Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Transformational Leadership, Organizational Clan Culture, Organizational Affective Commitment, and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Case of South Korea's Public Sector
Transformational Leadership, Organizational Clan Culture, Organizational Affective Commitment, and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Case of South Korea's Public Sector
DOI 10.1007/s11115-013-0225-z
Hougyun Kim
Introduction
The aim of the present study is to provide a better understanding of the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior by
H. Kim (*)
Department of Public Administration, Chonnam National University at Gwangju, Gwangju,
Republic of Korea
e-mail: khg1427@chonnam.ac.kr
398 H. Kim
exploring the potential mediating role of clan culture and affective commitment. Few
empirical studies have examined the relationships among transformational leadership,
clan culture, affective commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior by con-
sidering a variable for culture presented by the competing values framework. Previ-
ous studies have examined the relationship between transformational leadership and
organizational citizenship behavior by considering trust, job satisfaction, personal
identification, motivation, goal commitment, work engagement, efficacy, and proce-
dural justice (Babcock and Strickland 2010; Piccolo and Colquitt 2006).
Using the model and setting clan culture and affective commitment as mediating
variables, this study explores the relationship between transformation leadership and
organizational citizenship behavior by considering a sample of full-time employees at
a local government organization in South Korea—Gwangju Metropolitan City gov-
ernment. Thus, by examining the mediating roles of clan culture and affective
commitment in the context of Korea’s public sector, this study adds the general body
of knowledge to leadership-work behavior link and provides a better understanding of
the relationships among leadership, organizational culture, work-related attitude or
behavior. The results have important practical implications for management and per-
sonnel policies of public organizations. Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the
study (Kim 2012, p. 869).
In the public sectors, leadership is known to play a critical role in causing changes
necessary for effective management. Leaders have the ability to transform organiza-
tions through their vision for the future, and by clarifying their vision, they can
empower the employees to take responsibility for achieving that vision (Kim 2012).
Among many types of leadership, transformational leadership has been particularly
emphasized in connection with employee performance (Avolio et al. 1999; Bass and
Avolio 1995; Kirkman et al. 2009). Burns (1978) and MacKenzie et al. (2001)
indicated that transformational leadership motivates followers beyond simple rewards
in exchange for their efforts or performance. Transformational leadership focuses on
the self-actualization of followers. Bass (1985a) stated that transformational leader-
ship emphasizes the growth and development of an organization’s followers and its
H2a
H1a Clan
H1b Affective H2b
Transformational
Leadership Culture Commitment Organizational
Citizenship
Behavior
HIc
H3
Fig. 1 Hypothesized model of the relationships among transformational leadership, clan culture , affective
commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 399
goals. Bass (1985b) and Bass and Avolio (1994) classified the dimensions of trans-
formational leadership into the following four categories (Kim 2012, pp. 870–871):
The first is known both as idealized influence and as charisma. The transformational
leader becomes a role model for the followers, facilitates the acceptance of group
goals, and encourages them to upgrade their organizational goals. Idealized influence
is the extent to which leaders behave in charismatic ways, inducing followers to
identify with them. The second is intellectual stimulation. The leader’s behavior is
concerned with stimulating “problem solving and careful and creative consideration
of issues at hand” (van Knippenberg and Sitkin 2013, p. 5). Intellectual stimulation is
the extent to which leaders challenge assumptions, take risks, and solicit followers’
ideas. The third is individualized consideration. The leader recognizes the differing
needs of followers, individualized attention, and coaching (van Knippenberg and
Sitkin 2013). Individualized consideration is the extent to which leaders attend to
followers’ needs, act as mentors, and listen to followers’ concerns. The fourth is
concerned with inspirational motivation (inspiration), involving the communication
of inspiring vision and high performance expectations. Inspirational motivation is the
extent to which leaders articulate a vision that is appealing to followers. Based on the
transformational model of Bass and Avolio (1990, 1994, 1995, 1997), the present
study adopts these four components of transformational leadership (Kim 2012)—
idealized influence (charisma), intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration,
and inspirational motivation (inspiration).
Organizational culture has long been considered as an important means for organi-
zations to integrate internal processes and adapt to external conditions (Tusi et al. 2006).
It is well known that organizational culture is related to important outcomes at both the
organization and individual levels. Cameron and Quinn (2010) presented four major
types of organizational culture through the competing values framework: hierarchy
culture, market market, clan culture, and adhocracy culture. Hierarchy culture is char-
acterized by clear lines of decision-making authority, standardized rules and procedures,
and control and accountability mechanisms. Market culture is oriented toward the
external environment and is focused on transactions with external constituencies,
including suppliers, customers, and regulators, among others. Competitiveness and
productivity are achieved by placing great emphasis on external positioning and control.
Clan culture is characterized by teamwork, employee development or empowerment,
participation, commitment, and loyalty. Adhocracy culture focuses on fostering adapt-
ability, flexibility, and creativity and is characterized by uncertainties, ambiguities,
and/or information overload.
Korea’s public sector has tended to stress the importance of cohesion, teamwork, a
high level of employee morale, and human resource development as the criteria for
organizational effectiveness. In terms of long-term organizational development,
Korea’s collectivistic culture values leaders who can be mentors, are committed to
employee welfare, and can take responsibility for uncertainties and complexities
(Cameron and Quinn 1998; Kim 2007). In this regard, among the four types of
organizational culture, the present study adopts clan culture as the variable for culture
for the analysis of the relationship among transformational leadership, clan culture,
affective commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior.
The concept of organizational commitment has been defined in many ways (Kim
2012, pp. 871–872). For instance, Mowday et al. (1979) defined it as the extent to
400 H. Kim
which employees identify with their organization’s values or norms. Bieby (1992,
p. 284) defined commitment as "an attachement that is initiated and sustained by the
extent to which an individual's identification with a role, behavior, value, or institu-
tion is considered to be central among alternatives as a source of identity". Mowday et
al. (1982) defined it as the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and
involvement in his or her organization. Furthermore, Allen and Meyer (1990, 1996)
and Meyer and Allen (1991) divided organizational commitment into three dimen-
sions: affective, continuance, and normative. According to Allen and Meyer (1990,
1996), affective commitment refers to an employee’s emotional attachment to the
organization; continuance commitment means the perceived cost related to an em-
ployee leaving the organization or refers to anything of value the employee has
invested that would be lost at some perceived cost to the employee if he or she were
to leave the organization; and normative commitment is defined as an employee’s
perceived duty to remain in the organization.
Much research has suggested that, among these three dimensions, the affective
dimension is the one most closely associated with organizational commitment in that
organizational commitment entails the internalization of the organization’s goals,
involvement in employee roles, and loyalty to the organization (Avolio et al.
2004a). Although the concept of organizational commitment may reflect
multidimensional constructs, previous empirical research has typically highlighted
the importance of the attitudinal or affective dimension in examining it (Avolio et al.
2004b; Gong et al. 2009; Jaussi 2007; Meyer et al. 2004; Kim 2012; Mowday et al.
1982; Price and Muller 1981; Riketta 2008; Romzek 1989, 1990). Consistent with
previous much research, we focus on affective dimension of organizational commit-
ment, the employee’s emotional or psychological attachment to the organization. The
reasons are as follows: First, it seems to be the most robust predictor of behavioral
criteria (Lavelle et al. 2007). Second, it best reflects closer alignment with, or a positive
attitude toward, the effort to change. Third, it is perhaps the most widely studied form of
commitment and is similar to Mowday et al. (1982) groundbreaking conceptualization
of commitment (Lavelle et al. 2009). Finally, it has been theoretically and empirically
linked to transformational leadership (Herold et al. 2008; Kim 2012).
Recent years have seen growing interest among scholars and managers in em-
ployees’ discretionary behaviors, particularly those that can enhance workplace
effectiveness in times of dramatic change (Lavelle et al. 2009; Vigoda and
Golembiewski 2001; Walumbwa et al. 2010). The meta-analysis by Podsakoff et al.
(2009) suggested that organizational citizenship behavior is positively related to
employee performance and organizational productivity. Vigoda and Golembiewski
(2001) suggested that organizational citizenship behavior is necessary for improving
service quality and general outcomes in public organizations as well as for creating a
healthy organizational climate. Such findings suggest that employees’ discretionary
behavior in organizational settings is closely related to the organization’s effective-
ness and efficiency (MacKenzie et al. 1996).
Although it did not use terminology of organizational citizenship behavior, a
seminal paper by Katz (1964) indicated self-development and protecting the organi-
zation as “important behaviors that go beyond formal role requirements and that often
do not occur in response to formal reward systems for differential individual perfor-
mance.” Organ (1988), Podsakoff et al. (1990), and Podsakoff et al. (2000) divided
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 401
Whether organizational culture can be managed is one of the most widely debated
issues in organizational theory. Some researchers treat organizational culture as
something that the management team has complete or partial control over, whereas
others claim that it cannot be managed or manipulated (Deal and Kennedy 1982;
Ogbonna and Harris 2002). Transformational leaders play a role as a giver as well as a
definer of organizational culture. Thus, they set the tone, atmosphere, and philosophy
for the organization and its subunits (Bass and Avolio 1994; Bass and Bass 2008;
Schein 1990). In particular, in terms of organizational effectiveness, transformational
leaders in Korea’s public sector can create or invent their own clan culture by
emphasizing teamwork, harmony, employee development, participation, loyalty,
commitment, and morale, among others (Cameron and Quinn 1998).
According to the logic of Schein’s organizational culture, organizations that stress
the values associated with both external adaptation and internal integration are likely
to achieve the best results in terms of employee attitudes (e.g., affective commitment)
(Tusi et al. 2006). Internal integration centers on establishing a common vision and
402 H. Kim
Few studies have examined the relationship between organizational culture and
organizational citizenship behavior centering on the public sector. For instance,
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 403
O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) argued that organizational culture can provide high
firm performance by inducing employees to be more committed to the organization.
Barney (1986) argued that organizational culture can provide a competitive advantage
for the organization by generating intangible resources that are difficult for other
organizations to imitate. Kotter and Heskett (1992) showed that an adaptive culture
can help organizations increase their financial performance. Bass and Bass (2008)
stated that in an organization characterized by clan culture, employees “are expected
to do more than just what is agreed in contracts.” Based on these findings, the present
study examines the relationship between organizational culture (clan culture) and
organizational outcomes (e.g., organizational citizenship behavior) in the context of
Korea’s public sector. In this regard, the following hypothesis could be proposed:
H2a: Clan culture is positively related to organizational citizenship behavior.
Much research has investigated the relationship between affective commitment and
organizational citizenship behavior in the North American context, many suggesting
that affective commitment is positively related to job performance or organizational
citizenship behavior (Kim 2012; Lavelle et al. 2009; MacKenzie et al. 2001; Wagner and
Rush 2000). The antecedents of organizational citizenship behavior have been associ-
ated with organizational fairness or justice, job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
personality (e.g., extroversion sympathy, and achievement needs), and contingent
circumstances such as job characteristics, job range, and leadership behavior (Podsakoff
et al. 2000; Smith et al. 1983). For instance, Lavelle et al. (2007) suggested that affective
commitment is positively related to several outcome variables such as organizational
citizenship behavior. MacKenzie et al. (2001) empirically demonstrated that work-
related behavior or attitudes may be antecedents of affective commitment and that
affective commitment may in turn be an antecedent of organizational citizenship
behavior. Furthermore, Riketta (2008) showed that the commitment-performance rela-
tionship is more pronounced for extra-role performance than for in-role performance.
On the other hand, few studies have focused on organizational citizenship behavior in
public sector in Korea. Kim (2009) reported that affective commitment is positively
related to the organizational citizenship behavior dimensions of altruism, civic virtue,
and conscientiousness. In another study, Kim (2006) found that affective commitment is
positively related to altruism but not to generalized compliance (conscientiousness).
The above discussion indicates that affective commitment may encourage employees to
engage in discretionary behaviors. Accordingly, the following hypothesis could be proposed.
H2b: Affective commitment is positively related to organizational citizenship
behavior.
Very little research has sought to determine the indirect or direct relationship between
transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior (Kim 2012;
Wang et al. 2005; MacKenzie et al. 2001; Organ et al. 2006; Podsakoff et al.
1996). For instance, Podsakoff et al. (1990) employed job satisfaction as a mediating
variable and reported that transformational leadership is indirectly associated with
organizational citizenship behavior. Leithwood and Jantzi (2000) indicated that
404 H. Kim
The data were collected from full-time employees of the Gwangju Metropolitan City
government on two occasions separated by approximately 8 weeks to reduce com-
mon method bias (Podsakoff et al. 2003). We initially explained that employees’
participation in this study was strictly voluntary and that all identifying information
would be removed once the data were coded. We also explained the purpose of the
study, informed the employees that they would be receiving another survey in
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 405
Measures
All items were assessed on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (“strongly
disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”). The Appendix shows these items.
Controls
The control variables included gender, age, educational level, and organizational
tenure. Previous studies have showed that these demographic variables are potential
predictors of affective commitment or organizational citizenship behavior (Avolio et
al. 2004a, b; Kirkman et al. 2009; Lepine et al. 2002). In the study, for example,
organizational tenure was positively related to organizational citizenship behavior.
Table 2 shows the coding for the categorical variables.
Level of Analysis
Transformational leadership was measured at the individual level for the following
reasons. First of all, leaders may behave differently in different situations (Avolio and
Yammarino 1990). Secondly, methodologically, averaging data may remove significant
relationships, particularly when treating individual perceptions (Piccolo and Colquitt
2006; Walumbwa et al. 2005). Moreover, we employed clan culture, affective commit-
ment, and organizational citizenship behavior as individual-level variables.
Analyses
In order to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity of our measures at the
individual level of analysis, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by
using AMOS 19.0 and descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations between
variables by using SPSS 19.0. According to Anderson and Gerbing (1988) and
Fornell and Larcker (1981), convergent validity can be established when the
path loading from an item to its latent construct is significant; the standardized
factor loading is greater than 0.7; average variance extracted (AVE) is greater
than 0.5; and construct reliability is greater than 0.7 (Kim 2012). Discriminant
validity can be established by comparing the AVE of each construct with the
square of the correlation coefficient (r2) between the constructs. If the AVE
value exceeds its r2 with any other construct, then there is discriminant validity.
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 407
Concerning assessing model fit, we used the chi- square measure (χ2), normed χ2
2
(χ /df ), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit
index (CFI), the incremental fit index (IFI), the parsimony normed fit index (PNFI),
and the parsimony comparative fit index (PCFI).
Results
Organizational citizenship behavior is a higher-order reflective construct; altruism, civic virtue, conscien-
tiousness, and sportsmanship are first-order reflective constructs; and standardized factor loading values are
in parentheses. a,b cv1 and cv2 for civic virtue and c3 and c4 for conscientiousness were removed because
their respective communality was less than .5
***p<.001
Tests of Hypotheses
Figure 2 and Table 4 show that, transformational leadership and organizational citizen-
ship behavior did not have a significant relationship, and clan culture and organizational
citizenship behavior did not have a significant relationship. H3 and H2a were not
supported. Transformational leadership had a significant effect on clan culture
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 409
Variables Means SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Constructs AVE r r2
AVE average variance expected; r correlation between constructs; AVE > r2 demonstrates sufficient
discriminant validity between constructs. TL transformational leadership; CC clan culture; AC affective
commitment; OCB organizational citizenship behavior
410 H. Kim
H3 -.075ns (-1.049)
Fig. 2 Structural path estimates for the hypothesized model. Path coefficients are standardized coefficients,
and t-values are in parentheses. ns not significant. TL transformational leadership; CC clan culture; AC
affective commitment; OCB organizational citizenship behavior. ***p<.001, **p<.05
‘Direct’ refers to direct effects; ‘Indirect’ refers to indirect effects; and ‘Total’ refers to total effects. Path
coefficients are standardized coefficients. Unstandardized coefficients are in parentheses. ns not significant.
TL transformational leadership; CC clan culture; AC affective commitment; OCB organizational citizenship
behavior
***p<.001. **p<.05
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 411
This study has some limitations. This study use cross-sectional data, thus, such a
research design does not allow for an examination of long-term effects (Selig and
Preacher 2009). In this regard, longitudinal studies using both qualitative and quantita-
tive data should be conducted to provide a better understanding of the dynamic relation-
ships among transformational leadership, clan culture, affective commitment, and
organizationa citizenship behavior (Walumbwa et al. 2010).
Another limitation is concerned with the nature of the sample in public sector in Korea.
Thus, any generalization of the study findings to other groups or organizations outside the
sample profile should be made with caution. More importantly, the use of self-reported
measures raises concerns regarding the possibility that the respondents might have
provided socially desirable responses. In the present study, we attempted to reduce or
mitigate common method bias by determining transformational leadership, clan culture,
and affective commitment ratings at Time 1 and organizational citizenship behavior
(dependent variable) ratings at Time 2. In this regard, future research should consider
other types of organizations or use multiple sources to verify this study’s findings.
In conclusion, the present study's results provide evidence that transformational
leadership and clan culture is indirectly associate with organizational citizenship
behavior. In the cultural context in public sector in Korea, the present study suggests
that there are the mediating effects of clan culture and affective commitment on the
relationship between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship be-
havior. Furthermore, the present study proposes a research method that can address
organizational citizenship behavior as a higher-order reflective construct in the
context of the public sector in Korea. In conclusion, considering clan culture and
affective commitment in the relationship between transformational leadership and
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 413
Acknowledgment This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded
by the Korean Government (NRF-2012S1A5A2A01018318).
Transformational Leadership (Bass and Avolio 1997; MacKenzie et al. 2001; Organ
et al. 2006; Podsakoff et al. 1990):
Items preceded by “My supervisor…”
1. articulates a vision (t1).
2. provides an appropriate model (t2).
3. facilitates the acceptance of group goals (t3).
4. challenges me to think about old problems in new ways (t4).
5. shows respect for my personal feelings (t5).
Clan Culture (Cameron and Quinn 1998)
1. The organization is like an extended family in that it is a very personal place (cc1).
2. People seem to share a lot of themselves (cc2).
3. Commitment to this organization runs high (cc3).
4. The organization emphasizes human development (including employee morale),
participation, and consensus (cc4).
Affective Commitment (Allen and Meyer 1990, 1996; Meyer and Allen 1991;
Mowday et al. 1982):
1. This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me (ac1).
2. I enjoy discussing my organization with outsiders (ac2).
3. I would be happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization (ac3).
4. Most days, I am enthusiastic about my work (ac4).
5. I am willing and ready to do anything for my organization (ac5).
6. I am greatly interested in the future of my organization (ac6).
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (Podsakoff et al. 1990; 2000; Smith et al. 1983):
Items preceded by “I”
Altruism
1. help orient new people, even though it is not required (a1).
2. help others who have heavy workloads (a2).
3. am always ready to lend a helping hand to those around me (a3).
4. help others who have been absent (a4).
5. willingly help others who have work-related problems (a5).
Civic virtue
6. make constructive suggestions that can improve the operation of the organization (cv1).
7. keep abreast of changes in the organization (cv2).
414 H. Kim
8. attend functions that are not required but help the company image (cv3).
9. attend meetings that are not mandatory but are considered important (cv4).
Conscientiousness
10. do not take extra breaks (c1).
11. obey company rules and regulations, even when no one is watching (c2).
12. believe in giving an honest day’s work for an honest day’s pay (c3).
13. have a work attendance record that is above the norm (c4).
Sportsmanship (reverse-scored)
14. consume a lot of time complaining about trivial matters (s1).
15. always focus on what is wrong, rather than the positive side (s2).
16. always find faults with what the organization is doing (s3).
References
Albrecht, S. (2005). Leadership climate in the public sector: feelings matter too. International Journal of
Public Administration, 28, 397–416.
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and
normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1–18.
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1996). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization:
an examination of construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 252–276.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and
recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423.
Avolio, B. J., & Yammarino, F. J. (1990). Operationalizing charismatic leadership using a levels-of-analysis
framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 1, 193–208.
Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. J. (1999). Re-examining the components of transformational and
transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 72, 441–462.
Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., Walumbwa, F. O., & Zhu, W. (2004a). MLQ Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire: Technical report, leader form, rate form, and scoring key for MLQ form 5x-Short
(3rd ed.). Redwood City: Mind Garden.
Avolio, B. J., Zhu, W., Koh, W., & Bhatia, P. (2004b). Transformational leadership and organizational
commitment: mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural dis-
tance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 951–968.
Babcock, M., & Strickland, O. (2010). The relationship between charismatic leadership, work engagement,
and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Psychology, 144, 313–326.
Barney, J. B. (1986). Organizational culture: can it be a source of sustained competitive advantage.
Academy of Management Review, 11, 656–665.
Bass, B. M. (1985a). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.
Bass, B. M. (1985b). The multifactor leadership questionnaire: Form 5. Binghamton: State University of
New York.
Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: learning to share the vision.
Organizational Dynamics, 18, 19–31.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). The implications of transactional and transformational leadership for
individual, team, and organizational development. Research in Organizational Change and
Development, 4, 231–272.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational
leadership. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1995). The multifactor leadership questionnaire. Redwood City: Mind Garden.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1997). Full range leadership development: Manual for the multifactor
leadership questionnaire. Redwood City: Mind Garden.
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 415
Bass, B. M., & Bass, R. B. (2008). The bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial
applications (4th ed.). New York: Free Press.
Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.
Bielby, D. D. (1992). Commitment to work and family. Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 281–301
Bollen, K. A. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological
Methods and Research, 17, 303–316.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S.
Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models. Newbury Park: Sage.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
Cameron, K. S., & Freeman, S. J. (1991). Cultural congruence, strength, and type: relationships to
effectiveness. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 5, 81–105.
Cameron, K. S., & Quinn, R. E. (1998). Diagnosing and changing organizational culture: Based on the
competing values framework. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Cameron, K. S., Quinn, R. E. (2010). Diagnosing and changing organizational culture: Based on the
competing values framework. Jossey-Bass.
Deal, T. E., & Kennedy, A. A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading:
Addison-Wensley.
Dick, G.P.M. (2010). “The influence of managerial and job variables on organizational commitment in the
police,” Public Administration (Early View), 1−20.
Dorfman, P. W., & House, R. J. (2004). Cultural influences on organizational leadership: Literlature review,
theoretical rationale, and GLOBE project goals. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W.
Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies
(pp. 51–73). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Finkelstein, M. A. (2006). Dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior: motives, motive
fulfillment, and role identity. Social Behavior & Personality, 34, 603–616.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluation structural equation models with unobservable variable and
measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
Gautam, T., Dick, R. V., Wagner, U., Upadhyay, N., & Davis, A. (2005). Organizational citizenship
behavior and organizational commitment in Nepal. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 8, 305–314.
Gong, Y., Law, K. S., Chang, S., & Xin, K. R. (2009). Human resources management and firm perfor-
mance: the differential role of managerial affective and continuance commitment. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 94(1), 263–275.
Herold, D. M., Fedor, D. B., Caldwell, S., & Liu, Y. (2008). The effects of transformational and change
leadership on employees’ commitment to a change: a multilevel study. Journal of Applied Psychology,
93(2), 346–357.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations
across nations. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Jaussi, K. S. (2007). Attitudinal commitment: a three-dimensional construct. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 80, 51–61.
Jung, D. I., & Avolio, B. J. (1999). Effects of leadership style and followers’ cultural orientation on
performance in group and individual task conditions. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 208–219.
Jung, Y. K., & Lee, K. M. (2000). An empirical study on the relationships between leadership behavior,
organizational justice, and organizational citizenship behavior. Korean Public Administration Review,
34(4), 323–341.
Katz, D. (1964). The motivational basis of organizational behavior. Behavioral Science, 9, 131–146.
Kim, H. J. (2001). The effects of transformational/transactional leadership on the organizational commit-
ment: a comparison of public and private sector employees. Korean Public Administration Review,
35(2), 197–216.
Kim, S. (2006). Public service motivation and organizational citizenship behavior in Korea. International
Journal of Manpower, 27(8), 722–740.
Kim, H. (2007). A study on the causal relationship among organizational justice, organizational trust, and
organizational citizenship behavior. Korean Public Administration Review, 41(2), 69–94.
Kim, H. (2009). A study on the relationship between leadership and organizational effectiveness. Journal of
Social Science, 35(3), 69–103.
Kim, H. (2012). Transformational leadership and organisational citizenship behavior in the public sector in
South Korea: the mediating role of affective commitment. Local Government Studies, 38(6), 867–892.
416 H. Kim
Kirkman, B. L., Chen, G., Farh, J., Chen, Z. X., & Lowe, K. B. (2009). Individual power distance
orientation and follower reactions to transformational leaders: a cross-level, cross-cultural examination.
Academy of Management Journal, 53, 744–764.
Koh, W. L., Steers, R. M., & Terborg, J. R. (1995). The effects of transformational leadership on teacher
attitudes and student performance in Singapore. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 319–333.
Kotter, J. P., & Heskett, J. L. (1992). Corporate culture and performance. New York: Free Press.
Lavelle, J. J., Rupp, D. E., & Brockner, J. (2007). Taking a multifoci approach to the study of justice, social
exchange, and citizenship behavior: the target similarity model. Journal of Management, 33, 841–866.
Lavelle, J. J., Brockner, J., Konovsky, M. A., Price, K. H., Henley, A. B., Taneja, A., & Vinekar, V. (2009).
Commitment, procedural fairness, and organizational citizenship behavior: a multifoci analysis.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(3), 337–357.
Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2000). The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions
and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38, 112–129.
LePine, J. A., Erez, A., & Johnson, D. E. (2002). The nature of dimensionality of organizational citizenship
behavior: a critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 52–65.
MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Ahearne, M. (1996). Effects of OCB on sales team effectiveness.
Bloomington: Unpublished Data Analysis, Indiana University School of Business.
MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Rich, G. A. (2001). Transformational and transactional leadership
and salesperson performance. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 29, 115–134.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three component conceptualization of organizational commitment.
Human Resource Management Review, 1, 61–89.
Meyer, J. P., Becker, T. E., & Vandenberghe, C. (2004). Employee commitment and motivation: a
conceptual analysis and integrative model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 991–1007.
Mowday, R. T., Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 224–247.
Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. M., & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee-organizational linkages: The psychology
of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. New York: Academic.
O’Reilly, C., & Chatman, J. (1986). Organizational commitment and psychological attachment: the effects
of compliance, identification, and internalization on pro-social behavior. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 71, 492–499.
Ogbonna, E., & Harris, L. G. (2002). Organizational culture: a ten year, two-phase study of change in the
UK food retailing sector. Journal of Management Studies, 39, 673–706.
Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Toronto:
Lexington.
Organ, D. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (2006). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its
nature, antecedents, and consequences. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Park, T., & Kim, M. (2008). The effects of personnel administrative fairness on organizational citizenship
behavior under the new liberalistic reform of personnel administration in Seoul metropolitan govern-
ment. Korean Public Administration Review, 42(3), 261–291.
Piccolo, R. F., & Colquitt, J. A. (2006). Transformational leadership and job behaviors: the mediating role
of core job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 327–340.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader
behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship
behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142.
Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., & Bommer, W. H. (1996). Transformational leadership behavior and
substitutes for leadership as determinants of employee satisfaction, commitment, trust and organiza-
tional citizenship behaviors. Journal of Management, 22, 259–298.
Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship
behaviors: a critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future
research. Journal of Management, 26(3), 513–563.
Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in
behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 88, 879–903.
Podsakoff, N. P., Whiting, S. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Blume, B. D. (2009). Individual- and organizational-
level consequences of organizational citizenship behaviors: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 94, 122–141.
Price, J., & Muller, C. (1981). Professional turnover: The case of nurses. New York: Medical and Scientific Books.
Riketta, M. (2008). The causal relation between job attitudes and performance: a meta-analysis of panel
studies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2), 472–481.
Transformational Leadership, Clan Culture, Affective Commitment 417
Hougyun Kim Hougyun kim is an associate professor at Chonnam National University of Kwangju
Metropolitan City in South Korea. His research interests include organizational behavior, human resource
development, and cultural competence. He is an Ad-hoc reviewer for Leadership Quarterly (SSCI).