Active and Non-Active Porosity in Concrete

Part I: Experimental Evidence

Yaman, I.O.1, Hearn, N.2, Aktan, H.M.3

Abstract
The findings of an experimental study are described documenting and quantifying the
influence of concrete porosity on its mechanical properties in saturated and dry states.
Concrete porosity consists of capillary and entrained air, and described respectively as
active and non-active, depending on its influence on mechanical properties with changing
moisture state. It was found that the active (capillary) porosity influence on mechanical
properties is more pronounced with decreasing moisture. The influence of non-active
(entrained-air) porosity on concrete mechanical properties is invariant of moisture state.

1
Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
2
Assoc. Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
3
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State
University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA

1
Introduction
The main components of concrete consist of water, cement, fine and coarse aggregate,
which when hardened are represented as mortar, coarse aggregate and pore matrix. The
mechanical properties of hardened concrete depend on the characteristics and the volume
fractions of these main components. Typical phases of hardened concrete are presented
in Figure 1 where basic phases are represented by mortar, aggregate, and voids. In the
case volume of voids are neglected, a hardened concrete model is simplified consisting of
two phases, the aggregate and the mortar. Most of the research found in literature mainly
focuses on modeling concrete mechanical properties using these two phases (Zimmerman
et al. 1986, Nilsen and Monteiro 1995). In modeling with the two-phase system concrete
is described as hard inclusions embedded in a softer matrix. Two-phase system describes
all scales of the cementitious microstructure with cement clinker being coated by porous
hydration products, fine aggregate by hardened cement paste, and coarse aggregate by the
mortar matrix. The drawback of the two-phase models is its inability to represent voids
and pores within concrete as well as the moisture within the pores. In fact, one of the
main complications of modeling cementitious systems is that their solid structure is
influenced by the moisture content of the pore system, which also influences its
mechanical properties. The purpose of this article is to present experimental evidence
documenting and quantifying the influence of concrete porosity on mechanical properties
under saturated and dry conditions.

Background
Concrete is a porous material with several different pore types. The pore system in
concrete, however, is not constant and is affected by curing time, moisture content, and
exposure conditions. Upon curing, process of hydration results in filling and re-
distribution of the initial pore system as determined by the w/c ratio of the mix.
Additionally, infrastructure concrete designed for colder climates is entrained with non-
permeable pores for its freeze-thaw durability. The entrained air pores are spherical in
shape. Concrete mechanical properties change with the amount and distribution of

2
permeable and non-permeable pores and the amount of moisture within the permeable
pore structure (Rossi 1991, Swamy and Rigby 1971).

Hardened Concrete

Mortar Voids

Sand Cement Pores Entrained Entrapped

Paste air air

Unhydrated Hydrated Interlayer

cement cement porosity
particles particles

Aggregate

Figure 1. Typical Phases of Hardened Concrete

Based on this fact, we will describe the pore system of concrete as: active and non-active.
Active pore volume is controlled by the w/c ratio, extent of hydration and moisture
conditions. These three factors affect the total porosity and pore size distribution during
the life of the cement matrix. Non-active porosity is the volume of entrained or
entrapped air introduced at the time of mixing, and remains constant throughout the life
of the cementitious matrix. Active and non-active pores are different both in shape and
size , as well as their ability to absorb water. Active porosity or capillary porosity can be
described as long continuous channels as compared to the circular or nearly circular
shape and discontinuous nature of non-active entrained or entrapped pores.

This article is part one of a two-part study assessing the relative importance of various
porosities in cementitious system mechanical properties based on various pore
classifications and characteristics (Yaman et al. 2000b).

3
Categories of Pores
Considerable work has been conducted correlating mechanical properties of concrete to
its microstructure. In particular, relationships have been established between porosity
and key mechanical indexes such as strength and modulus of elasticity. These
relationships however are not unique (Figure 2). The lack of a unique relationship relates
to porosity and the distribution of pores in the cementitious systems. It has been
generally accepted that w/c ratio determines the initial porosity. Work conducted by
Mills has shown that porosity can be kept constant with large variations in the w/c ratio
and vice versa (Table 1), and that the actual porosity of the system is a function of the
amount of water introduced at the time of mixing (measured in kg/m3).

700
Mills Terminal Strengths Water Cured
600 Lawrence Pressed at Room Temperature
Compressive Strenght (N/mm )

Roy Hot Pressed

2

500 Roy Pressed at Room Temperature

Lawrence & Mills & Roy

400 Weighted to σ=0, when ε=1.0
σ=4.52 ε-1.9 N/mm2
300
Lawrence & Mills
σ=31.0 ε-1.205 N/mm2
200

100

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Volume Fraction of Pores -ε

Figure 2. Compressive Strength vs. Porosity

Once the initial amount of water has been set, the hydration process determines the extent
of the filling and redistribution of the original pore spaces. The hydration process results
in the increase of the unhydrated cement bulk volume by 2.1 times. This process results
in the formation of two classes of pore: gel and capillary (Figure 3). Gel pores are

4
characteristic of the main hydration product – calcium-sillica-hydrate (C-S-H) and
constitute 28% of the total gel volume. Gel pores are very small (0.5 to 4 nm), being
only an order of magnitude greater than the size of the water molecules, and have a great
affinity for water molecules. The capillary pores range in size between 10nm to 10µm
and relate to most of the mechanical and durability aspects in concrete. The two pore
systems are interrelated, not only in the fact that both are a function of the hydration
process, but also on their interdependence on the moisture content.

Table 1. Example of Constant W/C and Variable Porosity and Constant Porosity
and Variable W/C, (Mills 1986)
W/C RATIO POROSITY W/C RATIO POROSITY
0.42 18 0.42 16.7
0.42 16.7 0.56 15.8
0.42 11 0.64 15.9
0.42 10 0.74 15.7

Calcium Hydroxide
crystals precipitated
out of solution

Residual anhydrous
cement

Porous cement hydrate

with pores varying in
width from 0.5 to 4 nm

Large pores up to 10 µm

(a) Cement grains at time of final set (b) Fully hydrated cement paste
Figure 3. Pore Filling by Products of Hydration (Mills 1986)

Fundamental studies conducted by Powers (1958) and Feldman and Sereda (1970) on the
development of cementitious microstructure, provided models showing dependence of
shrinkage and swelling of cementitious systems with the presence of water in the pores
(Figure 4). The main point of interest is that once the interlayer water is removed from

5
in-between the gel layers, the gel layers collapse together, which results in the opening up
of the capillary porosity. This collapse and opening of the pore structure has been
demonstrated by permeability tests showing orders of magnitude variations in flow
through capillary channels depending on the state of the gel (Hearn, 1996).

Figure 4. Simplified Model for Exit and Entry of Water into the Layers of C-S-H

Moisture and Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties are also affected by the moisture content of the pore structure. For
this reason standard compressive tests specify testing on saturated samples. Dry concrete
can be as much as 10 to 15% stronger than in a saturated state (Figure 5). Such strength
increase or decrease is due to the shrinkage and swelling of the microstructure as the
water is added or removed from the pore structure. It has been proposed that the strength
decrease with increasing moisture content is related to the swelling pressure as given by
the Kelvin equation:
∆P = A ln (P/Ps) (1)
where,
A= Constant
P= Equilibrium vapor pressure
Ps= Saturation vapor pressure

6
Work by Powers and Brownyard (1947), Feldman and Sereda (1968), and Feldman
(1972) provided fundamental correlations between mechanical behaviour and moisture
content. The moisture movement in and out of the cementitious systems results in the
redistribution of the gel/capillary porosity, with the removal of the interlayer water. Thus
resulting in the collapse of the gel layers and opening of the capillary porosity, while
swelling of the gel upon the re-entry of water, results in the decrease in the volume of
large capillary pores. The shape factor and the aspect ratio of the pores is likely to
change between dry and saturated states, however, experimental analysis of such changes
are very difficult.

300

w/c=0.25 - 224 days

Compressive Strenght (N/mm )
2

w/c=0.65 - 224 days

w/c=0.65 - 28 days
200

100

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative Humidity P/ Ps

Figure 5. Variation of Strength with Equilibrium Relative Humidity

In contrast to the active porosity as defined by gel/capillary pore structure, entrained and
entrapped air are not affected by the continuing hydration and presence or absence of
water and thus are termed non-active pore spaces. The pore size of entrained and
entrapped air are 1-50µm and 1000-3000µm, respectively, and thus may significantly
increase no-load carrying components of the cementitious systems. Eventhough, the
entrapped and entrained air pores are orders of magnitude larger than the capillary
porosity, capillary pores define the intrinsic properties of the cementitious structures.

7
Experimental Study
The experimental data generated in this study produced concrete specimens with various
entrained air amounts and various water-cement (w/c) ratios. Concrete mechanical
properties during various states of saturation were evaluated. Typical chemical
admixtures used in infrastructure for workability and retarders were also included in the
concrete mixtures (Table 2). The specimens were moist cured for 28 days and the
saturated-state experimental data were obtained. The specimens were later oven dried for
approximately three days at 105 •C to a fully dried state for the dry-state experimental
data. The experimental data obtained for each specimen group were: 7, 14, 28 day
strength, entrained air content, porosity (volume of permeable voids by ASTM C 642),
saturated and dry static elasticity modulus, saturated and dry Poisson’s ratio, saturated
and dry UPV, saturated and dry specific gravity.

Table 2. Mix Properties

Plastic Concrete
Mix Design
Test Results
Admixture Air
Batch ID Material Weight (kg/m3) Slump
(ml/m3) Content
Coarse Fine Air Super
Cement Water (mm) (%)
Agg. Agg. Entr. Plas.
35-00-L-2 390 137 1000 835 None 3106 67 2.0
35-05-L-2 390 137 958 800 209 2210 83 5.5
35-06-L-2 390 137 902 754 327 2263 57 5.6
35-10-L-2 390 137 902 753 360 3316 121 10.0
35-12-L-2 390 137 902 754 340 3204 171 11.5
40-00-L-2 390 156 972 812 None 3597 89 2.0
40-05-L-0 390 156 784 921 307 None 44 6.1
40-05-L-2 390 156 931 777 190 2564 146 5.9
40-07-L-0 390 156 875 731 347 None 44 6.7
40-09-L-2 390 156 930 777 255 3316 95 8.8
45-00-L-2 390 176 945 789 None 2040 152 1.5
45-05-L-0 390 176 904 755 203 None 146 5.4
45-05-L-2 390 176 903 754 150 1798 184 4.0
45-09-L-0 390 176 904 755 327 None 191 8.2
50-05-L-0 390 195 876 732 177 None 222 4.9

The experimental data generated from these specimens were density, strength, elasticity
modulus, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and active porosity. The mechanical property
data were obtained when specimens are saturated and again when specimens are dried.
Four specimens from each w/c ratio group were loaded under compressive load to failure

8
(ultimate load) at 7, 14, and 28 days. The static Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
were calculated from the load vs. displacement curves of four specimens through linear
regression of the load-deformation data as specified by ASTM C 469. Elasticity modulus
and Poisson’s ratio were determined again on the same specimens after they were oven-
dried at 105 •C for three days. All of these tests were conducted by a servo-controlled
hydraulic test system.

The UPV measurement was performed on twelve specimens using a pulser/receiver unit,
a personal computer with a 100 MHz digital oscilloscope board and a pair of narrow band
50 kHz transducers. UPV measurements were conducted with the transducers firmly
coupled to the opposite ends of the specimens and, using a very small amount of coupling
gel between the transducer and the specimen. The wave sensed by the receiving
transducer is recorded. The arrival time of the wave along the length of the specimen
was obtained using a signal processing technique developed by Yaman et al. (2000a).
The signal processing technique utilizes the digitized waveform at 0.02 microsecond (50
MHz sampling frequency) time increments. The saturated UPV measurements were
performed following the curing period (28 days). Later UPV measurements were
performed on the specimens that were oven-dried at 105 •C for three days.

Absorption test for determining the volume of active pores (volume of permeable voids)
was performed according to the ASTM C 642-90 on 50 mm thick concrete disks saw-cut
from the 100 x 200 mm cylinders. The specimens were immersed in water and weighed
every 24 hours to check mass increases, until the change in mass is 0.5% of the heavier
mass, indicating the saturation stage. The specimens were found to reach this stage in 48
hours. The mass of the specimens was recorded at fixed time intervals.

Results and Discussion

The test results presented in Table 3 are sorted with decreasing compressive strength and
include pore volumes of active (permeable) and non-active voids, saturated and dry
density, saturated and dry static Poisson’s ratio, saturated and dry static elasticity
modulus, and saturated and dry UPV.

9
 Table 3. Experimental Data
Non-
Active Total
f'c Active ρsat ρdry µsat µdry Esat Edry UPVsat UPVdry
Batch ID Porosity Porosity
Porosity
(MPa) (%) (%) (%) (gr/cm3) (gr/cm3) (-) (-) (GPa) (GPa) (m/s) (m/s)
35-00-L-2 58.05 7.44 2.0 9.4 2.422 2.348 0.252 0.238 40.84 38.43 4918 4771
40-00-L-2 53.31 8.29 2.0 10.2 2.400 2.321 0.268 0.235 40.78 35.94 4868 4629
45-00-L-2 51.33 11.64 1.5 13.1 2.403 2.293 0.263 0.221 38.31 33.51 4865 4469
35-05-L-2 48.76 7.41 5.5 12.9 2.324 2.273 0.251 0.224 37.36 32.92 4759 4584
35-06-L-2 47.67 7.18 5.6 12.8 2.350 2.275 0.246 0.238 37.47 35.11 4763 4629
35-12-L-2 45.52 9.57 11.5 21.1 2.240 2.164 0.242 0.220 36.13 31.37 4699 4311
40-07-L-0 44.81 9.37 6.7 16.1 2.314 2.220 0.260 0.229 37.04 30.61 4693 4460
40-05-L-0 44.38 10.98 6.1 17.1 2.310 2.204 0.261 0.229 36.81 31.57 4679 4282
40-05-L-2 42.43 10.01 5.9 15.9 2.312 2.215 0.268 0.219 37.45 29.76 4675 4394
45-05-L-0 42.10 10.11 5.4 15.5 2.324 2.217 0.253 0.232 35.75 30.93 4666 4399
40-09-L-2 41.09 11.19 8.8 19.9 2.281 2.167 0.251 0.242 33.99 30.93 4618 4234
45-05-L-2 40.45 12.99 4.0 17.0 2.330 2.199 0.254 0.223 35.46 29.99 4662 4142
35-10-L-2 38.98 10.73 10.0 20.7 2.262 2.153 0.256 0.237 32.86 27.10 4575 4227
50-05-L-0 38.93 15.14 4.9 20.0 2.303 2.154 0.269 0.236 33.79 26.88 4609 4047
45-09-L-0 35.86 12.66 8.2 20.8 2.292 2.167 0.244 0.217 32.18 27.33 4605 4241

10
In general, the experimental data indicate that compressive strength, modulus of
elasticity, and UPV are inversely proportional to the total porosity. This is expected, as
an increase in empty space results in a reduction in modulus of elasticity and strength.
As seen in Figures 6, 7 and 8 for each w/c ratio there is a decreasing trend in compressive
strength, elasticity modulus and UPV for each w/c ratio group.

70

W/C = 0.35 W/C = 0.40

60

50

40

30 W/C = 0.50

W/C = 0.45
20
W/C = 0.35
W/C = 0.40
10
W/C = 0.45
W/C = 0.50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Air Content (%)

Figure 6. Effect of Entrained Air and W/C on Saturated Concrete Strength

42
W/C = 0.35

40

38

W/C = 0.40
36
W/C = 0.50

34
W/C = 0.35
32 W/C = 0.40
W/C = 0.45 W/C = 0.45
W/C = 0.50
30
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Air Content (%)

Figure 7. Effect of Entrained Air and W/C on Concrete Saturated Elasticity

Modulus

11
 4,950
W/C = 0.35 W/C = 0.35
4,900
W/C = 0.40 W/C = 0.40
4,850 W/C = 0.45
W/C = 0.50
4,800

4,750 W/C = 0.45

4,700

4,650

4,600

W/C = 0.50
4,550
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Air Content (%)

Figure 8. Effect of Entrained Air and W/C on Saturated Concrete UPV

The relative importance of active and non-active porosity under dry and saturated
conditions is shown in Figure 9,10 and 11. The correlation coefficient (ρ) values in these
figures (as summarized in Table 4) indicate that total porosity correlates best with the
corresponding mechanical properties, and that active porosity is more influential in
determining mechanical characteristics as compared to the non-active pore system.
Similar results are obtained by performing regression analysis on the data in Table 3.

Table 4. Comparison of Correlation Coefficient Values from Figures 9, 10 and 11

SATURATED POROSITY DRY POROSITY

Entrained Entrained
Capillary Total Capillary Total
Air Air
Compressive
Strength 0.49 0.39 0.76
Elasticity
Modulus 0.45 0.47 0.82 0.57 0.34 0.77

UPV 0.37 0.53 0.81 0.80 0.23 0.78

12
 60 60 60
Compressive Strength (MPa)

55 55 55
2
R2 = 0.38 R = 0.76
50 50 50

45 45 45

40 40 40
2
R = 0.49
35 35 35

30 30 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Entrained Air Porosity (%) Capillary Porosity (%) Total Porosity (%)

Figure 9. Compressive Strength versus a) Active, b) Non-Active and c) Total Porosity for Saturated Specimens

13
 45.0 45.0 45.0
42.5 Saturated 42.5 Saturated 42.5 Saturated
Elasticity Modulus (GPa)

Dry Dry 2
R = 0.82 Dry
40.0 40.0 40.0
37.5 37.5 37.5
2
R = 0.77
35.0 35.0 35.0
2
R = 0.47 2
R = 0.45
32.5 32.5 32.5
30.0 30.0 30.0
27.5 27.5 2
27.5
2 R = 0.57
R = 0.34
25.0 25.0 25.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Entrained Air Porosity (%) Capillary Porosity (%) Total Porosity (%)

Figure 10. Elasticity Modulus versus a) Active, b) Non-Active and c) Total Porosity for Saturated and Dry Specimens

14
 5000 5000 5000
4900 Saturated 4900 Saturated 4900 2
R = 0.81 Saturated
4800 Dry 4800 Dry 4800 Dry
4700 4700 4700 2
R = 0.78
UPV (m/s)

4600 2
R = 0.53 4600 2
R = 0.37 4600
4500 4500 4500
4400 4400 4400
4300 4300 4300
4200 2 4200 4200
R = 0.23
4100 4100 2 4100
R = 0.80
4000 4000 4000
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Entrained Air Porosity (%) Capillary Porosity (%) Total Porosity (%)

Figure 11. UPV versus a) Active, b) Non-Active and c) Total Porosity for Saturated and Dry Specimens

15
The influence of entrained air pores (non-active) and capillary pores (active) on concrete
mechanical properties is investigated by performing regression analysis on the
experimental data. In this analysis total porosity is considered as the sum of independent
variables, consisting of entrained air and capillary porosity. The two independent
variables can also be combined into one, by averaging the regression coefficients in
obtaining a relation between a mechanical property and total porosity.

The general regression equation is obtained in the form shown below:

Property = C1 – C2 (Capillary Porosity) – C3 (Air Content) (2)

where, C1, C2, and C3 are regression constants documented in Tables 5a and 5b. The
coefficients C1 represent the intrinsic material property at zero porosity. Theoretically, it
should be expected that the C1 coefficients for saturated and dry specimens should be
equal due to the fact that at zero porosity pore volume replaced by water is also zero.
The variability in C1 from the experimental data is 3.6 % for specific gravity, 2.8% for
elasticity modulus, and 4.6% for UPV.

Table 5a. Regression Coefficients for Water Saturated Concrete Mechanical

Properties, Capillary Porosity and Entrained Air Content
Saturated
C1 C2 C3
Specimens
Specific Gravity 2.478 0.016 0.006
Elasticity
46.62 0.681 0.543
Modulus (GPa)
UPV (m/s) 5104 24.535 24.015

16
 Table 5b. Regression Coefficients for Dry Concrete Mechanical Properties,
Capillary Porosity and Entrained Air Content

Dry Specimens C1 C2 C3

Specific Gravity 2.487 0.017 0.016

Elasticity
45.35 1.018 0.572
Modulus (GPa)
UPV (m/s) 5337 76.644 27.092

The regression coefficients (C2 and C3) in the saturated and dry states are in principle
influence coefficients, thus indicating the relative importance of the entrained air and
capillary porosity (respectively) on various concrete properties. The saturated state
coefficients, C2 and C3, shown in Table 5a are fairly constant for all three concrete
property measurements. For dry concrete, however, as shown in Table 5b C2 is twice the
value of C3, while C3 stays relatively unaffected by the drying process. The reasons for
these changes can be attributed to the changes in the active pore shape as moisture is
added to or removed from the pores.

The entrained air is considered as inert (non-active) pore space, which maintains its size
and spherical shape under dry and saturated conditions. Thus, it would be expected that
C3 regression coefficient in Tables 5a and 5b would influence concrete properties equally
during dry and wet states. C2 regression coefficient, which represents the capillary
porosity (active), under dry conditions expands at the expense of the collapsing gel pores.
Under the saturated conditions, the water has caused swelling of the C-S-H gel layers,
thus filling in the capillary pores, elongating the channels and segmenting the pore
structure. Thus, under saturated conditions, C2 and C3 have similar effect on the
mechanical indexes in concrete.

Conclusions
The results support the traditional knowledge base on the effect of the total porosity on
the concrete mechanical indexes. However, not all pore systems are created equal. Even

17
though the pore size of entrained air is ten times that of the largest capillary, capillary
porosity has a much greater effect on the overall properties. Moreover, the changes in the
capillary porosity under various moisture conditions are responsible for the changes in
the mechanical properties. The influence of air pores on mechanical properties is
invariant with moisture content.

References
1. Feldman, R.F. and Sereda, P.J., (1968). “A Model for Hydrated Portland Cement
Paste as Deducted from Sorption-Length Change and Mechanical Properties”,
Materials and Structures, RILEM, Paris, Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 509-520

2. Feldman, R.F. and Sereda, P.J., (1970). “A New Model of Hydrated Cement and
its Practical Implications”, Engineering Journal, Canada, Vol. 53, pp.53-59

3. Feldman, R.F., (1972). “Density and Porosity Studies of Hydrated Portland

Cement”, Cement Technology, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 5-14

4. Hearn, N., (1996). “Comparison of Water and Propan-2-ol Permeability in Mortar

Specimens”, Advances in Cement Research, Vol. 8, No. 30, pp.81-86

5. Hearn, N., Hooton, R.D., and Mills R.H., (1994). “Pore Structure and
Permeability”, Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete
Making Materials, ASTM STP-169B

6. Mills, R.H., (1986). “Gas and Water Permeability of Concrete For Reactor
Buildings—Small Specimens”, Research Report INFO 0188-1, Atomic Energy
Control Board, Ottowa, Ontario, Canada

7. Nilsen, A.U., and Monteiro, P.J.M., (1993). “Concrete: A Three Phase Material”,
Cement And Concrete Research, Vol. 23, pp. 147-151

8. Powers, T.C. and Brownyard, T.L., (1947). “Studies of the Physical Properties of
Hardened Portland Cement Paste”, Journal of American Concrete Institute, Vol.
43

9. Powers, T.C., (1958). “Structure and Physical Properties of Hardened Portland

Cement Paste”, Journal of American Ceramic Society, Vol. 41, pp. 1-6

10. Rossi, P., (1991). “Influence of Cracking in the Presence of Free Water on the
Mechanical Behaviour of Concrete”, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 43,
No. 154, pp. 53-57

18
11. Swamy, N. and Rigby, G., (1971). “Dynamic Properties of Hardened Paste,
Mortar, and Concrete”, Materials and Structures - Research and Testing, RILEM,
Vol. 4, No. 19, pp. 13-40

12. Yaman, I.O., Aktan, H., Hearn, N., (2000b). “Active and Non-Active Pore
Structure of Concrete – Part II: Evaluation of Existing Models”, submitted to
Materials and Structures, RILEM

13. Yaman, I.O., Udegbunam, O., Aktan, H.M. (2000a). “Assessing Concrete
Permeability from Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Measurements” Transportation
Research Board, Paper No: 001190

14. Zimmerman, R.W., King, M.S., and Monteiro, P.J.M., (1986). “The Elastic
Moduli of Mortar as a Porous-Granular Material”, Cement And Concrete
Research, Vol. 16, pp. 239-245

19
 Table of Contents
Active and Non-Active Porosity in Concrete – Part I: Experimental Evidence ............................................. 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Background................................................................................................................................................ 2
Categories of Pores .................................................................................................................................... 4
Moisture and Mechanical Properties ......................................................................................................... 6
Experimental Study ................................................................................................................................... 8
Results and Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 9
References ............................................................................................................................................... 18
List of Figures
Figure 1. Typical Phases of Hardened Concrete............................................................................................. 3
Figure 2. Compressive Strength vs Porosity (Mills 1973).............................................................................. 4
Figure 3. Pore Filling by Products of Hydration (Mills 1986) ....................................................................... 5
Figure 4. Simplified Model for Exit and Entry of Water into the Layers of C-S-H (Hearn et al. 1994) ........ 6
Figure 5. Variation of Strength with Equilibrium Relative Humidity (Mills 1973) ....................................... 7
Figure 6. Effect of Entrained Air and W/C on Saturated Concrete Strength................................................ 11
Figure 7. Effect of Entrained Air and W/C on Concrete Saturated Elasticity Modulus ............................... 11
Figure 8. Effect of Entrained Air and W/C on Saturated Concrete UPV ..................................................... 12
Figure 9. Specific Gravity versus a) active, b) non-active and c) Total Porosity for Saturated and Dry
Specimens ........................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 10. Elasticity Modulus versus a) active, b) non-active and c) Total Porosity for Saturated and Dry
Specimens ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 11. UPV versus a) active, b) non-active and c) Total Porosity for Saturated and Dry Specimens.... 15
List of Tables
Table 1. Example of Constant W/C and Variable Porosity and Constant Porosity and Variable W/C, (Mills
1986) . ................................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 2. Mix Properties .................................................................................................................................. 8
Table 3. Experimental Data .......................................................................................................................... 10
Table 4. Comparison of Correlation Coefficient Values from Figures 9,10 and 11. .................................... 12
Table 5a. Regression Coefficients for Dry Concrete Mechanical Properties, Entrained Air Content and
Capillary Porosity ............................................................................................................................... 17
Table 5b. Regression Coefficients for Water Saturated Concrete Mechanical Properties, Entrained Air
Content and Capillary Porosity ........................................................................................................... 16

20