7. Construir tal reactor representaria un logro cientifico pues resol- veria el problema del agua y mostraria la determinacion de emplear la energia atémica para fines pacificos. Si sus respuéstas son como las aqui presentadas puede continuar informandose de! contenido de la presente Unidac De lo contrario, vuelve au texto en las paginas 193 a 214, © consulte a su usosor. formacion presentada, consulte COMPLEX SENTENCES (“oraciones complejas") En esta seccién analizaremos otro grupo de palabras que funcionan como una unidad dentro de Ja oracién: Ja clausula. Esta se usa para ampliar el signifi- cado de un verbo al darle ubicacién en el tiempo, para expresar la relacion a “una proyeccién de deseo u otro modo,o, bien pata indicar la naturaleza repetitiva "de una accién, en otras palabras, establece la relacin de dos verbos entre si. Ahora, veremos como funcionan les cldusulas dentro de las oraciones “*com- plejas”, los recursos de que nos valemos para identificarlas y fundamentalmente las relaciones que establecen ya que la literatura cientifica y tecnologica hace uso constante de ellas al comunicar ideas de condicién, propésito, causa y efecto, hi- Potesis, etc. Como de costumbre, antes de entrar de lleno en nuestro anilisis de las clau- sulas hagamos el siguiente ejercicio para determinar el conocimiento previo que usted tiene sobre el tema. Observe las siguientes oraciones y realice las actividades que se le sugieren. EJERCICIO No. 6 a) Subraye las cldusulas principales con una raya. b) Subraye las clausulas subordinadas con dos rayas. c) Encierre en.un circulo las palabras de enlace de las clausulas subordinadas. d) Dé los equivalentes en castellano de todas las oraciones. e) Responda las pregu’ .as que se le formulan. 1. Itis part of human nature to like people who seem to like you. 2, No one can resist the flatterer who raises one's self-esteem.When negotiations began, hopes were high for a quick agreement between company and union. The President refused to make any comments until he had studied the ambassador's report. Since it is economic necessity that makes people work hard, firms hesitate to hire anyone who offers to work for nothing. If a student is on the honor roll, he may spend his free periods in the library reading whatever he wishes. The police knew who the thieves were, ulthough they did not know where they were. 1. De acuerdo, con los elementos que estructuran 2s cléusulas ;qué dife- rencia observa con respecto a las frases? . 2, Como definiria usted la clausula? 391a éPor qué una cléusula principal puede funcionar como una oracién simple? ;Cuéndo? . ” Por qué se les llama a las cldusulas subordinadas de esta manera? ~Como clasificaria los elementos de enlace de las clausulas subordinadas? Qué funciones tienen las cléusulas subordinadas dentro de la oracion “compleja"? cA qué se llama oracion “compleja"? (Verifique sus respuestis en la pagina siguiente).7. Se llama oracion “compleja” a aquelle oracién compuesta por subordinacion. Es decir, aquellas oraciones que contienen una cldusula principal y una o mas cldusulas subordinadas Nota: Le damos nombre de “‘complejas” como una traduccién libre del nombre de estas oraciones en inglés: COMPLEX sentences. El término corresponde, en castellano, a las oraciones compuestas por subordinacién. Si sus respuestas son como las aqui expuestas pase directamente a la pagina 396 y lea la informacion presentada. De lo contrario, lea la informacién que sigue con mucha atencion. Como pudimos observar en el ejercicio anterior, otro -de los grupos de pala- bras relacionadas que forman una unidad dentro de la oracién es la clausula. Esta se encuentra en oraciones que contienen mas de una idea y @ diferencia de In frase, la cldusula es un grupo de palabras relacionadas que contiene un sujeto y un predicado y se usa como parte de una oracién. Su funcién es la de poner en relacién las ideas contenidas en una oracién compleja. Se clasifican las clausulas, como ya dijimos, en clausulas principales o independientes, si expresan un pen- samiento completo al ser separadas de la oracion,y clausula subordinadas o depen- dientes, si no expresan un pensamiento completo al ser separadas de la oracion. La clausula principal o independiente que comienza con una mayiscula y termina con un punto como: We were working during the summer Se convierte en una oracién simple, Constituye una clausula principal cuando esta combinada con una o mas cliusulas adicionales, dependientes o subordinadas, en una oracién compleja. Ejemplo: I read the article (clausula principal) which was published in the paper last Sunday. Las clausulas subordinadas, las que no pueden ser separadas de una oracion por no expresar un pensamiento completo, estén siempre combinadas en alguna forma con una clausula principal y se usan como sustantivos 0 modificadores de la misma manera que lo hacen las palabras o las frases, En el ejemplo anterior: “which was published in the paper last-Sunday” es la cldusula subordinada. Segtin su funcién dentro de la oracién las clausulas subordinadas se combi- nan con la clausula principal mediante el uso de pronombres relativos. relativos indefinidos (= sin antecedente) o conjunciones, que indican (como “if” en el caso de las oraciones condicionales) el tipo-de relacion que se establece entre las cidusulas de una oracién. 395Seguin su funcién en la oracion compleja pueden actuar como adjetivos, modificando a un sustantivo. 1) En este caso se les ama ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (= clausulas adjetivales), Ellas generalmente comienzan con un pronombre, adjetivo o adverbio rela- tivo cuyo antecedente es un sustantivo o pronombre ya mencionado o sobre- entendido dentro de la oracion al cual afiaden informacion. Ejemplo: There are (people) WHO enjoy this kind of humor. (antecedente) (pronombre relativo) Heisa , -(goach) ~ WHOSE record has been amazing. (antecedente) (pronombre relativo) That wasthe (moment) WHEN___he made his mistake. (antecedente) (adverbio 4 relativo) Estos relativos son: WHO, WHOM, WHICH, THAT, WHOSE, WHEN, WHERE. En lenguaje técnico algunas veces una preposicién se usa delante de “which”. Ejemplo: En resumen, la relacion que establecen las cléusulas adjetivales estan regidas por e] nombre o pronombre que les sirve de antecedente. Observe el siguiente resumen: 1. Mr. Black is the sejentist WHO investigates the epplication of this Resernmenne Gn ee (antecedente) new substance. 2. He is the scientist WHOM you were told about. (antecedente) 3. Mary is the gir! WHOSE father won the Nobel Prize. (antecedente) 4. Itisthe theory THAT they formulated. (antecedente) 3965. Those are the plants WHICH happen to manufacture the new substan a a oo {antecedente) 6. That was the time WHEN all researchers met. 7 t= (antecedente) 7. That is the place WHERE I would like to go. 4 ~ (antecedente) EJERCICIO No. 7 Hagamos el siguiente ejercicio, para aplicar los conécimientos adquiridos. a) Subraye las cldusulas adjetivales de las siguientes oraciones complejas. b) Encierre en un circulo-el antecedente (nombre o pronombre) al cual se refieren, c) Dé el equivalente en castellano de cada oracién. 1. The air passes to a compressor where it is compressed. 2. That was the moment when he made his great mistake. 3. Send usa list of the people whom you would recommend. 4. The material of which the apparatus is made is a good conductor of heat. It is sometimes good to meet peuple whose opinions differ from yours 6. Do you remember the name of the encyclopedia from which we got the information? <2 oS SsClausulas Adjetivales | Clausulas Nominales | He is the mam who suggested that. | Do you (know ) who suggested rt that? ‘This is not the book that I wanted. | They that the results are out. I saw the picture which he gave you. | We (mow ) which way he went. ty She came on the day when the boy | He is worried when 'shé - ill ret had the accident. will return This is the hguse wheie the poet | He (has forgotten ) where he left , Sao jaa stayed, his new book. Observe que les clausulas adjetivales giran alrededor de un nombre 0 pro- nombre, Las nominales lo hacen alrededor de un verbo o una preposicién. Realicemos el siguiente ejercicio para aplicar la informacion recibida. EJERCICIO No. 8 o 400 a) Subraye las clausulas nominales de las oraciones complejas. b) Dé los equivalentes en castellano de las oraciones Nos. 3, 5, 7, 9. Whatever you say will be recorded on the tape recorder that is on the table. That eddy currents will be produced in the core of the magnet is a possibility. No one who attended the meeting objected tc what I said. Whoever talks during the final examination will be asked to leave. ‘Phe glare of light in the field where we played was what affected our scoring.6. Remember how you came, and you will know by which route you should return. Someone asked us when we were leaving, but we did not tell him what he wanted to know. I could not tell whose voice it was. We agreed with what he said, but we objected to the manner if which he said it.402 En esta seccion trabajaremos el grupo de clausulas Wamadas ADVERB ES (= clausulas adverbiales) cuya funcion, en las oraciones complejas es la de adverbio, modificando a un verbo, un adjetivo u otro adverbio. Estas cléusulas como se indicara anteriormente son empleadas con gran fre- cuencia en el lenguaje cientifico para establecer relaciones de tiempo, causa 0 raz6n, propésito o resultado, comparacién, lugar, condicién, y contraste 0 concesién segiin el elemento de enlace que utilicen. Estas cldusulas generalménte comienzan con una conjuncién a la cual se le llama conjuncién subordinada que expresa la relacién entre la cldusula y el resto de la oracion compleja. Ejemplo: Before the steam leaves the boiler, it passes through a superheater. (= Antes de que el vapor salga de la caldera, ésté pasa por tin supercalentador) Un adverbio puede moditicar un verbo, un adjetivo u otro adverbio.’Es por esto que a las frases y las cléusulas que hacen esta funcién se les lama frases adverbiales y cldusulas adverbiales. Las conjunciones subordinadas de uso mas frecuente en la composicién de una clausula adverbial son: after because so that whenever although before than where as if though wherever as if in order that unless whether as long as provided that until while as though since when Nota: Esta lista no es exhaustiva. Hay muchas otras expresiones més, simples y compuestas. Como decimos en el encabezamiento, éstas son las mas comunes. Las clases més comunes de relacién que denotan las cléusulas subordinadas adverbiales en una oracién compleja son de: a) tiempo, b) lugar, c) causa 0 raz6n, d) propésito o resultado, e) comparacién, f) contraste y g) condicién y ello se deduce por la conjuncién que se emplea. Sin embargo, algunas con- junciones pueden ser usadas on ms de unc orma y por eso aparecerén en més de una lista. : (a) Veamos a continuacién las conjunciones subordinadas que introducen una clausula que expresa una relacion de tiempo. AFTER BEFORE UNTIL WHENEVER AS (as soon as) SINCE WHEN WHILE Ejemplos: Before the machines are properly tested, they mst not be used. (= Las maquinas no deben usarse antes o| probadas adecuadamente)(b) (ec) (4) While the metal is still molten, it is poured into molds. (= Mientras el metal esta fundido, éste se vierte en moldes) Los equivalentes en castellano de estos adverbios deben ser consultados en su diccionario. Es importante determinar su equivalente para poder comprender la relacién que se establece entre las ideas que continua- mente encontrard, en sus lecturas cientificas y técnicas, expresadas de esta manera. Veamos a continuacién las conjunciones subordinadas que introducen una cliusula que expresa una relacion de lugar. WHERE WHEREVER Ejemplo: I haye always lived where I was born. (= Siempre he vivido donde naci),. Las siguientes conjunciones subordinadas introducen una cléusula ad- verbial que establece relacién de causa o raz6n por la idea que expresa Ja cléusula principal. La clausula subordinada dice el por qué, ~ AS” SINCE BECAUSE WHEREAS (= considerando, puesto que) Ejemplos: Because Since he was tired, he went to bed early. As Porque = Ya que él estaba cansado, se acosté temprano. Como Las conjunciones subordinadas que introducen clausulas que expresan propésito en la clausula principal, o el resultado de la idea en ella, las yeremos a continuacién. Antes estudiemos los ejemplos. Propésito: Astronauts undergo the most rigorous training so that they will be able to handie any emergency. (= Los astronautas se someten al més riguroso entrenamiento para que puedan tratar con cualquier emergencia) Como vemos, la cldusula subordinada establece el propdsito del entrena- miento que es descrito en la eldusula principal. Resultado: Extreme differences of opinion developed in the commitcee So that agreement seemed unlikely. (= Extremadas diferencias de opinion surgieron en el comité asi que el acuerdo parecia improbable) 403En este caso, la oracién subordinada que fue introducida por “‘so that” establece el resultado de las diferencias de opinién del comité. THAT, IN ORDER THAT, SO THAT, son los elementos de enlace cu- yos equivalentes en castellano se munejardn de acuerdo con la implica- cién de propésito o razén que sugiors la oracién, (e) Las conjunciones subordinadas para expresar una relacion de compara- cidn se presentan a continuacién. Se AS THAN THE + comparative form Ejemplo: . It is really more interesting than'l was told it would be. -* (= Es realmente més interesante de lo que me habian dicho) The harder I study, the more confused I become, (= Cuanto mis estudio, mas confundido me pongo) En las oraciones de comparacién generalmente no se completa la cléusu- la adverbial, queda en cierta forma sobreentendida por lo que se llama eliptica. Ejemplo: Steel is harder than iron (is). (f) Las eléusulas subordinadas que expresan una idea de contraste 0 conce- sign estén introducidas por las siguientes conjunciones subordinadas. ALTHOUGH (THOUGH) NO MATTER IF WHEREVER EVEN THOUGH WHILE WHENEVER EVEN IF WHATEVER, Ejemplo: . Although John is only sixteen, he has already entered a university. (= Aunque Johu tiene sdlo 16 afios, ya entré en la universidad) La cldusula subordinada establece el contraste con el logro de John expresado en la cldusula principal, Realicemos ahora los siguientes ejere ios para aplicar los conocimientos adguiridos. EJERCICIO No. 9 En las siguientes oraciones: 2) Subraye las cldusulas adverbiales. b) Encierre en un circulo la conjuncién empleada. c) Dé el equivalente en castellano de cada oracién. 404€nq\ ail 50 Million Hungry in Western Hemisphere By Gustavo Gonzilez * The countries with greatest nutritional deficits in Latin America and the Caribbean are Haiti, Nicaragua, Honduras and Brazil. SANTIAGO - Ten percent of the Latin American and Caribbean population - or 50 million people - suffers from hunger and malnutrition. They are the center of the fight - though most are probably unaware of the fact - for food security in the region. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) warned in mid-April that a new political commitment is needed from the global community if nations are to meet the goal of cutting the number of hungry people in half by 2015. In 1996, the total population that did not have enough food was calculated at 800 million. Progress made in the five years since the World Food Summit has been minimal. In its report on "The State of Food Insecurity in the World" for the year 2000, the FAO calculated that developing countries were home to 791 million people with poor nutrition levels in the 1996-1998 period. According to the UN agency's projections, that total will be reduced to 576 million in 2015 and to 400 million in 2030. For Latin America and the Caribbean, estimates indicated there were 55 million undernourished people during the 1996-1998 period, but that sum should decrease to 45 million in 2015 and 32 million in 2030. These numbers are far from the 50-percent cut the international community established as a goal five years ago. The FAO report explains that "the depth of hunger, or food deficit, is measured by comparing the average amount of dietary energy that undemourished people get from the foods they eat with the minimum amount of dietary energy they need to maintain body weight and undertake light activity." "Knowing the number of kilocalories (k-cals) missing from the diets of undernourished people helps round out the picture of food deprivation in a country. On average, the 826 million chronically hungry people worldwide lack 100-400 kilocalories per day, " the FAO study says. It is with these criteria that FAO experts establish the average caloric deficits for these hungry populations, expressed in k-cals per day. The Rome-based agency cites the case of Pedro Quispe, @ peasant farmer from Bolivia's Lake Titicaca region who walks an hour to work and back every day and whose diet normally consists of corn, potatoes, onions, lard, salt, rice, carrot, quinoa (a grain) and fish, though he is only consumes the latter two or three times a week. Based on the magnitude of his physical efforts, both at work and at home, Quispe would need to eat 2,800 k-cals each day to maintain his body weight and maximize his health, but his normal diet provides him with just 75 percent of that total. In other words, he is enduring a daily deficit of 700 k- cals. The greatest average caloric deficit in the region is found in Haiti, where the typical undernourished person is 460 k-cals short. Next are Nicaragua (300 k-cals), Honduras (270), and Brazil, Dominican Republic and Guatemala, each with a 250 k-cal deficit per person. According to the FAO data from the 1996-1998 period, next in line are Peru, (250 k-cal deficit), Bolivia, Guyana, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago (230 k-cals each), and Colombia and Paraguay (220 each). With a daily average deficit of 210 k-cals among their hungry populations are Cuba, Mexico and Venezuela, followed by El Salvador and Jamaica (200) and Suriname (190).The region's countries with smaller average caloric deficits for the undernourished are Costa Rica and Ecuador (160 k-cals), Chile and Uruguay (150), and Argentina, where the average deficit is estimated at 140 k-cals per day. There are no Latin American pictures of starvation with crowds of skeleton-thin people, like the ones the international media display from some parts of sub-Saharan Africa, but that does not mean the problem here is not serious, stresses the FAO. Chronic hunger is not always evident because the human body compensates by a slowing the metabolism in adults and stunting growth in children. "In addition to increasing susceptibility to disease, chronic hunger means that children may be listless and unable to concentrate in school, mothers may give birth to underweight babies and adults may lack the energy to fulfill their potential," says the UN agency's report. The FAO is implementing a series of mixed-strategy food assistance programs in Latin America and the Caribbean intended to boost agricultural production and improve food distribution. The initiatives also seek to support export capacity in order to provide revenue to import foods not produced within the country. One of the main goals of these programs is to reinforce the contribution made by peasant farmers, who throughout most of the region supply an important portion of the vegetables consumed by the population. Developing capabilities specific to the situation of these small farmers is essential, says the FAO, which highlights the example of a group of Nicaraguans who combined their resources, with each one investing 40 dollars, to build a series of metal silos so they could protect their harvested corn from humidity and pests. * Gustavo Gonzalez is an IPS correspondent| 1 | i 4 Chapter Obesity This chapter will focus on the physiological and nutri- tional aspects of being overweight and will point out that the location of body fat may be more significant than the total amount of fat itself in the health risks associ- ated with obesity. The role of increased food intake, reduced physical activity, and altered thermogenesis as mechanisms for the development of excessive fat deposits will be reviewed. Finally, an approach to treatment for obesity will be discussed using a risk-benefit approach. For more detailed information about various facets of obesity, especially treatment, the reader is referred 4 several recent monographs.'* Definition and Measurement of Body Fat and Its Distribution Because both overweight and fat distribution may be 2useful predictors of health risks associated with obesity, 3 we need to have a clear definition of these terms. Over- 4 weight is an increase of body weight above a standard 5 defined in relation to height. Obesity, on the other hand, ¢ is an abnormally high percentage of body fat, which may 4 be generalized or localized. To determine whether an 3 individual is obese or simply overweight because of 4 increased muscle mass, one needs techniques and stan- to dards for quantitating body weight, body fat, and dis- \ tribution of body fat. Several approaches to determin- 12 ing this are listed in Table 1, which also includes an #3 estimate of the cost, ease of use, and accuracy of these methods. (Also see Chapter 2, “Body Composition.”) Anthropometric Measurements ‘is Anthropometric measurements include height and 'e weight; circumferences of the chest, waist, hips, or ex- 44 tremities; and skinfold thickness? (see Table 1). ‘Height and weight can be related in several ways. Of 'q these, the ratio called the body mass index (BMI) or 20 Quetelet index (kg/m?) is most useful. The correlation 11 of BMI with body fat as measured from body density Zz is between 0.7 and 0.8.7 Figure 1 is a nomogram for 23 determining BMI. The desirable range for BMI for each 21 height may increase slightly with age for women but not &] George A. Bray for men.* Based on these observations, tables of good eight for men and women have been published by the US Department of Agriculture and the Department of '¢ Health and Human Services. The BMI also can be used (0 assess health risks associated with overweight and may jalso be used as a guide to therapy (see the following jiscussion). S2 The degree of body fat or obesity can be assessed from athe thickness of skinfolds.? One difficulty with skinfold jeasurements is that the equations used to estimate body fat vary with age, sex, and ethnic background. Body fat increases with age even though the sum of the skinfold \casurements remains constant This finding implies that, with aging, fat accumulates at other than subcuta- cous sites. fap The ratio of waist or abdominal circumference to the “hip or gluteal circumference provides an index of the gional fat distribution and has proven valuable as a ide to health risks in epidemiologic studies. A more practical individual guide is provided by the waist cir- ‘cumference.? Men and women in the top quintile for waist circumference, ie., the top 20%, have a substantially increased risk of heart disease and diabetes. ¥ * Isotopic, Chemical, and Other Methods to Measure Body Compartments Both chemical and isotopic markers can be used to estimate body water, body fat, or potassium.» Measure- ment of body density provides a valuable quantitative technique for measuring body fat and fat-free mass (see Table 1). Density is determined from the weight of the body after submersion and out of water using the prin- ciple of Archimedes.” The technique is relatively easy if appropriate facilities are available, but it remains pri- marily a research method Total body electrical conductivity also can be used to quantitate lean tissue and fat because of differences in the ability of these components to conduct electromag- ) netic waves." However. the instrument used for this test is expensive." A relatively inexpensive instrument for measuring body fat uses electrical impedance (bioelec- tric impedance analysis} 19 rs