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Science Magazine Full Music Sect
Science Magazine Full Music Sect
In this section
Birth of the beat�������������������������������������������18 Your brain on music���������������������������������������27
Seeking a definition���������������������������������������21 Songs from the Stone Age�����������������������������28
Not just a pleasant sound �����������������������������22 Evidence of ancient roots�������������������������������28
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© E r ic
Birth A
t scientific meetings, psycho- “Babies are born with a musical readi-
biologist Colwyn Trevarthen ness that includes a basic sense of timing
often plays a video of a and rhythm,” declares Trevarthen, of the
of the
5-month-old Swedish girl giv- University of Edinburgh.
ing her mother a musical surprise. Blind Scientists have been finding that these
from birth, the girl reaches for a bottle chubby-cheeked cherubs heed a musical
and laughs appreciatively as her mother sense that moves them and grooves them
beat
launches into a familiar song about feed- long before they utter a word. Within a
ing blueberries to a bear. As in baby day or two after birth, babies recognize
songs everywhere, Trevarthen says, each the first beat in a sound sequence; neural
line of the Swedish tune runs about four signs of surprise appear when that ini-
seconds and each stanza lasts about 20. tial “downbeat” goes missing. Classical
Music’s roots may In a flash, the girl raises her left music lights up specific hearing areas
lie in melodic arm — an arm she has never seen — and
begins conducting her mother’s perfor-
in newborns’ right brains. Even more
intriguingly, babies enter the world cry-
exchanges between mance. The baby, named Maria, moves
her arm just before many of the song’s
ing in melodic patterns that the little
ones have heard in their mothers’ con-
mothers and babies lines begin, leading her mother by about versations for at least two months while
one-third of a second. In some cases, in the womb (SN: 12/5/09, p. 14).
By Bruce Bower Maria synchronizes her hand move- But infants do much more than pick
Photograph by Cary Wolinsky ments with the rise and fall up beats and mimic melodies, says
of her mother’s voice. Trevarthen. An inborn musical knack
Mom’s face glows gets parlayed by babies into emotional
in response to banter with attending adults, who pos-
Maria’s playful sess their own musical feel for infant
directions. care. Adults around the world intuitively
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
ever is available. Time in seconds
Trevarthen’s views draw criticism,
though, from many cognitive psycholo- ( (
Brummelli-brum, vem luf- sar där? Bus- kar-na kna-ka. En hund visst det är. Lur- vig är pälsen. Men Olle blir glad: “A, en kamrat, det var bra, se goddag!”
gists and musicologists. They regard
music as a universal practice, with still- s Maria moved her finger just before each Maria also synchronized finger movement
phrase of the Swedish song began. In this when she heard sharp consonant sounds in
mysterious evolutionary origins, that way, she anticipated the movement in her words at the end of a line — “sar där,” “visst
infants learn from their native cultures mother’s voice. det är” and “glad.”
prompts responses from baby for Language and cultural differences Up the waterspout
about eight seconds. Their voices rise shape emotional communication, says At about the time that babies start to put
to a peak of intensity during a back- Powers. Occasional high-pitched vowel emotional oomph into their voices, com-
and-forth exchange that lasts another sounds, interspersed among a stream of municative musicality enters a ritualized
seven seconds. Mother and daughter low vowel sounds of moderate intensity, arena dominated by simple tunes that
then take six seconds to return to the denoted emotional responses by Scot- must be performed, not just sung. Par-
mother’s original, low voice pitch. So, tish mothers to their babies, she suggests. ents combine simple melodies and lyrics
Malloch says, each collaborative story Each low sound usually lasted no more with activities that include knee bounc-
contained an introduction, develop- than three-quarters of a second. ing, hand clapping and pantomime.
ment, climax and resolution. Japanese mothers consistently made Physician Patricia Eckerdal of Swe-
high, intense vowel sounds. Swings den’s Uppsala University Hospital and
Feel the vowel from short to long vowels helped the Björn Merker, an independent neuro
Musical storytelling of this kind largely moms convey emotion to the infants, in scientist in Segeltorp, Sweden, have
depends on varying the pitch, timbre and Powers’ view. These women held many begun to chart the developmental tra-
rhythm of vowel sounds, which are more vowel sounds for less than one-quarter jectory of what they call action songs.
emotionally expressive than consonants, of a second but articulated others for a Merker and Eckerdal videotaped 25 pairs
according to Trevarthen and University second or more. of Swedish mothers and their infants
of Edinburgh psychologist Niki Powers. Infants in both countries tended to playing together at home when the babies
Mothers and infants in Scotland and produce vowel sounds that lasted up to were 6, 9 and 12 months old.
Japan make these emotionally tinged one second, much longer than vowels The well-known sing-along “Itsy Bitsy
sounds in culturally distinctive ways, used in speech. Japanese babies emit- Spider” is one example of an action
the researchers say. ted high-pitched, acoustically intense song that babies learn as they grow. In
“Even with limited powers to produce vowels, much as their mothers did. its first incarnation, up to about age
learned sounds, infants in different coun- In an upcoming issue of Infant and 3 months, the infant lies down as the
tries express vocal emotions and parents Child Development, Trevarthen mar- adult does all the work. Mom forms a
intuitively respond to them,” Powers says. shals evidence suggesting that even spider hand, makes it crawl it up the
She and Trevarthen videotaped newborns purposely coordinate vocal- baby’s body and tickles his or her chin at
a dozen pairs of mothers and their izations and movements with those of the “waterspout” ending of the first line.
s. Malloch and C. Trevarthen, eds. communicative musicality. By permission of Oxford Univ. press, adapted by T. DubÉ
3- to 4-month-olds playing together at caretakers. An innate impulse to forge Mom spreads her fingers and runs them
home, six in Scotland and six in Japan. emotional ties with others drives such down the baby’s body for “down comes
The researchers’ findings and those of behavior, he posits. In the months after the rain.” At “out comes the sun,” mom
several other teams appear in the 2009 birth, babies build on this impulse by places her spread fingers in front of the
book Communicative Musicality, edited adopting a native culture’s style of emot- baby’s face. Gestures from the first line
by Malloch and Trevarthen. ing vowel sounds. are then repeated with a final tickle.
By 6 months of age, adult and infant sit
A story in song Musical conversations between mom and baby can take the shape of stories, close together so that the child’s hands
some scientists propose. The figure below shows the rise and fall of one such exchange. Mom’s and arms can be gently guided through
voice increases in pitch and intensity as the story reaches a climax. Baby often makes sounds
(highlighted in boxes) as the story shifts from one stage to another. the pantomime sequence while singing.
By 9 months of age, infants perform “Itsy
Introduction Development Climax Resolution Bitsy Spider” on their own.
In this way, infants practice perform-
C5
B ing intricately structured acts and dis-
A cover what those acts mean, an essential
G skill for learning a slew of cultural ritu-
F als. It’s a short hop from getting the hang
E
of “Itsy Bitsy Spider” to mastering din-
Pitch
Pitch is determined by a sound’s frequency. Notes that sit in dif- “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”
ferent positions on a musical scale, called tones, have different
pitches. Modern Western music, for example, combines 12 tones, 2
with the A at the middle of a piano keyboard having a frequency 4
of 440 hertz. Other cultures work with fewer tones. The first few Twin - kle, twin - kle lit - tle star,
notes of “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” vary only in pitch.
Rhythm emerges because different notes can last for varying “Barbara Ann”
amounts of time. Notes with different durations are represented
differently in written music: Some have little flags, dots or open 4
circles. A quarter note, for example, is drawn as a closed circle 4
with a vertical line; it lasts for one beat. The first several notes of Ba, ba, ba, ba, Ba’ - b’ra Ann
the Beach Boys’ “Barbara Ann” vary only in note duration.
Combining different pitches and rhythms allows for the creation “Für Elise”
of melodies, the same way the combination of words makes a Poco moto
sentence. And when different notes are played at the same time
3
to create chords, rather than just successively, they can lead to 8
harmony. Other factors mix in to affect the character of the piece.
PP expressivo
Dynamics, how loud each note is and how that loudness changes
over the course of several notes, opens even more room for varia-
tion. And timbre, or tonal quality, distinguishes one instrument “La Bamba”
from another — a piano sounds different from a tuba, and Celine
Dion sounds different from Macy Gray. Tempo characterizes the 4
overall speed of a piece. Changing multiple factors at a time leads 4
to endless musical possibilities, from “Für Elise” to “La Bamba.” Pa - ra bai - lar la bam - ba se ne - ce - si - ta una po - ca de
Considering beauty While some would argue that any variation of sound with the above
from top: music notes - Aaltazar/istockphoto arrangement of notes t dubÉ; SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
features makes music, others say music is more than the sum of its parts. Perhaps sound has to
be pleasing to qualify? Pythagoras, an ancient Greek philosopher, recognized that when notes with
pitches forming simple ratios are played together, they sound pleasant. Using a single string with a
movable bridge — which allowed him to pluck two notes at once — he found that when one side of
the string was half the length of the other, it created two notes that sound lovely together. (In Western
music today, if a string producing the note A at 440 hertz is halved, it creates another A an octave
higher.) A pleasing blend also occurred when one side was two-thirds or three-fourths the length of
the other. Using these ratios, Pythagoras built a seven-note scale, and his ideas still help musicians
understand why some music sings and other tunes fall flat. — Elizabeth Quill
Unhinged melody to mothers diagnosed with borderline age 5. Many mothers qualify as having
Some babies, though, face a form of personality disorder. This condition borderline personality disorder. Others
ritualized rejection that would test revolves around a tendency to form have obsessive-compulsive personality
even an itsy-bitsy spider’s determina- intense, unstable relationships. disorder, paranoid personality disorder
tion. Their mothers feel so alienated People with borderline personalities or no mental ailments.
and alone that efforts to pull mom into act impulsively, feel emotionally empty In brief laboratory exchanges, these
melodic exchanges are like trying to and constantly fear abandonment. mothers awkwardly repeat one phrase
grab fistfuls of water. Many have survived severe child abuse over and over or produce strings of
Psychologist Maya Gratier of Univer- and neglect. unusual sounds, such as tongue clicking
sité Paris X–Nanterre and psychiatrist Gratier and Apter-Danon codirect and whistling. No rhythmic flow charac-
Gisèle Apter-Danon of Université Paris a project that has tracked the interac- teristic of typical baby talk emerges. It’s
Diderot have examined communica- tions of about 150 pairs of French moth- almost as if a baby isn’t there at all.
tion breakdowns that afflict babies born ers and their babies from birth to about That leaves infants unable to get a
sound in edgewise. They withdraw from Undaunted, the boy immediately Once again, the boy became an observer,
mothers with borderline personalities, belted out a louder sound. That stopped not a participant.
vocalize little or get fussy and upset. his mother long enough so that he “The interactions of borderline moth-
One 3-month-old boy in the French could utter a cooing sound, with a few ers with their babies appear more like
study tried his best to spark an emo- emotionally tinged pitch changes, for compilations of isolated moments that
tional dialog with his mother during a about as long as the nursery rhyme’s probably impede the creation of shared
27-second encounter, Gratier says. The initial phrase. musical story lines,” Gratier says.
woman drearily repeated the same line Gratier and Apter-Danon inter- Depressed mothers offer a more
from a French nursery rhyme four times. pret the 3-month-old’s behavior as an varied verbal diet to their babies than
Her son then blurted out “ahhh!” just attempt to lure his mother into a musi- borderline mothers, but in an unusu-
as she launched into a fifth rendition. cal exchange. It briefly worked, they say. ally low, unexpressive voice devoid of
Caught off guard, the woman exclaimed The woman imitated his cooing sound rhythmic timing, according to studies
“What?” before regaining composure once with her characteristic flat tone. directed by psychologist Lynne Murray
and resuming her dry recitation. Then she returned to her signature line. of the University of Reading in Eng-
national anthems and alma by famous composer and Europe, have a traditional to limit the organization of
maters unite people for a violinist Carl Nielsen. form of song called yoik these raves. Mourning: Dirges are
common cause and make said to open the door an integral part of funer-
them feel that they are a Creative expression: for communication with Worship: A wide range of als for the Akpafu of
part of something larger. The Chopi people of animal spirits. Drumming religions employ music. In southeastern Ghana. A
Marching bands (above), Mozambique are known for helps the shamans enter Indian tradition, bhajans ceremony begins when
for example, can rile up their timbila music, played the spiritual world. express love for God (holy drums are beaten to
crowds and promote pride on xylophones. The music men shown above). Gos- announce the death
at sporting events. and accompanying dance Learning: The “Alphabet pel music helps Christians to various clans. While
is developed like a sym- Song,” among other sim- praise God. And, though clans are assembling,
Relaxation: Mothers in phony and also has room ple rhymes, helps children
stockPhotoFinder.com; Frédéric Noy/Cosmos/Aurora Photos
A
nyone who has felt the sting ads all know how to tune an audience’s those responsible for emotion, memory,
of tears while listening to a mood along a dial ranging from sad and motor control, timing and language.
bugler play “Taps,” swooned glum to cheerful and chipper. While the lyrics of a song activate lan-
to a love song or cringed with But neuroscientists might have some- guage centers, such as Broca’s area, other
irritation as a neighbor cranked the thing to say about how music orches- parts of the brain may connect the tune
heavy metal knows that music can exert trates such profound emotional effects to a long-ago association — a first kiss or a
a powerful emotive effect. on the brain. And understanding the how road trip down the coast, perhaps.
And you don’t need a neuroscientist may offer a hint as to why music affects “It’s like the brain is on fire when
to tell you that manipulating a melody’s humans so powerfully. you’re listening to music,” says Istvan
pace, tone and intensity can stir the Over the past decade or so, studies have Molnar-Szakacs, a neuroscientist at the
emotions. Composers of symphonies, shown that music stimulates numerous University of California, Los Angeles.
pop tunes, movie sound tracks and TV regions of the brain all at once, including “In terms of brain imaging, studies have
shown listening to music lights up, or
activates, more of the brain than any Moody tunes
other stimulus we know.” To explore the effect that music has on the mind, Science News asked
That music can activate so many brain researchers to share a song they enjoy and the emotion it evokes.
systems at once is the reason it packs
such a mental wallop. It exerts its most Ethan Ross, physician while, and in spite of the Holly Gibbs,
Song: “Dark Star” by the struggles we face in living.” conservation scientist
profound effect in the brain’s emotional
Grateful Dead Song: “Wagon Wheel” by
core, the limbic system. There, music Emotion: “Elation, Eugenie Scott, Old Crow Medicine Show
changes virtually all areas of the brain euphoria and wonder.” physical anthropologist Emotion: “Anticipation and
responsible for regulating emotion, as Song: “The Green and the longing.”
neuroscientist Stefan Koelsch of Freie Virginia Naples, Blue” by the Battlefield
Universität Berlin describes in the March vertebrate paleontologist Band Kevin Padian,
Song: “The Wreck of the Emotion: “Empathy and evolutionary biologist
Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Music Edmund Fitzgerald” by sympathy.” Song: “Won’t Get Fooled
automatically engages areas essential Gordon Lightfoot Again” by The Who
to pleasure and reward. So much so, in Emotion: “Sadness and Chuck Steidel, Emotion: “Rage and hope
fact, that the same pleasure centers in nostalgia for knowing astrophysicist at the same time.”
about past events.” Song: “Halah” by Mazzy Star
the brain light up whether you’re listen-
Emotion: “We used to Margaret McFall-Ngai,
ing to a favorite tune, eating chocolate Alan Boss, play this around 3:30 a.m. microbiologist
or having sex. planetary scientist while observing on the Song: “Girls Just Wanna
These dramatic effects make music Song: Beethoven’s Ninth Mauna Kea summit, so an Have Fun” by Cyndi Lauper
a valuable instrument for probing the Emotion: “... the joy of exhilarated exhaustion, a Emotion: “Carefree life. It
being alive, at least for a partial dream state.” makes me smile big.”
brain’s emotional circuitry. Koelsch and
others are now using music as a tool to Feelings evoked by different musical genres
50
see how the brain processes a wide range
music activates neural systems of reward centers — and boost activity of the brain a week, patients may tune the brain to
and emotion similar to those stimulated chemical dopamine, a molecule involved improve mood (see “Take two stanzas
by food, sex and addictive drugs. in desire and reward. The more you like and call me in the morning,” Page 32).
Brain scans done using positron emis- a particular piece of music, the more Already, research confirms that most
sion tomography, or PET, showed that jazzed you may get. Last fall, in a study in people are better off with a dose of
increases in the “chill” intensity of the PLoS One, Zatorre and his group showed music. Soothing music seems to lower
music correlated with changes in activ- that the higher participants rated a song, heart rate and blood pressure, and stud-
ity in the pleasure centers of the brain, the more emotionally aroused they got. ies show that music can be a valuable
including increases in blood flow to the Other studies show that the amygdala companion to traditional treatments for
brain’s reward circuit — the midbrain, the kicks into action when volunteers listen cancer, stroke and postoperative pain.
ventral striatum and parts of the cortex. to eerie-sounding or unpleasant music. Recently, Koelsch’s team showed
At the same time, decreases in blood (Consider waking at 2 a.m. to the sound that making music boosts mood, even
flow were seen in the brain’s limbic sys- of a partying neighbor’s heavy metal.) if you’re not musically inclined. In the
tem, a primitive region that governs Together, the findings suggest that study, 81 nonmusicians broke into small
the emotional response to a given situ- music has the capacity to both turn groups and played instruments while
ation. Structures in this region include on and tone down neural activity in listening to excerpts of classical, jazz,
the amygdala, known as the brain’s the brain. Irish folk, salsa and reggae music. A
fear center; the hippocampus, which is control group of 73 listened to recorded
important for memory; and the nucleus Good vibrations music played on a computer, using
accumbens, involved in pleasure. Knowing how music activates and coor- sticks to keep in time with the beat.
In 2006, Koelsch and his group found dinates the brain’s emotional and reward Before and after their jam sessions,
that simply listening to joyful, pleas- circuits could help scientists develop participants completed a questionnaire
ant music can lead to activity changes new types of music therapies, Koelsch designed to assess mood. Those in the
in all of these structures, even if people says. Information on how the amyg- instrument group reported lower levels
don’t report having intense “chilling” dala responds to various types of music, of depression, anxiety and fatigue, and
experiences. Since then, studies carried for example, would allow researchers an increase in vigor after the session.
out by him and others have elucidated to target this area: tweaking it to calm Volunteers in the control group showed
additional areas of the brain specifically fear-related activity in patients with no such boost in mood.
activated by music. Findings show that anxiety disorders or boost pleasure- Koelsch credits the change, at least in
the brain areas stimulated depend on related activity in depressed patients. By part, to music’s ability to engage various
the type of music: Listening to a favor- listening to a specially designed music social functions. He plans to test this idea
ite tune will light up the brain’s reward program for 30 minutes a day, five days by comparing people who make music in
a group with those who play solo.
Getting chills Listening to music you find moving can change activity in brain areas associated
with emotion and reward. One study found that blood flow increased in the midbrain and ventral stria- Emotional rescue
tum (left) and decreased in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala (right).
While music’s power can easily be seen
source: modified from a. blood and r. zatorre/pnas 2001
in ordinary people, its effects may be
even more marked in those with autism.
Music therapy has long been used to treat
Ventral medial autism, but how and to what extent such
Midbrain prefrontal cortex therapy worked was not well understood.
Four years ago, UCLA’s Molnar-Szakacs
began thinking of ways to study music
and emotional processing in children
with autism spectrum disorders.
In a recent study using functional
MRI, he and his colleagues compared
Hippocampus
brain activity in autistic children with
and amygdala that in typically developing kids tasked
to identify emotions in music. The find-
Ventral ings, presented in Barcelona in June at
striatum
the Organization for Human Brain Map-
ping’s annual meeting, reveal that chil-
2.5 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.7 -6.8 -5.7 -4.7 -3.6 -2.5 dren with autism spectrum disorder are
as accurate as “neurotypical” children at In the study, children with autism group has developed a music-based pro-
identifying emotion in music and show seemed adept at picking up on patterns in gram to help kids match and recognize
the same level of brain activation. Previ- the music to identify the emotion, Molnar- various emotions — such as happiness,
ous studies have shown less brain activ- Szakacs says. When asked how they made sadness and surprise — in social settings.
ity in kids with autism than in typical their decisions, the kids said that fast, “It sounds a little like Pavlovian learn-
kids when looking at emotional faces. loud, jumpy rhythms sounded happy, ing, but it’s not,” he says. “The goal is to
“It seems like music acts as a sort of while slower, quiet music seemed sad. not just have happy music playing with a
in, or doorway, to the [emotional] recog- His group is now looking to see how happy face, but to have children learn to
nition system of children with autism,” music activates certain neural systems recognize different emotions so no mat-
Molnar-Szakacs says. “telling us that at a that aren’t active when these children ter what situation they find themselves
biological level, emotional music has the look at faces. The studies may one day in, they are able to reliably recognize an
same impact on children with ASD as it help scientists develop better inter- emotional face, and perhaps even the
does on neurotypical children.” ventions. Meanwhile, Molnar-Szakacs’ tone of an emotional reaction or voice.”
Music of the
won’t make you smarter, a growing
body of evidence suggests that playing
his music will. Musical training doesn’t
hemispheres
just make you a better musician — the
acquired skills seem to transfer to other
areas, various studies have found. And
research focused on the brain’s particu-
lar relationship with music and language
Playing instruments gives brains a boost suggests that engaging the mind with
musical training could remedy language
By Rachel Ehrenberg s Photograph by Cary Wolinsky impairments such as dyslexia.
N
“There really is now so much evidence
ot so long ago, Mozart mania music and smarts. In the original study, showing that musical experience has a
swept the nation. A small the “Mozart effect” was minor and lasted pervasive effect on how the nervous sys-
study found that students only minutes. Follow-up studies found tem gets molded and shaped throughout
who listened to 10 minutes of the effect specific neither to the com- our lifetimes,” says Nina Kraus, head of
a Mozart sonata performed better on poser nor to music. Students listening to the Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory
a paper-folding task than their peers, Mozart were just more stimulated than at Northwestern University in Evanston,
and suddenly a flourishing industry those listening to a relaxation tape or Ill. “This kind of transformation comes
sprouted. Mozart’s music sang from CDs silence. And while arousal can improve about only with active engagement with
and videos marketed for children, babies learning, research suggests, the effects sound. My daddy always said, ‘You never
and moms-to-be. The craze reached can be fleeting and aren’t limited to get something for nothing.’ You’re not
a crescendo when Georgia’s governor music. Assessments of the original report going to get big biceps by watching wres-
Zell Miller included $105,000 in his now tend to be dirges: In the May-June tlers — you’ve got to do it.”
state budget to send every child born in issue of Intelligence, researchers from the In the long run, musical training
a Georgia hospital home with a classical University of Vienna published a paper appears to improve a suite of verbal and
music tape or CD. titled “Mozart effect–Shmozart effect.” nonverbal skills. Playing an instrument
“No one questions that listening to “It’s a short-lived effect and it spawned may add finesse to how people move their
music at a very early age affects the spa- a huge industry of baby Einstein, baby bodies. Making music makes you hear
tial, temporal reasoning that underlies Mozart CDs, all sorts of stuff,” says better, fine-tuning the ability to extract
math and engineering and even chess,” Aniruddh Patel of the Neurosciences a signal from noise. Musical training also
Miller said. Institute in San Diego. “But the science may improve grammar skills, the ability
Actually, a lot of researchers ques- behind it is pretty thin.” to grasp meaning from words and to dis-
tioned the link between listening to Yet even though listening to Mozart tinguish a question from a command.
Until recently, establishing cause and Music experiment Language experiment
effect for music’s mental impact has been
difficult. But long-term studies peering
into brain structure and activity are now
showing that musical training changes
the brain in lasting ways.
ered a creative “right brain” endeavor. the required cognitive effort are probably some tasks is more about nurture than
That idea has now gone the way of the behind much of the enhancement of other nature. Teasing out that balance has
Macarena. Music processing is distrib- skills, says neuroscientist Laurel Trainor, been a recent focus of Gottfried Schlaug’s
uted throughout the brain, says Levitin, director of the auditory development lab music and neuroimaging research at the
and playing an instrument, in particular, at McMaster University in Hamilton, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
is an ensemble activity. It involves pay- Canada. Playing an instrument “engages and Harvard Medical School.
ing attention, thinking ahead, remem- basically most of your brain,” Trainor A study by Schlaug’s team found that
bering, coordinating movement and says. The activity appears to boost exec- after 15 months of weekly keyboard les-
interpreting constant feedback to the utive function, being the boss of your sons, 6-year-olds showed greater change
ears, fingers and, in some cases, lips. body and mind. Evidence suggests that in their brains than kids who attended a
“It’s one of the most complicated tasks with musical training comes improved weekly music class without instrument
that we have,” Levitin says. “Take a sym- memory, finer motor skills and better training. Among the most changed were
phony orchestra. What you have is 80 or attention control — the ability to ignore a part of the auditory cortex and brain
100 of the most highly trained members one thing and pay attention to something regions involved in control of move-
of our society — more highly trained than else. “Our working hypothesis is that it’s ments. Kids with training also did better
astronauts or surgeons in terms of the these control processes that are what is on tests related to finger movement and
numbers of hours and years of prepara- key for the transfer effects,” Trainor says. discerning melodies and rhythm, Schlaug
tion — and they are performing the works Some musicians are certainly musi- and colleagues reported last year in the
of some of the greatest minds that ever cally inclined to begin with. But recent Journal of Neuroscience.
lived. It’s really extraordinary.” work suggests that the superior perfor- For most people, the transfer effects
Though the
“Mozart effect”
appears to be
hype, studies
do show that
musical training
can improve
language and
auditory skills.
31
(((( a mind for music )))) Music of the Hemispheres
of musical training are probably modest, some circuitry appears to be specific to Shared processing of music’s and lan-
says Trainor. “Otherwise, we’d expect music or language, new evidence empha- guage’s building blocks is evidenced by
musicians to be the most intelligent peo- sizes areas of overlap. Both music and lan- the brain’s recognition of construction
ple on the planet,” she says. But musical guage have syntax — just as there are rules gone awry. Within milliseconds of hear-
training may strike a particularly rich governing the construction of sentences ing a sentence spoken with irregular
chord for people with language difficul- from words, there are rules for “build- structure, neurons fire in a specific area
ties. “There is quite a bit of evidence now ing” a piece of instrumental music. You of the brain, researchers have learned.
that musical training does have benefits don’t just randomly throw notes together. The brain also reacts to violations in
for people with dyslexia and language (As with language, these rules may differ chord structure.
impairments,” Trainor says. across cultures.) The brain seems to tap Musically trained kids are better at
into the same neural circuitry when pro- hearing these violations than kids with-
Peas in a syntactic pod cessing how the building blocks of lan- out training, says Sebastian Jentschke,
Evidence that the brain holds music and guage or music fit together into a greater, now at University College London.
language in one embrace began to mount hierarchical structure. Musically trained brains are also better
when imaging studies by Patel, Stefan “You can have overlap in the machin- at detecting violations in sentence struc-
Koelsch of the Freie Universität Berlin ery that puts the pieces together,” Patel ture, Koelsch and Jentschke reported in
and others suggested that areas of the says. “They may be different pieces, but NeuroImage last year. The inverse rela-
brain instrumental for processing lan- the machinery that puts them together tionship also holds; kids with Specific
guage are also important for music. While is shared.” Language Impairment, marked by dif-
ficulties with grammar and complex syn-
tax, also have trouble processing musical
Take two stanzas and call me in the morning syntax, Koelsch, Jentschke and collabo-
From poets to politicians, people have long described music as medicine for rators reported in 2008 in the Journal of
the heart and soul. Now scientists are taking a literal look at such musings, Cognitive Neuroscience.
investigating music as a means to alleviate pain and enhance recovery. Though These studies highlight the neu-
some studies are still in the early stages, your favorite soundtrack may one ral intimacy of processing music and
day accompany a prescription. processing language. “It’s a reason-
able assumption that musical training
Alzheimer’s disease: that pregnant women who while walking showed might help with kids with impairments
Studies have shown that listen to music for 30 min- improved fitness, a study with processing skills in the language
individuals with Alzheimer’s utes a day report reduced found. Those patients
have a better memory for levels of stress, anxiety covered 24 percent more
domain,” Jentschke says.
lyrics when they are sung and depression after ground than a nonmusic
rather than spoken. The two weeks. group. From the top … down
findings suggest that song Scrutinizing brains on music suggests
may help these patients Stroke: Patients who Traumatic brain injury: that training influences more than
learn practical, everyday listened to music of their Some patients who under-
information. choosing for one to two went music therapy that
the higher-level circuitry relevant to
hours a day did better involved following tempo, language skills.
Pain and nausea: on word recall tests and loudness and rhythmic pat- Playing music can also change the
Cancer patients who had fewer bouts of sad- tern performed better on brain from the top down, says Kraus,
participated in music ness and confusion than tests of mental flexibility,
influencing language processing. The
and relaxation-imagery patients who listened suggesting such therapy
highfalutin circuitry of the cerebral cor-
dantoddy/istock images, photo illustration by E. Feliciano
sessions while recover- to audio books or noth- may help people with brain
ing from bone marrow ing at all. Research also injuries manage switching tex, which plays a key role in memory,
transplants had less pain suggests that simulating between important tasks perception and consciousness, can be
and nausea than patients movement with music of during daily life. shaped by music and in turn can fine-
undergoing the standard a particular tempo may — Rachel Ehrenberg
tune circuitry in the lower, evolution-
treatment alone. improve walking in stroke
patients, and stroke
arily ancient “lizard brain,” changing
Anxiety: Listening to patients report improved how people hear.
music before glaucoma or vision while listening “We used to think in a very hierarchical
cataract removal surgery to music. way — sound goes into your ear, up into
soothed patient anxiety,
your brain stem, then into your cortex
lowering blood pressure Respiratory disease:
levels during and after the Over eight weeks, subjects
and meaning happens,” Kraus says. “But
surgery, one study found. with serious lung disease the lizard brain is not what it used to be.
Another study showed who listened to music We know now that the pathways that con-
nect the cortex and feed down to the brain
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
different frequencies, the processing of
90 90
pitch. Pitch is the brain’s interpretation
of frequency, both in terms of absolute
frequency and relative position on the
musical scale. (Levitin notes that pitch
40 40
is the only musical attribute that varies 50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
Time (ms) Time (ms)
in the first seven notes of “Mary Had a
Source: P.C.M. Wong Et Al/Nature Neuroscience 2007
Little Lamb.”) Pitch is crucial for convey-
Follow that tone The Mandarin language conveys word meanings with tone. When a musician
ing information: It determines whether with no knowledge of the language hears a Mandarin tone, activity in the brain stem (orange) tracks
the phrase “You are going to wash the the frequency of the changing tone (black). The nonmusician’s brain is out of sync.
dishes” is a question or a command. In
languages such as Mandarin Chinese, This training-induced, top-down tun- very little extra neural resources to be
saying the same syllable at a different ing appears to affect hearing in general. thinking about ‘What does this mean?’ ”
pitch level gives the word an entirely dif- On a task known as backward masking, Kraus says.
ferent meaning. in which subjects detect a sound masked If musicians’ responses are much
Among people unfamiliar with Man- by a second sound, musicians with more less affected by background noise, she
darin, musicians are better than non- than 10 years of musical training outper- says, musicians can devote more neu-
musicians at discriminating between formed nonmusical peers, Kraus’ team ral resources to meaning rather than
Mandarin syllables, Patrick Wong, Kraus reports in the March Hearing Research. just hearing. That suggests musical skill
and others reported in Nature Neuro The musicians also performed better at could give children a learning benefit.
science in 2007. Electrodes recording distinguishing cartoon characters based “If you have a nervous system in which
brain activity revealed that a particular on the pitch of their sounds. the signal still comes through loud and
pitch-related neural response, thought Listening skills such as the ability clear in a noisy classroom, now that kid
to originate in the brain stem, was more to discriminate pitch or discern a sig- has an advantage,” Kraus says.
robust in the musicians. nal from noise are related to some lan- For a clearer picture of the relationship
Other work on the effects of musical guage impairments, including dyslexia, between musical training and learning,
training suggests that it improves overall research suggests. People with dyslexia more studies are needed. But the accu-
pitch processing. After six months, Por- often have a hard time reading — a diffi- mulating research is tantalizing, and
tuguese third graders in a musical train- culty that is thought to result from trou- it suggests that upping the quality and
ing group performed better on a reading ble transforming the letters on a page quantity of musical training in schools is
task and on a pitch discrimination task into the sounds of language. This sound- warranted, Kraus and Northwestern col-
than kids in a painting group, research- meaning connection happens before chil- league Bharath Chandrasekaran write in
ers reported last year in Cerebral Cor dren learn to read, says Kraus, and may be the August Nature Reviews Neuroscience.
tex. These results were also reflected in crucial for reading skills to develop. “Music has the power to transform
brain wave activity, says study coauthor A team that included Kraus and Jane our nervous system in substantial, enor-
Sylvain Moreno of the Rotman Research Hornickel, also from Northwestern, mous, unambiguous ways,” says Kraus.
Institute and York University in Toronto. looked at how the auditory brain stem Many researchers now equate musical
responded to the sounds of different training with learning to read. (Patel calls
Hear this Musically trained adults can hear syllables for kids with a wide range of each of them a “transformative technol-
words in background noise better than untrained reading abilities. Kids with the weakest ogy of the mind.”) Perfectly intelligent,
peers (more negative index, better detection).
reading skills had a harder time distin- capable people can do fine in life without
Perceiving words within noise guishing the sounds ba, da and ga, the cracking a book or strumming a tune. But
-3.5 team reported last year in Proceedings both can make the mind sing.
Perception/noise index