:-

Locality development is the facet of community organizing that concentrates on building

an infrastructure of relationships, processes, and systems that makes it possible for the
community to solve its own problems and respond to its own needs through planning,
action, and advocacy.

Social planning involves community and government groups and organizations working
together in collaboration to address critical social issues facing a community. Social
planning has also been referred to as community development or community social
planning. A social space is physical or virtual space such as a social center, online social
media, or other gathering place where people gather and interact. Some social spaces
such as town squares or parks are public places; others such as pubs, websites, or
shopping malls are privately owned and regulated.

Rothman's Three Models of Community Organizing Introduction

"Macro intervention involves methods of professional changing that target systems

above the level of the individual, group, and family, i.e., organizations, communities, and
regional and national entities. Macro practice deals with aspects of human service activity
that are non-clinical in nature, but rather focus on broader social approaches to human
betterment, emphasizing the effective delivery of services, strengthening community life,
and preventing social ills. Macro practice, thus includes the areas of community
organization, social policy and administration." (Rothman with Tropman, 1987).

Rothman has developed three models of community organizing which are locality
development, social planning, and social action. Locality development is the model that
most closely subscribes to the values and outcomes of what is typically referred to as
"community development."" In practice however, many community development

52
workers employ a range of techniques and approaches from locality development, social
planning and social action models in their work with communities.

Definition/Underlying Assumptions Locality Development Model

This model of community practice is based on the belief that in order to effect change, a
wide variety of community people should be involved in planning, implementation, and
evaluation. Key themes include the use of democratic procedures, voluntary cooperation,
self-help, the development of local leadership, and educational objectives.

Social Planning Model

A rational, deliberately planned, technical process of problem-solving with regard to

substantive social problems, characterizes this model. The degree of community
participation may vary. However, building community capacity or fostering radical or
fundamental social change is not a major goal of this model of community practice.

Social Action Model

Practitioners practising this model assume that a disadvantaged segment of the population
needs to be organized in order to make demands on the larger community for increased
resources or improved treatment. Key themes in this model are social justice, democracy,
and the redistribution of power, resources, and decision making.

Protective Safeguards

Educational safeguards-Article 15(4) and 29

Safeguards for employment -Articles 16(4), 320(4) and 333

Economic safeguards -Article

(Profession)

Abolition of bonded labour -Article 23

Protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation -

53
Article 46

Use of legislation and policies relevant to issues existing in

the tribal community:-

Protective Safeguards:

•Educational safeguards-Article 15(4) and 29

•Safeguards for employment -Articles 16(4), 320(4) and 333

•Economic safeguards -Article

(Profession)

•Abolition of bonded labour -Article 23

•Protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation -Article 46

Political Safeguards:

•Reservation of seats for ST in Lok Sabha and Assemblies- Article 330,332,164

•Appointment of Minister in charge of Tribal welfare

•Special provisions in respect of Nagaland, Assam and Manipur -Articles- (A), (B)
and 371

Developmental Safeguards:

•Promoting the educational and economic interests of the Scheduled Tribes-Articles

46

•Grants from Central Government to the states for welfare of Scheduled •Tribes
and raising the level of administration of Scheduled Areas-Article 75.

54
Following the reorganization of states, the list of STs was modified by the Scheduled
Castes and Tribes List (Modification) order, 1956 on the recommendations of the
Backward Classes Commission. In the revised list 414 tribes were declared STs.
Since the revision of the list in 1956 there have been several proposals for fresh
inclusions and deletion from the lists of the SC and STs

IMPORTANT ACTS RELATED TO TRIBALS:

•Forest Rights Act- ; The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, was passed on December 15, 2006, in the
Lok Sabha and December 18, 2006, in the Rajya Sabha. It was signed by the
President on December 29, 2006, but only notified into force on December 31, 2007
(one year later). The Rules to the Act – which provide for some of the operational
details – were notified into force on January 1, 2008. •Protection of Civil Rights act-;
An Act to prescribe punishment for the [preaching and practice of –
“Untouchability”] for the enforcement of any disability arising there from for
matters connected therewith.

•SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act; An Act to prevent the commission of offences

of atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes,
to provide for Special Courts for the trial of such offences and for the relief and
rehabilitation of the victims of such offences and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.

•Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 or PESA is a law enacted by

the Government of India to cover the “Scheduled areas”, which are not covered in
the amendment or Panchayati Raj Act of the Indian Constitution.

It was enacted on 24 December 1996 to enable Gram Sabhas to self-govern their

natural resources. It is an Act to provide for the extension of the provisions of Part
IX of the

Constitution relating to the Panchayats to the Scheduled Areas.

Understanding the process of project planning, implementation, evaluation and

participation in this Process:-

55
Project planning is part of project management, which relates to the use of
schedules such as Gantt charts to plan and subsequently report progress within the
project environment. Project planning can be done manually or by the use of
project management software.

The implementation phase involves putting the project plan into action. It's here
that the project manager will coordinate and direct project resources to meet the
objectives of the project plan.The implementation phase is where you and your
project team actually do the project work to produce the deliverables. It is about
building benchmarks and accountability into your plan, and using them to evaluate
the plan as you go and after the project is finished. It gives your project a more
strategic structure, provides evidence for your results and, importantly, contributes
to the knowledge base about effective crime prevention.

Participation in project management is a process that allows sharing some of the

control on the project with key stakeholders, especially beneficiares. Participation is
also strategic to the needs of the project as it increases the impact of the project and
increases its sustainability beyond the end of the project.

UNIT 5

Social work components in the existing programs undertaken by governmental and

non-governmental organizations in tribal areas:-

The role of NGOs in the welfare of the tribal communities of India is very
significant. They supplement the efforts of the government. They address the needs
and the aspirations of the people. They build confidence in the people.The
Government has many Schemes for the development of tribal community.It is very
important to make use of those things in order to see a mass change and
development.We as social workers should join hands with governmental and non-
governmental organizations in tribal areas.

56
Social work with tribal communities :-

Importance of social work practice in tribal areas. Tribal community is one of the
most underprivileged section of a society who needs some sort of support and
sympathetic approach towards them in order to sustain sufficiently in this Society.

Recent developments and future perspectives:-

India, along with Africa, has the largest tribal population in the world. The statistics
are quite astonishing- the 533 different tribes, made up of more than 80 million
tribals, represents almost 10% of India’s population. The lives of the tribes in India
are closely tied to nature, and they inhabit some of the most pristine and
picturesque environments in the country. Largely unaffected by the modern world,
they’re

very simple and often curious people, who have retained their rituals and customs.
Among them about 80 per cent live in the ‘central belt’, extending from Gujarat and
Rajasthan in the West, and across the state of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa, to West Bengal and Tripura in the East.
Most of the remaining 20 per cent live in the Northeastern states of Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim and in the union territories of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. A few of them
live in the Southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Andhra Pradesh
has the largest tribal population among the Southern states of India.

Recent developments and future perspectives:-

India, along with Africa, has the largest tribal population in the world. The statistics
are quite astonishing- the 533 different tribes, made up of more than 80 million
tribals, represents almost 10% of India’s population. The lives of the tribes in India
are closely tied to nature, and they inhabit some of the most pristine and
picturesque environments in the country. Largely unaffected by the modern world,
they’re very simple and often curious people, who have retained their rituals and
customs. Among them about 80 per cent live in the ‘central belt’, extending from
Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West, and across the state of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa, to West Bengal and Tripura in

57
the East. Most of the remaining 20 per cent live in the Northeastern states of
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim and in the union
territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. A
few of them live in the Southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Andhra Pradesh has the largest tribal population among the Southern states of
India.

SOCIAL WORK
RESEARCH
Unit 1
• Social work Research:
Any study to create new knowledge or to add to the existing store house of knowledge,
may it be through observation or by any other methods is called research. Social work
research is the application of research methods to solve problems that social workers
confront in the practice of social work. It aims at providing information that can be taken
into consideration by social workers provide to making decisions which are likely to
affect their clients or schemes of things or agencies which are involved in the use of
alternative intervention techniques or transformation or modification of client /
programme / objectives etc. Search implies thorough investigation and the term 'research'
which has been derived from the French word 'rechercher','re' and 'chercher', means a
critical examination of a topic or subject to discover new facts for increasing the sum
total of human knowledge. It is a method for discovery of new knowledge which
augments to the existing body of organized facts, ideals and aspiration, "Research is
considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the
scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation,
usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or
conclusions".

• Objectives :
1) Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols,

58
2) Generalisation,
3) Verification of Old Facts,
4) Extension of Knowledge, and
5) Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application.

• Importance of Social Research:

Source of Knowledge Social research is an important source of knowledge. It opens
new ways of knowledge and wisdom. When something unknown brings to a researcher,
there is a sort of inner pleasure and happiness. It gives knowledge to the researcher
about the unknown facts. It paves out the way of ignorance and gives new direction in a
social life. Research in Informative. It provides updated, proved, authentic and very
useful information to the end users. Researchers and commonpeople can take advantages
from research.

• Identifying and formulating a problem:

A good statement of a problem must restrict the scope of the study to specific and
workable research questions. These questions are the questions that the researcher would
like to be answered or addressed. Research questions are the more specific situations
from a general presentation of ideas.A researcher begins with a broad formulation of a
problem, for example 'Information Technology'. From this he moves to a specific
situation like 'Role of Information Technology' in developing teaching models. To study
this problem, the researcher then reformulates the problem into a statement of intent or
purpose 'how information technology contributes-to developing teaching models' After
this, the investigator still requires to narrow the intent to a specific question, "Can
information technology help in the development of teaching models?" Thus, after having
studied a lot in the area of his interest, the researcher tries to ultimately decide what
exactly should be his1 her problem of research.

• Clarifying concepts and variables formulation of

Hypothesis:
What is Hypothesis in Research?A hypothesis is a tentative statement of a proposition
which the researcher seeks to prove. It’s basically a concrete generalization. When a
theory stated as a testable proposition formally and subject to empirical verification we

59
can define it as a hypothesis. Researchers make a hypothesis on the basis of some earlier
theories and some rationale that generally accepted as true. The hypothesis test finally
will decide whether it is true or rejected. For example-
1. Variables
2. Population
3. Relationship between variables.
Example of Hypothesis:
1. Rewards increase reading achievements
2. Rewards decrease reading achievements
3. Or rewards have no effect on reading achievements.
In the above examples- variables are- Rewards & AchievementsSteps in Formulation of
Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from practical knowledge or theory.
A hypothesis is used as a guide in the inquiry of other facts or theories that a researcher
does not know. However, the formulation of the hypothesis is one of the most difficult
steps in the entire scientific research process.

Define Variables:
At first, with a view to formulating a hypothesis, you must define your variables. What
do you want to test? Will you test that rewards increase reading achievement? Or rewards
decrease reading achievement? Whatever your goals are, they need to be clearly defined,
quantifiable, and measurable.

Study In-Depth the Variables:

If we do think that your variables are Rewards & Achievements, then you need to
intense study how rewards increase reading achievements? An in-depth study, rigorous
questions, and data of rewards increase reading achievements will make you able to
confirm your hypothesis. Specify dependent and independent variables.Specify the
Nature of Relationship Then, identify what relationship there exist between the variables.
What variable influences the other? That is what is the dependent variable and what is the
independent variable? How Rewards impact achievements?

UNIT 2
• Research DesignResearch design definition
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable

60
for the subject matter and set up their studies for success. The design of a research topic
explains the type of research (experimental, survey research, correlational, semi-
experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem,
descriptive case-study). There are three main types of designs for research: Data
collection, measurement, and analysis. The type of research problem an organization is
facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study
determines which tools to use and how they are used.
The essential elements are:
1. Accurate purpose statement
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing Research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets
all of the main characteristics of a design.

There are four key characteristics:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the
data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from bias
and neutral.
Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar
results every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure
the standard of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is
reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be
valid.
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any
part of a population with similar accuracy.
• Case study Survey ( exploratory and explanatory ):

61
 Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ’why’ questions with little
control on behalf of researchers over occurrence of events. This type of case studies focus
on phenomena within the contexts of real-life situations. Example: “An investigation into
the reasons of the global financial and economic crisis of 2008 – 2010.” Exploratory case
studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory case study
data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s)
such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc. Example: “A study into differences
of leadership practices between private and public sector organizations in Atlanta, USA.”

• ExperimentationAn experiment is a study in which the researcher manipulates the level

of some independent variable and then measures the outcome. Experiments are powerful
techniques for evaluating cause-and-effect relationships. Many researchers consider
experiments the "gold standard" against which all other research designs should be
judged.
Ex Post Facto
Ex-post facto research is a kind of research in which the researcher predicts the possible
causes behind an effect that has already occurred. For example, if a child is delinquent
(that is, one who indulges in criminal activities), then in order to find the basic reason
behind such delinquency, the researcher would try to find out the various events that have
occurred and the many possibilities that could have contributed to the concerned
delinquent behaviour.
Quasi
Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between an independent and dependent variable.However, unlike a true
experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely on random assignment. Instead, subjects are
assigned to groups based on non-random criteria. Quasi-experimental design is a useful
tool in situations where true experiments cannot be used for ethical or practical reasons.

• Field Research vs. Controlled Laboratory Research :

Field research is a research conducted in the real world or a natural setting. It tends to
observe, analyse, and describe what exists rather than manipulating a factor under study .
The research settings resemble the situations encountered in daily living, preserving the
naturalness of the setting. Participants in a field research may or may not know that
they are being studied. On the other hand, controlled laboratory research is a
research conducted in a setting specifically designed for research.Laboratory research is
often described as tightly controlled investigation in which the researcher manipulates the

62
particular factor under study to determine if such manipulation generates a change in the
subjects .
The subjects in laboratory research can be selected and placed in conditions more
systematically and they usually know that they are participating in a research study.
Field research studies are more likely to be descriptive, developmental, correlational, and
survey in design than they are to be experimental.
Laboratory studies have the advantage of greater control of irrelevant variables that might
otherwise influence the results and thus of clearer clues of the behavior being observed .
• Impact studies:
Impact studies is a field of research which is used to measure levels of improvement
within various sectors. Impact studies most often measure the effectiveness of new policy
or initiative on a group of people or an organisation. An impact study is a research
conducted to observe and understand the effects of introduction of a new policy or
strategy. A new policy, for example a law, may have outcomes that were both expected
and unexpected.
• Cost benefit studies :
Cost benefit analysis is a systematic process for calculating and comparing benefits and
costs of a project. A cost benefit analysis finds, quantifies, and adds all the positive
factors (the benefits). Then it identifies, quantifies, and subtracts all the negatives (the
costs). The difference between the two indicates whether the planned action is advisable.
The real trick to doing a cost benefit analysis well is making sure you include all the costs
and all the benefits and properly quantify them.

• Social Indicator :
Since its foundation in 1974, Social Indicators Research has become the leading journal
on problems related to the measurement of all aspects of the quality of life. The journal
continues to publish results of research on all aspects of the quality of life and includes
studies that reflect developments in the field.It devotes special attention to studies on
such topics as sustainability of quality of life, sustainable development, and the
relationship between quality of life and sustainability.
Aimed at defining new approaches in constructing indicators.
• Is the leading journal on quality of life measurement and indicators.
• Covers all aspects of the measurement of the quality of life.
• Incorporates developments occurring in the field.
• Is a reference point on models, methods, and data.
• Enhances the understanding of social reality and its complexity .

63
 UNIT 3
• Research Tools:
Data collection or research tools are any tool used to measure a variable, or to collect the
information needed to answer a research question. Careful selection of data collection
tools can help the researcher achieve goals and save time.Any research is only as good as
the data that drives it, so choosing the right technique of data collection can make all the
difference.
• Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents. Questionnaire is a kind of inquiry
form which has many uses, including in market research, political polling, customer
service feedback, evaluations, opinion polls, and social science research, most notably to
discover what the respondents are thinking.
•Interview:
Interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subject or
interviewee gives the l information verbally in a face-to-face situation. In a sense, it is an
oral questionnaire . In a research situation it may be seen as an effective, informal:
conversation, initiated for a specific purpose as it focuses on certain areas. The main
objective may be the exchange of ideas and experiences and eliciting of information.
Interviews can be conducted in many ways. Interviews are also classified as structured
and unstructured .
•Observation:
Observation may be defined as a process in which one or more observe some real life
situation process/event and record pertinent occurrences.It is used to evaluate the overt
behaviour traits of the individuals i n controlled and uncontrolled situations.
• Types of Observation:
Observations may be classified into two types :
a) Participant observation
b) Non-participant observation
Participant observation: In the process of 'participant observation' the observer
becomes more or less one of the group members and may actually participate in some
activity or the other of the group. The observer may play any one of the several roles in
observation, with varying degrees of participation, as a visitor, an attentive listener, an
eager learner, or as a participant observer.
Non-Participant observation:
In the process of 'non- participant observation', the observer takes a position where
64
his-her presence is not felt by the group. His/ her may follow closely the behaviour trait
of an individual or characteristics of one or more groups.

• Methods of Data collection : A data collection method consists of a detailed plan of

procedures that aims to gather data for a specific purpose , that is to answer a research
question or to test a research hypothesis .Any data collection method can tap into a
variety of data sources . The primary source of data in most social work research studies
is people. Data collected directly from people can be first or second hand data . First hand
data are obtained from people who are closest to the problem we are study, Second hand
data may come from other people who are indirectly connected to the primary problem.
•Pilot studying and Pre testing:
A pilot study is a small-scale implementation of a larger study or a part of a larger study.
Pilot studies last for shorter period of time and usually involve a smaller number of
participants, sites or organisations. Pilot studies can be used in any methodological
setting, especially when attempting to collect data in a new format or location or to
simply examine potential roadblocks before full implementation. the questionnaire
works.

• Sources of Data:
The sources of data can be classified into two types: statistical and non-statistical.
Statistical sources refer to data that is gathered for some official purposes, incorporate
censuses, and officially administered surveys. Non-statistical sources
refer to the collection of data for other administrative purposes or for the private sector.
The following are the two sources of data:
1. Internal sources:
When data is collected from reports and records of the organisation itself, they are known
as the internal sources. For example, a company publishes its annual report’ on profit
and loss, total sales, loans, wages, etc.
2. External sources:
When data is collected from sources outside the organisation, they are known as the
external sources. For example, if a tour and travel company obtains information on
Karnataka tourism from Karnataka Transport Corporation, it would be known as an
external source of data.
• Primary and secondary : primary data is one which is collected for the first time by
the researcher while secondary data is the data already collected or produced by others.
There are many differences between primary and secondary data, which are discussed in
this work. But the most important difference is that primary data is factual and original

65
whereas secondary data is just the analysis and interpretation of the primary data. While
primary data is collected with an aim for getting a solution to the problem at hand,
secondary data is collected for other purposes.
• Published Source :
Various investigation organisations, research organisations, government departments,
corporations, collect data on various subjects and publish them from time to time.
Example : Govt, publications, Reports of Committee and commissions, etc.
•Unpublished Source : Sometimes, the government or other institutions or
individuals (especially investigators) collect material associated with important subjects,
but these remain unpublished. Such unpublished data can be found from the
papers, documents, registers of the offices, diaries of investigators, etc.
• Sampling :
A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a
larger population by using a pre- defined selection method. These elements are known as
sample points, sampling units, or observations. Creating a sample is an efficient method
of conducting research. In most cases, it is impossible or costly and time-consuming to
research the whole population. Hence, examining the sample provides insights that the
researcher can apply to the entire population.
• Need of Research :
1. Research expands your knowledge base
2. Research gives you the latest information
3. Research helps you know what you’re up against
4. Research builds your credibility
5. Research helps you narrow your scope.
6. Research introduces you to new ideas
7.Research helps with problem-solving
8.Research helps you reach people
9.Research encourages curiosity.

• Types and Procedures :

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective
of whether it is applied research or basic research. Each particular research study will be
unique in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place in
which it is being undertaken. Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal
of furthering our understanding of the problem and thus all traverse through certain basic
stages, forming a process called the research process.
These 8 stages in the research process are;

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1. Identifying the problem.
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses.
4. Choosing the study design.
5. Deciding on the sample design.6. Collecting data.
7. Processing and analysing data.
8. Writing the report.
• Determination of sample size :
Sample size is a research term used for defining the number of individuals included in a
research study to represent a population. The sample size references the total number of
respondents included in a study, and the number is often broken down into sub-groups by
demographics such as age, gender, and location so that the total sample achieves
represents the entire population. Determining the appropriate sample size is one of the
most important factors in statistical analysis. If the sample size is too small, it will not
yield valid results or adequately represent the realities of the population being studied.

Unit 4

• Bivariate Data Defined:

Bivariate data deals with two variables that can change and are compared to find
relationships. If one variable is influencing another variable, then you will have bivariate
data that has an independent and a dependent variable.
This is because one variable depends on the other for change. An independent variable is
a condition or piece of data in an experiment that can be controlled or changed. A
dependent variable is a condition or piece of data in an experiment that
is controlled or influenced by an outside factor, most often the independent variable.
•Univariate Analysis:
Univariate analysis is a basic kind of analysis technique for statistical data. the data
contains just one variable and does not have to deal with the relationship of a cause and
effect. For example, consider a survey of a classroom. The analysts would want to count
the number of boys and girls in the room.
The data here simply talks about the number which is a single variable and the variable
quantity. The main objective of the univariate analysis is to describe the data in order to
find out the patterns in the data. This is done by looking at the mean, mode, median,
standard deviation, dispersion, etc.Univariate analysis is basically the simplest form to
analyse data.

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• Measures of Central Tendency : Statistics analyses and interprets large sets of
numbers. To make the lists of data more comprehensible, central tendencies are
calculated. A measure of central tendency points the statistician toward a centralised,
repeated, or average number. There are three different ways to calculate central tendency.
• Measures of variation :
The Range
A range is one of the most basic measures of variation. It is the difference between the
smallest data item in the set and the largest. For example, the range of 73, 79, 84, 87, 88,
91, and 94 is 21, because 94 – 73 is 21.•Standard deviation : The standard deviation is the
average amount by which scores differ from the mean. The standard deviation is the
square root of the variance, and it is a useful measure of variability .

Unit 5
Interpreting data , writing a short report :
An essential step in the research process is the interpretation of results and
preparation of the research report. The entire data collected has no practical relevance till
the time the findings are not interpreted in the light of the problem being faced. It is
through proper interpretation of results that the researcher can convey the obvious and
latent relationships that underlie his findings.
•Field Research?
Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe,
interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment.Field research
typically begins in a specific setting although the end objective of the study is to observe
and analyse the specific behavior of a subject in that setting. The cause and effect of a

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certain behavior, though, is tough to analyze due to presence of multiple variables in a
natural environment ,Most of the data collection is based not entirely on cause and
effect but mostly on correlation. While field research looks for correlation, the small
sample size makes it difficult to establish a causal relationship between two or more
variables.

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